SEMINAR IN Leadership and change mgtCM.pptx

SEMINAR IN Leadership and change management

1. Chala Dechassa (PhD, Assco . Prof.) Certified Trainer, Lecturer, Researcher and Consultant chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS Oromia State University MA Leadership and Change Management [email protected] Call me: [phone]

2. Seminar in Leadership and Change Management Contents Academic writing and Research ethics...what it is? Selecting seminar/ research topic seminar writing Academic Proposal writings Literature review: For what and how it works Seminar/research Reporting and communication Contemporary issue in Leadership chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 2

3. Academic Writing Skill What is an academic writing skill? Academic writing is clear, concise, focussed, structured and backed up by evidence. Its purpose is to aid the reader's understanding . It has a formal tone and style, but it is not complex and does not require the use of long sentences and complicated vocabulary. Academic writing serves as a tool of communication that conveys acquired knowledge in a specific field of study. Writing academically will  help students analyse, convey understanding, think critically and focus on technique and style .   chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 3

4. Cont’d Therefore, practicing academic writing on a regular basis helps students be more creative in their studies and even in daily life. It gives them a chance to develop unconventional ideas and approaches. They also learn to look for solutions that are not necessarily obvious. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 4

5. Cont’d Where is academic writing used? Academic writing is a formal style of writing used in  universities and scholarly publications . You'll encounter it in journal articles and books on academic topics, and you'll be expected to write your essays, research papers, and dissertation in academic style. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 5

6. Principles of good writing A principle is a kind of rule, belief, or idea that guides you. You can also say a good, ethical person has a lot of principles. In general, a principle is  some kind of basic truth that helps you with your life . "Be fair" is a principle that guides (or should guide) most people and businesses. Use clear language. Use the sort of words you would use in conversation, rather than trying to impress with long or unfamiliar words. ... chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 6

7. Cont’d Be concise. ... Be objective. ... Present the information in the most suitable way. .. Revise and rewrite. ... Be specific about what you want the reader to convey Emphasis. ... Honesty. ... Passion and Control. ... Reading. ... Revision. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 7

8. Basic rules in Academic Writing Rule 1: You must write in sentences. Rule 2: Subjects and verbs in sentences must agree with each other. Rule 3: You must use appropriate punctuation. Rule 4: You .must use the right vocabulary. Rule 5: You must use the apostrophe correctly and with care. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 8

9. Mistakes to Avoid in Academic Writing Plagiarism – Every source you use in an essay should be clearly cited. Informality – Use formal, academic language in your writing. Wordiness – Keep your writing concise by avoiding padding words. Biased language – Look out for biased language and stereotype Vague research question and going off-topic. ... Mis-formatting the paper. ... Using complex language. ... Poor abstract. ... Ineffective keywords. ... Disordered/un-cited floating elements. ... Unexpanded abbreviations. ... Mis-formatted, un-cited/unlisted and incomplete references. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 9

10. Other Tips Use literature sources. Do not state personal opinion Follow a set of structure/format. Different organization/universities do have their own writing format. Follow that and also the purpose of the research will determine Write in 3 rd person. When referencing to yourself your views, thoughts ad opinion, you should write in 3 rd person Eg.Do not say ‘I’ but The authors---. The researcher------ chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 10

11. Cont’d Compare and contrast different theories your findings with others Remain emotionally neutral. Do not use emotional words or phrases Referencing issues. Follow proper style for both in text citation end text citation In research when we take some ones knowledge information we must acknowledge their contribution Do not try to persuade your findings in research just inform your findings to the reader chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 11

12. Research ethics How to conduct technically correct, practically efficient and ethically sound research? We do have ethical responsibility to: Research participants, Professional colleagues, The Wider public, Sponsors and funders of the research, Protecting research subjects chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 12

13. Research ethics... Research participants, Five ethical code of conducts: Voluntary participation, Informed consent, No harm, Confidentiality anonymity, Privacy, No deception, chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 13

14. Research ethics... Professional colleagues; Provide sufficient details of your procedures, Properly acknowledge the contributions of others, Avoid discrediting others chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 14

15. Research ethics... The Wider public, Avoid spreading of misleading information, Understand the political existing context, Respect norms, values and cultures, chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 15

16. Research ethics... Sponsors and funders of the research, Avoid overstating your expertise, Avoid over-claiming of methods, Make the sponsor aware of any limitation, Respect confidentiality chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 16

17. Research ethics... Protecting research subjects Legal protection Professional associations and universities chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 17

18. Chapter 2: A. Choosing a research/seminar topic IDENTIFYING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 18

19. A. Choosing a research/seminar topic The title is the part of a paper that is read the most. Choose an environmental topic. Be creative! See the list of previous research projects to get some ideas, the topic is the general domain in which the research is focused. Must be guided by literature review. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 19

20. Choosing a research/seminar topic… Factors to be considered in topic selection: Personal interest and personality traits, Experience and exposure, Availability and easy of access to data, Budget and funding entity constraints, Current issues? There are different ways of wording research topics, with the fewest possible words that adequately describe the contents of the paper. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 20

21. Choosing a research topic… Attributes of a good research topic: 1. Capability: is it feasible? Is the topic something with which you are really fascinated? Do you have, or can you develop within the project time frame, the necessary research skills to undertake the topic? Is the research topic achievable within the available time? Will the project still be current when you finish your project? Is the research topic achievable within the financial resources that are likely to be available? Are you reasonably certain of being able to gain access to data you are likely to require for this topic? chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 21

22. Choosing a research topic… 2. Appropriateness: is it worthwhile? Does the topic fit the specifications and meet the standards set by the examining institution? Does your research topic contain issues that have a clear link to theory? Will your proposed research be able to provide fresh insights into this topic? Does the research topic match your career goals? chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 22

23. RESEARCH PROBLEM Research problems are educational issues or concerns studied by researchers In education, a problem is a concern to educators that exists in educational settings chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 23

