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1. The Psychology of