24. Ask yourself To help locate your research problem for your thesis, ask yourself such questions as: What was the issue/problem you want to study? What is the concern being addressed “behind” this study? Why do you want to undertake this study? Why is this study important to the scholarly community? chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 24

25. DEFINING TERMS Research Problem : Educational issue/problem in a study Research Topic: Broad subject matter being addressed in a study Purpos e: Major intent or object of study Research Questions : Questions to answer or address in a study chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 25

26. PROBLEM RESEARCHABILITY 1. Will your research contribute to knowledge and practice? It fills a void or extends existing research It replicates a study with new participants or a new site Problem has not be studied or understudied It gives “voice” to people not heard, silenced, or rejected in society It informs practice 2. Accessed to people & sites 3. Time, Resources and skills Therapy 5. To prove what your already know chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 26

27. DESIGNING & WRITING THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The research problem within this study Justification for the problem (based on past research and practice) Shortcoming of past research or practice The importance / significance of the problem chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 27

28. GETTING STARTED Write down the purpose statement of your study Embedded in this purpose statement are key terms that will help you to start your literature review This part of the literature review searches for core literature and it should focus almost exclusively on empirical studies Look for studies similar to your problem statement in ETHIOPIA. Look for studies similar to your problem statement in other countries. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 28

29. WHERE TO START:LITERATURE PRIORITY Encyclopedia. The appendix ‘Doing library research in education’ is brilliant Handbooks International Handbooks of Administration, Educational Leadership, Lifelong Learning etc quickly introduce you to the major players and research issues in your study Theses Overseas – Dissertation abstracts, US computer disks British Dissertation abstracts chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 29

30. - Databases ERIC (Educational Resources Information Centre) www.accesseric.org . (world’s largest source of information – one million abstracts) Australian Education Index (AUSINET) Current index to journals in education and resources in education: locate through ERIC Social Science Citation Index: CDROM Online Journals ( anbar ) 8. Google (search engine) chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 30

31. INITIAL ORGANISING THE LITERATURE Print out your research problem and research purpose statement in font size 20pt & bold & adhere to a place near your computer where your regularly see. Do not be a dilettante . You need to get a reasonably solid grasp of your proposed topic relatively quickly in order to focus or flick. Read, categorise, file Construct a literature map (different from but a pre-requisite to a conceptual framework) chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 31

32. Research problem, objectives, and questions Objectives is the major intent of the study used to address the problem” Research objective essentially details what the research study intends to do in order to address the problem, thereby answering the question: “ What will this study do?” Objectives are operationalized by two or more research questions. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 32

33. Research problem, objectives…. Research questions “narrow the purpose or objective into specific questions that the researcher would like to answer or address in the study” By attaining answers to those research questions, the study objectives are met and a contribution towards solving the problem is made. Wise to learn how to translate research ideas and research objectives into research questions. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 33

34. Examples of research ideas and their derived focus research questions chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 34

35. Phrasing research questions as research objectives chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 35

36. Research problem, objectives…. There is a two-way relationship between the research problem, objectives, and the associated research questions and/or hypotheses. The research problem being addressed delimits the possible objectives, research questions/hypothesis. Identifiable connection between the answers to the research questions and the research problem inspiring the study. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 36

37. Research problem, objectives…. Research Problem influences what types of methodology is appropriate for the study. The methodology produces the results of the study, which in turn produces the evidences needed to permit the conclusions suggested. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 37

38. D. Units of Analysis Unit of analysis Can be: individuals, groups, organizations, behaviours (eg: social interactions, such as friendship choices, court cases, traffic accidents. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 38

39. E. Other points to consider Time dimension – cross-sectional or longitudinal Conceptualisation – i.e. you must specify the meanings of the concepts and variables to be studied. Operationalization – how will we actually measure the variables under study? chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 39

40. F. Linking with the methodology, results, and conclusions. the methodology, results, and conclusions of a study are directly impacted by the problem driving the research. the methodology is structured by the research questions. The methodology is, essentially, the steps that will be taken in order to derive reliable and valid answers to those questions. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 40

41. Linking with the methodology, results.. the methodology determines the appropriateness of a given research tool. The methodology outlines the types of research tools that the researcher will use to produce the study’s results ( by referencing to literatures). The study results include the data, or the evidences, that can be used to answer the research questions. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 41

42. Linking with the methodology, results.. The results, in turn, permit the researcher to draw conclusions that are, in fact, the answers to the research questions ( by referencing to literatures). Those answers constitute the manner in which the research addresses the underlying problem (by referencing to literatures). Note that Literature serves as the foundation upon which that research is built!!! chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 42

43. Chapter 3 SEMINAR WRTING chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 43

44. SEMINAR A seminar paper is a work of original research that presents a specific thesis and is presented to a group of interested peers, usually in an academic setting. For example, it might serve as your cumulative assignment in a university course. Although seminar papers have specific purposes and guidelines in some places, such as Social policy , the general process and format is the same. The steps below will guide you through the research and writing process of how to write a seminar paper and provide tips for developing a well-received paper. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 44

45. Learn the basic features of a seminar paper. A seminar paper is an advanced piece of research writing, but it shares many of the same features as a regular research paper. Before you begin writing your seminar paper, it is important to make sure that you understand how a seminar paper differs from a research paper. Unlike a basic research paper, a seminar paper also requires: an argument that makes an original contribution to the existing scholarship on your subject extensive research that supports your argument extensive footnotes or endnotes (depending on the documentation style you are using) chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 45

46. Ask for clarification if needed. While you may have written many papers in the past, it is important to make sure that you understand the details of your current assignment before you get started. As soon as your professor assigns the paper, read the guidelines carefully and highlight anything that you do not understand. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 46

47. Cont’d Ask your professor to clarify the instructions if anything seems unclear or if you just don’t understand the assignment. You may also consider talking to your professor about your intended topic to make sure that you are on the right track. Make sure that you understand how to cite your sources for the paper and how to use the documentation style your professor prefers, such as APA , MLA , or Chicago Style . Don’t feel bad if you have questions. It is better to ask and make sure that you understand than to do the assignment wrong and get a bad grade. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 47

48. Plan ahead. Your professor will be expecting original analysis, extensive research, and excellent writing. Therefore, it is important that you get started early and do the best work that you can do. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 48

49. Generate ideas for your seminar paper. Before you begin writing your paper, you should take some time to explore your ideas and get some things down on paper. Listing List all of the ideas that you have for your essay (good or bad) and then look over the list you have made and group similar ideas together. Freewriting Write nonstop for about 10 minutes. Write whatever comes to mind and don’t edit yourself. Clustering Write a brief explanation (phrase or short sentence) of the subject of your seminar paper on the center of a piece of paper and circle it. Questioning On a piece of paper, write out “Who? What? When? Where? Why? How?” chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 49

50. procedure and format Q: What are the best procedure and format for writing a seminar paper? chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 50

51. procedure and format for writing a seminar paper The procedure and format for writing a seminar paper are in many ways similar to those for writing a research paper. Thus, you need to identify a study area, go through the current literature on it, identify gaps that you could develop into a research problem, come up with a research question, formulate a hypothesis, develop the methodology, conduct the study, evaluate the results, and finally, form a conclusion based on the results. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 51

52. Cont’d However, in certain ways, preparing for and writing a seminar paper are different from that for a research paper. The key factor is that of the audience, and you will need to keep this in mind when preparing your paper. A seminar paper is written for an audience that is especially interested in the broad area of your study. So, in your paper, be sure to include examples, illustrations, discussion topics, and other such content points that will be of special relevance to the audience. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 52

53. Cont’d A seminar paper is written for the purpose of presentation. While you may choose to read from your paper, it is better to have a visual aid such as a PowerPoint presentation. A visual presentation can help bring alive the topic and also make the presentation engaging. The presentation needs to include the key points from the paper. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 53

54. Cont’d A seminar paper is written to be engaging. Whether you choose to have a visual presentation or not, the paper should be written in an interesting style. Thus, it should have an introduction that immediately arouses the audience’s curiosity and interest, and the rest of the paper (or presentation) should maintain that interest. In the discussion section, you can include questions to take up with the audience at the end, thus increasing the level of engagement. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 54

55. Con’d A seminar paper is written under the close guidance of your professor. For the reasons outlined above, your professor is usually closely involved in a seminar paper. It is best to check and run through all the key milestones and aspects of the paper – from research question, hypothesis, discussion points to the format of the paper and presentation – with your professor. Which is also why each seminar paper is likely to be different from the other. So, while you may refer to the broad structure of a research paper, you may make changes to it based on discussions with your professor. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 55

56. Cont;d To answer your specific questions, rather than chapters, it is better to structure a seminar paper by sections (such as Introduction, Methodology, Results, and so on). The length of the paper could roughly be anywhere between 12-20 pages. However, your university might have some guidelines about this, so it's best to go with the prescribed length. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 56

57. Chapter 4 The Research Process and Preparing the Research proposal chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 57

58. . Contents Most research activities follow the following steps: Selecting a topic formulating the research problem and research questions Extensive literature survey Formulating the working hypothesis Preparing the research design and determining the sample design Collecting and analyzing the data Generalizations and interpretations of results Preparing the report and presentation of the results (formal write up of conclusions reached) chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 58

59. 1. Identification of a Research Topic To do a research a topic or a research problem must be identified. What is a Research problem? A research problem refers to some difficulty, which a researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for it. A research topic should seek to advance the state of science It usually starts with a felt practical or theoretical difficulty. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 59

60. Cont’d… It should ask a question to which the answer is not known – It should ask an interesting question – It should be as objective as possible Some Potential Sources of a Research Topic A topic must spring from the researcher’s mind like a plant springs from its own seed. The best way to identify a topic is to draw up a shortlist of possible topics that have emerged from your reading or from your own experience that look interesting. A general area of interest or aspect of a subject matter (agriculture, industry, social sector, etc.) may have to be identified at first. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 60

61. Cont’d Some important sources, which may be helpful to select a research problem. A) Professional Experience Own professional experience is the most important source of a research problem. Contacts and discussions with research oriented people, attending conferences, seminars, and listening to learned speakers are all helpful in identifying research problems. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 61

62. Cont’d… b) Inferences from theory and Professional literature Research problems can also emanate from inferences that can be drawn from theories or from empirical literature. Two types of literature can be reviewed. The conceptual literature The empirical literature Research reports, bibliographies of books, and articles, periodicals, research abstracts and research guides suggest areas that need research. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 62

63. Cont’d… c) Technological and Social Changes New developments bring forth new development challenges for research. New innovations and changes need to be carefully evaluated through the research process. In general, the most fundamental rule of good research topic is to investigate questions that sincerely interest you. i.e. a research which a researcher honestly enjoys even if he/she encounters problems frustrating or discouraging. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 63

64. Cont’d… The following points are important in selecting a research problem: Subject, which is overdone, should be avoided since it will be difficult to throw any new light in such cases for the average researcher. Controversial subjects should not become the choice of the average researcher. Too narrow or too broad or vague problems should be avoided The importance of the subject in terms of: The qualification and training of researcher, The cost involved and the time factor, etc. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 64

65. Cont’d… In general, the choice of a research topic is not made in a vacuum and is influenced by several factors: Interest and Values of the Researcher, Current Debate in the Academic world, Funding, The value and power of the subject, etc. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 65

66. 2. Definition and Statement of the Problem After a topic has been selected the next task is to define it clearly. To define a problem means to put a fence around it. It involves the task of laying down the boundaries within which a researcher shall study the problem. The researcher must be certain that s/he knows exactly what her/his problem is before s/he begins work on it. A problem clearly defined is a problem half solved. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 66

67. Cont’d Defining the problem unambiguously will help to find answers to questions like: What data are to be collected? What characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied What relations are to be explored What techniques are to be used for the purpose Hence, in the formal definition of the problem the researcher is required to describe the background of the study, its theoretical basis and underlying assumptions in concrete, specific and workable questions. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 67

68. Cont’d… Useful steps in defining the research problem: a) Statement of the problem in a general way Problem should be stated in a broad and general way keeping in mind either some practical concern or some scientific or intellectual interest. b)  Understanding the nature of the problem more clearly The next steps is to understand its origin and nature clearly. The best way to understand the problem is to discuss it with other more acquainted or experienced people. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 68

69. Cont’d… c)  Survey of the available literature The researcher must devote sufficient time in reviewing both the conceptual and empirical literature. Research already undertaken on related topics or problems need to be systematically reviewed. This exercise enables the researcher to find out what data are available find out if there are gaps in theories, and find out whether the existing theory is applicable to the problem under study. find out what other researchers have to say about the topic, ensure that no one else has already exhausted the questions that you aim to examine, etc. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 69

70. Cont’d… d)  Developing the idea through discussion Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful information. The discussion sharpens the researcher’s focus of attentions on specific aspects of the study. e) Rephrasing the research problem: The researcher must sit to rephrase the research problem into a working proposition. Through rephrasing, the researcher puts the research problem in as specific terms as possible so that it may become operationally viable and may help in the development of a working hypothesis. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 70

71. Cont’d… f) In addition Technical terms or phrases, with special meanings used in the statement of the problem should be clearly defined. Basic assumptions or postulates relating to the research problem should be clearly stated. The suitability of the time period and the sources of data available must be considered in defining the problem. The scope of the investigation within which the problem is to be studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 71

72. 3. Extensive Literature Survey Once the problem is formulated, the researcher should undertake an extensive literature survey connected with the problem. Academic journals, conference proceedings, dissertations, government reports, policy reports, publications of international organizations, books, etc. must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. Usually one source leads to the next and the best place for the survey is the library. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 72

73. Cont’d… The main goals are: To familiarize oneself with the issue and establish credibility To show the path of prior research and how current project is linked to it To integrate and summarize what is known in the area To learn from others and stimulate new ideas. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 73

74. Cont’d… From the survey of the literature, you will know whether your question has not been answered elsewhere You will also know what other people have said about similar topics. You can learn how other people faced methodological and theoretical issues similar to your own You can learn about sources of data that you might not have known before chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 74

75. Cont’d… You can know other researchers tackling similar problems Potential literature sources General information: Google, etc. Books: Library, amazon.com Articles: JSTOR: www.jstor.org EconLit Web Pages chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 75

76. Cont’d… Structuring the review: Summarize every article briefly ; a sentence or two will do Interpret the article in light of its relevance to your own study Critique it, if necessary Show the stock of knowledge building up over the course of the literature Show how your research topic adds naturally to this stock of knowledge chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 76

77. 4. Developing of working hypothesis A hypothesis is a statement, which predicts the relationship between two or more variables. Formulating an appropriate and realistic research hypothesis is a sin quo non for a sound research. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and keep him/her on the right track. It is a tentative answer to a research question that can be confirmed or refuted by data Formulating hypothesis is particularly useful for causal relationships. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 77

78. Cont’d Main problems in formulating a working hypothesis Formulation of a hypothesis is not an easy task. The main problems that may arise include: The lack of clear theoretical framework The lack of ability to utilize that theoretical framework logically The failure to be acquainted with available research techniques so as to be able to phrase the hypothesis properly. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 78

79. Cont’d… Characteristics of useable hypotheses The hypothesis must be conceptually clear . This involves two things the concept should be clearly defined, the hypothesis should be commonly accepted one. In other words, the hypothesis should be stated in simple terms. The hypothesis should have empirical referents. no useable hypothesis embody moral judgments. while a hypothesis may study value judgment such a goal must be separated from a moral preachment or a plea for acceptance of one’s values. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 79

80. Cont’d… The hypothesis must be specific . all the operations and predictions indicated by it should be spelled out. The hypothesis should be related to available techniques. A theorist who does not know what techniques are available to test his/her hypothesis is on a poor way to formulate useable hypothesis or questions. The hypothesis should be related to a body of theory . It should posses theoretical relevance. The hypothesis should be testable . hypothesis should be formulated in such a way that it is possible to verify it. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 80

81. 5, Scope and Limitations A research project must be clear about its scope (a) Geographical limitations The study might only focus on some regions, even though the question pertains to a given country - Ethiopia (b) Limitations by industry or occupation The study might only be able to capture some industries or occupations- formal or informal sector. C) Limitations by subject matter The researcher also must know that many other interesting questions may arise that are outside of the scope of the study. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 81

82. 6. Preparing the Research Design The research design is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research question. It is the arrangement of conditions for the collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose. It is the conceptual structure, plan, and strategy of investigation within which research is conducted. It constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. The design that gives the smallest experimental error is the best design. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 82

83. Cont’d… The following elements are critical when making design decisions What type of data is required (required data) Where can the required data be found (source of data) What will be the sampling design What techniques of data collection will be used How will the data be analyzed (method of data analysis) chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 83

84. 7. Selecting the Sample The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample. Samples could be either probability or no probability samples. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 84

85. 8. Execution of the Project Execution involves how the survey is conducted, by means of structured questionnaire or otherwise, etc. Several ways of collecting the data exist. They may differ in terms of (i)  money costs (ii) time costs and (iii) other resources chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 85

86. Cont’d… Survey data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways: By observations Through personal interviews Through telephone interviews By mailing questionnaires/through schedules The researcher should select one of these methods taking into account: the nature of investigations, objectives and scope of the study, financial resources, available time and the desired level of accuracy, etc. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 86

87. 9. Analyzing the Data After the data have been collected the researcher turns to the task of analyzing them. The analysis may involve a number of closely related operations such as: Editing of the raw data Summarizing and tabulation of the data to obtain answers to research questions Drawing statistical inferences. Various statistical software are available for data entry and analysis. SPSS, STATA, Cspro , Spreadsheet programs such as Excel, Lotus, etc. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 87

88. Cont’d… Second round editing is done once the data entry is completed by examining the frequency distributions, averages, ranges modes, etc. to detect outliers. Analysis is completed with the preparation of descriptive tables, running econometric and mathematical models or programming models. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 88

89. 10. Interpretation and Generalizations Explaining and discussing the research results in line with the theoretical framework is part of the interpretation exercise. The real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 89

90. 11. Preparation of the Report The research process is completed only when the results are shared with the scientific community. Report should be written in concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague expressions. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 90

91. Chapter 6 Review of literature chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 91

92. 6.1. Purposes and functions a literature review: Specific purposes, functions and benefits of a literature review include: Bring clarity and focus of research, Improve your methodology , Broaden your knowledge base in your study area chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 92

93. 6.2. The Literature & Research Process The Literature Review is: A discussion of your knowledge about the topic under study: both for and against opinions are considered A discussion of your knowledge that is supported by the research literature; A foundation for the study; Literature review is never ending task!!! chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 93

94. Literature and the Research Process chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 94

95. 6.3. Theoretical Frameworks A structure that can hold or support a theory of a research work. It presents the theory which explains why the problem under study exists. The problem you wish to investigate has its root in a number of theories: e.gs. Dependency theories, Modernization theories, Exogenous growth theories, Transactions costs theories, collective action theories, Motivation theories, Consumer behavior theories, Etc.. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 95

96. You should sort your information according to their root theories, Highlight the level of agreement and disagreements among the authors and any remaining gaps. Well developed theoretical framework! Purpose : It helps the researcher see clearly the variables of the study; It can provide the researcher with a general framework for data analysis; Theoretical Frameworks… chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 96

97. Theoretical Frameworks… How to formulate theoretical framework? specifies the theory used as basis for the study; mentions the proponents of the theory; cite the main points emphasized in the theory; Supports the exposition of the theory by ideas from other experts; illustrates the theoretical framework by means of a diagram; and, reiterates the theoretical proposition in the study. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 97

98. 6.4. Reviewing the Literature Begin with a search of the available literature. Critically analyze each article you select. Organize the review with an outline ( use computer in-built program ). Write the review. Summarize the review. Using the literature, present a rationale for your study. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 98

99. 6.5. Critically Analyzing the Literature Abstract the author’s description of the study related to your area of interest? conclusions relevant? Problem Statement Related to the topic? problem stated clearly? purpose? significance? chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 99

100. 5. Critically Analyzing the Literature… Hypothesis or Research Question(s) Clearly stated? Relevant? Related to your area of interest? Assumptions Explicit assumptions? Implicit assumptions Similar to yours? chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 100

101. 5. Critically Analyzing the Literature… Delimitations How was the study narrowed? Which considerations are relevant to your study? Definitions Key concepts and terms? chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 101

102. 5. Critically Analyzing the Literature… Methodology research design? population and sample? measurement? procedures? Findings Is it logical? make sense? what do they say about your area of interest? chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 102

103. 5. Critically Analyzing the Literature… Discussion Presented clearly? Meaningful interpretations? Implications discussed? Suggestions or recommendations? Limits to practical application? Conclusion What did you learn? Re-state your new knowledge chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 103

104. 6.6 Writing the Literature Review Always begin with an introduction to the review and end with a summary Make the connection for the reader between the subtopics and the topic Use direct quotations rarely: only for “GOLDEN” Ideas! chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 104

105. 6. Writing the Literature Review…. Always cite your sources; don’t cite what you have not read actually! Present your knowledge on the topics and subtopics Summarize each subtopic Include a transition paragraph from one subtopic to the next chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 105

106. After formulating the theoretical framework, develop the conceptual framework of the study. A concept is an image or symbolic representation of an abstract idea. While the theoretical framework is the theory on which the study is based, the conceptual framework is the operationalization of the theory. Conceptual framework helps in: showing the direction of the study, and Showing the relationships of the different constructs that is being investigated. 6.7. Conceptual Framework chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 106

107. How should the conceptual framework formulated? cite your conceptual framework or paradigm; Identify your variables; Point out the dependent, independent and intervening variables; Show the direction of the study. There are different forms of conceptual framework: Conceptual Framework… chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 107

108. Forms of Conceptual framework Process frameworks Set out the stages through which an action moves from initiation to conclusion. These relate to the ‘how?’ question. Content frameworks Set out the variables, and possibly the relationship (with relative strengths) between them, that together answer the ‘why?’ question. The following slid shows examples for each form. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 108

109. Example 1: Conceptual Framework of Innovation decision making PRIOR CONDITIONS Previous practice Felt needs/problems Innovativeness Norms of the social system COMMUNICATION CHANNELS 1. KNOWLEDGE 2. PERSUASION 4. IMPLEMENTATION 3. DECISION 1. Adoption 2. Rejection Confirmed Adoption Later Adoption Discontinuance Continued Rejection Perceived characteristics of innovation Relative advantage Compatibility Complexity Trialability Observability Observations of the decision making unit Socio-economic characteristics Personality variables Communication behaviour 5. CONFIRMATION chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 109

110. Example 2: Conceptual Framework of changing consumer behaviour chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 110

111. 10. Referencing References vs bibliography References are the items you have read and specifically referred to (or cited) in your paper. A bibliography is a list of everything you read in preparation for writing your paper. We reference other literature to: Provide supporting (or contrary) evidence for the views we write about, Assign credit for an idea, concept or result, Add information and details on matters discussed, chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 111

112. Giving credit for thoughts, ideas, efforts and contributions of others is an important ethical issue. Plagiarism is the failure to give credit for an idea or research result to it’s originator. Presenting someone else’s words or ideas as your own is not only wrong but can hurt your professional standing By properly referencing and giving credit for other’s work, you show that you are aware of the state of knowledge in your subject and are familiar with the work of leaders in the field. 11. Referencing… chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 112

113. The style used in referencing may vary with the type of publication, as well as your personal preference. Footnotes (notes at the bottom of the page) or Endnotes (similar notes placed at the end of the paper) can be used, if allowed. Most commonly used is parenthetical referencing , which provides the author’s last name, year of publication, and sometimes the page number. eg. (Robsan, 2004, p.122; Gemechu, 2011, pp.232-234) The cited references then all appear in the Reference section at the end of the paper. Use specific referencing style, do not mix it!! 11. Referencing… chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 113

114. Chapter seven Scientific Report Writing and Presentation chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 114

115. 7 – Scientific Report Writing and Presentation Introduction Types of Scientific Research Report Parts of a Scientific Research Report Referencing styles Publication Outlets for Finance and Investment Researches Presenting a Scientific Research Paper chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 115

116. Writing the Research Report   I) The Writing Process The intrinsic value of a study can be easily destroyed by a poor final report or presentation. A well-presented study can impress the reader more than another study with greater scientific quality but a weaker presentation. Hence, researchers must make special efforts to communicate clearly and fully their research results. Writing is a process- It takes time, and effort and it improves with practices. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 116

117. When writing the research report it would be important to consider: What is the purpose of the report? Who will read the report? What are the circumstances and limitations under which the report was written? How will the report be used? etc. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 117

118. Generally the writing process has three major phases: i) Pre-writing prepare to write by arranging notes on the literature, making lists of ideas, outlining, completing bibliographic citations, and organizing comments on data analysis. ii) Composing get your ideas onto paper as a first draft by free-writing, drawing up the bibliography and footnotes, preparing data for presentation, and forming of an introduction and conclusion.   chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 118

119. iii) Rewriting evaluate and polish the report by improving coherence, proofreading for mechanical errors, checking citations, and reviewing voices and usages. This step actually involves two related procedures: revising and editing.   Revising – is the process of inserting new ideas, adding supportive evidences, deleting or changing new ideas, strengthening transitions and links between ideas.   Editing – is the process of cleaning up and tightening and involves the mechanical aspects of writing such as spelling, grammar usage, verb tense, sentence length and paragraph organization. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 119

120. Types of Research Reports Reports my be defined in terms of their degree of formality and design. We may have: short reports and long reports. a). Short Reports Short reports are more informal and are appropriate for studies in which the problem is well defined, of limited scope and for which methodologies are simple and straightforward. Example : interim reports. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 120

121. At the beginning, there should be a brief statement on the problem examined and its breadth and depth. Next comes the conclusions and recommendations, followed by findings that support the conclusions. b) Long Reports Long reports are long and follow well-defined formats. They are of two types, the technical or base report and the popular report. Which of these to use depends chiefly on the audience and the researcher’s objectives. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 121

122. i) T he technical report this report should include full documentation and detail - it is the major source document. It is the report that has the full story of what was done and how it was done. It contains information on the: sources of the data, sampling design, data gathering instruments, data analysis methods, as well as a full presentation and analysis of the data. Conclusions and recommendation should be clearly related to specific findings. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 122

123. ii) The popular report The popular report is designed for the non-technical audience with no research background and may be interested only in results rather than methodology. Decision makers need help in making decisions. Popular report should encourage rapid reading, quick comprehension of major findings and prompt understanding of the implication and conclusions. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 123

124. Report Format for Long Reports Two arrangements are typically used – the logical format and the psychological format. The logical format the introductory information covering the purpose of the study, the methodology and limitations is followed by the findings. The findings are analyzed and then followed by the conclusions and recommendations. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 124

125. The psychological format this is largely an inversion of the logical order and is mostly used in popular reports. The conclusions and recommendations are presented immediately after the introduction with the findings coming later. Readers are quickly exposed to the most critical information – the conclusions and recommendations. If they wish to go further they may read on into the findings, which support the conclusion clearly given. Other report formats include the chronological report, which is based on time sequence or occurrence. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 125

126. II) Components of a Technical Report While some may be dropped, other may be added and their order may vary from one situation to another, a research report contains several components or elements. In general there are three parts: the prefatory pages, the body of the report and the appended sections. A) Prefatory pages – this section includes the title page, letters of authorization (if any), tables of contents, charts and illustrations, synopsis (summary, abstracts). chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 126

127. The Title page – the title page should include four items: the title of the report, the date, for whom prepared and by whom the report was prepared. A satisfactory title should be brief, but should at least include: The variables included in the study, the type of relationship between the variables, and the population to which the results may be applied. The table of contents – any report of several sections that totals more than six to ten pages should have a table of content. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 127

128. Abstract (Synopsis) – this is a short summary. For conference papers, research papers, theses and dissertations, you will almost always be asked to write an abstract. It goes first in the report, but should be written last. It helps the reader determine whether the full report contains important information. Different publications have different size limits, usually between 100 and 250 words It is essential that your abstract includes all the keywords of your research. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 128

129. An abstract should briefly: Re-establish the topic of the research. Give the research problem and/or main objective of the research. Indicate the methodology used. Present the main findings and conclusions The main point to remember is that it must be short, because it should give a summary of your research. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 129

130. Common Problems in preparing the Abstract Too long and Too much detail . If your abstract is too long, it may be rejected. Abstracts that are too long often have unnecessary details. The abstract is not the place for detailed explanations of methodology or the context of your research problem. Too short . Shorter is not necessarily better. You should review your abstract and see where you could usefully give more explanation. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 130

131. B) The body of the report – contains the introduction, findings, summary and conclusions and recommendations. 1) Introduction – the introduction comes at the start of the writing and normally contains several major subsections. It introduces the research by situating it (by giving the background ) and presenting the research problem as well as the rationale or significance. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 131

132. The problem – the statement of the problem usually contains three parts namely the background, the problem statement itself and the objectives. In the background, researchers should introduce the major variables and the type of relationships between them and relate them to previous research and theory. What is it that we don’t know? What is the gap in our knowledge this research will fill? The background information leads to a statement of the specific problem, which the research addresses ( research questions ). What steps will the researcher take to try and fill this gap or improve the situation? (Objectives ) chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 132

133. Why is this research important? Who will benefit? Why do we need to know this? Why does this situation, method, model or piece of equipment need to be improved? ( Rationale ). Scope and limitations – some people shy away from mentioning limitations. Such an attitude is unprofessional and unethical. Is the study limited to a specific geographical area or to only certain aspects of the situation? ( Scope ) Is there any factor , condition or circumstance that prevents the researcher from achieving all his/her objectives? ( Limitations ) chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 133

134. Common problems in writing the Introduction Too much detail, and hence too long: Although you will cover important points, detailed descriptions of method, study site and results should come in later sections. Repetition of words, phrases or ideas.   A high level of repetition makes your writing look careless. Unclear problem definition. Without a clear definition of your research problem, your reader is left with no clear idea of what you were studying. Poor organization . Writing an introduction that effectively introduces your research problem is not an easy task. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 134

135. 2. Literature Review The report also frequently includes a literature review and links the problem with theory. Literature means the works you consulted in order to understand and investigate your research problem. Journal articles : these are good especially for up-to-date information. Books :  books tend to be less up-to-date as it takes longer for a book to be published than for a journal article. Text books offer a good starting point from which to find more detailed sources.  chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 135

136. Conference proceedings: these can be useful in providing the latest research, or research that has not been published. They also provide information on which people are currently involved. Government/corporate reports : many government departments and corporations commission or carry out research. Newspapers : since newspapers are generally intended for a general (not specialized) audience, the information they provide will be of very limited use for your literature review- but can be a starting point. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 136

137. Theses and dissertations: these can be useful sources of information. Internet : the fastest-growing source of information is the Internet. But remember that: 1) anyone can post information on the Internet so the quality may not be reliable, 2) the information you find may be intended for a general audience and hence less detailed, and 3) more and more refereed electronic journals (e-journals) are appearing on the Internet - the quality is more reliable (depending on the reputation of the journal). chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 137

138. CD-ROMS : more and more bibliographies are being put onto CD-ROM for use in academic libraries, so they can be a very valuable tool in searching for the information you need. Magazines : magazines intended for a general audience (e.g. Time) are unlikely to be useful in providing the sort of information you need. Magazines may be a starting point by providing news or general information about new discoveries, policies, etc. that you can further research in more specialized sources. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 138

139. Common Problems: Trying to read everything: if you try to be comprehensive you will never be able to finish the reading! The literature review should not provide a summary of all the published work that relates to your research, but a survey of the most relevant and significant work. Reading but not writing: Writing takes much more effort than reading- don't put writing off until you've "finished" reading. Not keeping bibliographic information: When preparing your reference you might notice that you have forgotten to keep the information you need. To avoid this nightmare always put references into your writing. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 139

140. 3. The methods : A nswers at least two main questions: How was the data collected or generated? How was it analyzed? The data collection step should cover at least five items: (i) the target population that is being studied and any sampling methods used. (ii) the research design used and the rationale for using it including the sample size, (iii) the materials and instruments used often with a copy of these materials in the appendix, (iv) the specific data collection method (survey, observation or experiment) and (v) a summary discussion of the data analysis methods including the statistical tests, computer programs, etc. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 140

141. Knowing how the data was collected helps you to evaluate the validity and reliability of your results, and the conclusions you draw from them. Your methodology should make clear the reasons why you chose a particular method or procedure. The research methods must be appropriate to the objectives of the study. It should also indicate assumptions, if there are any. Common Problems unnecessary explanation of basic procedures problem blindness : Do not ignore significant problems or pretend they did not occur. Often, recording how you overcame obstacles can form an interesting part of the methodology. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 141

142. 4) Findings and Discussions – It is an organized presentation of results and is generally the longest section of the report. The Results S ection includes: statement of results : the results are presented in a format that is accessible to the reader (e.g. in graphs, tables, diagrams or written text).   Notice that raw data is usually put in an appendix, if it is included at all. explanatory text : all graphs, tables, diagrams and figures should be accompanied by text that guides the reader's attention to significant results.   chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 142

143. The text makes the results meaningful by pointing out the most important results, simplifying the results, highlighting significant trends or relationships and perhaps commenting on whether certain results were expected or unexpected. Table and figures in the text need numbers and clear titles. Include only those tables and figures that present main findings and need more elaborate discussion in the text. Others may be put in annexes, or, if they don’t reveal interesting points, be omitted. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 143

144. The Discussion Section: In the discussion section we talk about what we see in the data and give the reader unambiguous interpretation of its meaning. The discussion section provides explanation of the results and includes: Explanation of results : the writer comments on whether or not the results were expected, and presents explanations for the results, particularly for those that are unexpected or unsatisfactory. References to previous research : comparison of the results with those reported in the literature, or use of the literature to support a claim or a hypothesis. Deduction : a claim for how the results can be applied more generally. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 144

145. 5) Summary and Conclusion – the summary is a brief restatement of the essential findings. Findings state facts while conclusions present inferences drawn from the findings. The summary section presents: What was learned What remains to be learned (directions for future research) The shortcomings of what was done (evaluation) The benefits, advantages, applications, etc. of the research (evaluation), and  Recommendations. The conclusions and recommendations should follow logically from the discussion of the findings. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 145

146. Common Problems Too long . The conclusion section should be short. The conclusion section should be as little as 2.5% of an entire piece. Too much detail . Conclusions that are too long often have unnecessary detail. Although you should give a summary of what was learnt from your research, this summary should be short, since the emphasis in the conclusions section is on the implications, evaluations, etc. that you make. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 146

147. Failure to comment on larger, more significant issues . Whereas in the introduction your task was to move from general (your field) to specific (your research), in the concluding section your task is to move from specific (your research) back to general (your field, how your research will affect the world). Failure to reveal difficulties encountered. Negative aspects of your research should not be ignored. Problems, drawbacks etc. can be included in summary in your conclusion section as a way of qualifying your conclusions (i.e. pointing out the negative aspects, even if they are outweighed by the positive aspects). chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 147

148. 6) Recommendations – this involves suggested future actions. It makes easy reading for an outsider if the recommendations are again placed in roughly the same sequence as the conclusions. The recommendations could be for further study, to test, deepen or broaden understanding in the subject area or for managerial actions. The recommendations should take into consideration the local conditions, constraints, feasibility and usefulness of the proposed solutions. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 148

149. 7) The appended section – this includes appendix and bibliography. i) Appendix – complex tables, statistical tests, supplying documents, copies of forms used, detailed description of the methodology, instructions to field workers, and any other evidence that may be important. The annexes should contain any additional information needed to enable professionals to follow your research procedures and data analysis. Information that would be useful to special categories of readers but is not of interest to the average reader can be included in annexes as well. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 149

150. Examples of information that can be presented in annexes are: tables referred to in the text but not included in order to keep the report short; lists of study sites, -districts, villages, etc. that participated in the study; questionnaires or check lists used for data collection. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 150

151. ii) Bibliography – there should be a bibliographic section if the study makes heavy use of secondary material. This section should contain all those works, which the researcher has consulted. It should be arranged alphabetically and may be divided into two parts. The first part may contain names of books and pamphlets and the second part may contain names of magazines and newspaper articles. There may be several bibliographic entry formats. The following is one of such entry formats. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 151

152. For books and Pamphlets the following order may be adopted. Ø  Name of the principal author, last name first Ø  Title, underlined or in italic styles Ø  Place, publisher and date of publication Ø  Number and volumes.   Example : Kothari, C. R. Quantitative Techniques , New Delhi, Vikas publishing house Pvt ltd. 1978. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 152

153. For magazines, Journal articles and newspapers the following order is appropriate Ø  Name of author, last name first Ø  Title of article in quotation marks Ø  Names of periodical underlined Ø  The volume or volume and number Ø  The data of the issue Ø  The pagination   Example : Christenson, L. R., D. W. Jorgenson and L.J. Law, “ Transcendental Logarithmic Production Frontiers ” Review of Economics and statistics, 55(19) 1973, 28–45. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 153

154. The references in your text can be numbered in the sequence in which they appear in the report and then listed in this order in the list of references (Vancouver system). Another possibility is the Harvard system of listing in brackets the author’s name(s) in the text followed by the date of the publication and page number, for example: (Shan, 2000: 84). You can choose either system as long as you use it consistently throughout the report. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 154

155. Presentation Consideration Reports should be physically inviting, easy to read and match the comprehension abilities of the designated audiences (reader).   (1) Style of writing: Remember that your reader: Is short of time Has many other urgent matters demanding his or her interest and attention Is probably not knowledgeable concerning ‘research jargon’ It is always good to use words that convey thoughts accurately, clearly and efficiently. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 155

156. Therefore the rules are: Simplify- Keep to the essentials. Justify- Make no statement that is not based on facts and data. Quantify when you have the data to do so - Avoid ‘large’, ‘small’; instead, say ‘50%’, ‘one in three’. Be precise and specific in your phrasing of findings. Use short sentences. Be consistent in the use of tenses (past or present tense). Aim to be logical and systematic in your presentation. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 156

157. (2) Layout of the report A good physical layout is important since it will: make a good initial impression, encourage the readers, and give them an idea of how the material has been organized so the reader can make a quick determination of what he will read first. Poor reproduction, dirty typewriter type, incorrect spelling and poor punctuation (typographic errors). Overcrowding of text, inadequate labeling of charts and tables, etc. reduce the credibility of a report. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 157

158. Particular attention should be paid to make sure there is: An attractive layout for the title page and a clear table of contents. Consistency in margins and spacing. Consistency in headings and subheadings, e.g.: font size 16 or 18 bold , for headings of chapters; size 14 bold for headings of major sections; size 12 bold , for headings of sub-sections, etc. Numbering of figures and tables, provision of clear titles for tables, and clear headings for columns and rows, etc. Accuracy and consistency in quotations and references. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 158

159. Revising and finalizing the text Having done the ‘analytical’ and ‘creative’ work, you now need to put on your critical judgment hat. You need to take a step back and review your report from your audience’s viewpoint. Remember, their viewpoint is different. They are looking for reasons to believe. They need to be comfortable with your report and accept your findings. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 159

160. The following questions should be kept in mind when reading the draft: Have all important findings been included? Do the conclusions follow logically from the findings? If some of the findings contradict each other, has this been discussed and explained, if possible? Have weaknesses in the methodology, if any, been revealed? Are there any overlaps in the draft that have to be removed? And is it possible to condense the content? chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 160

161. Do data in the text agree with data in the tables? Are all tables consistent (with the same number of informants per variable), are they numbered in sequence, and do they have clear titles and headings? Is the sequence of paragraphs and subsections logical and coherent? Is there a smooth connection between successive paragraphs and sections? Is the phrasing of findings and conclusions precise and clear? Perform a spell check and grammar check Etc. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 161

162. Briefings (presentation) Good presentation improves both the research and the reputation of the researcher. A successful briefing typically requires a condensation of a lengthy and complex body of information. Speaking rates should not exceed 100 to 150 words per minute. About 20 minutes presentation is usually required. A detailed outline of what one is going to say includes Opening Findings and conclusions Recommendations chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 162

163. Assignments: Contemporary issues in Leadership and Change Management Select a contemporary topics that is much linked with your field of specialization and prepare a term paper (your instructor gives you the technical guides) and presenting in the class (50%) Searching an article related to leadership and change management and reviewing taking a guide given to you (25%) Reviewing a literature on Transformational, reformation and transactional leadership style in implementing change in public sectors (25%) chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 163

164. chala Dechassa, PhD. Associate professor seminar PPTS 164

165. Thank you [email protected] Call me: [phone]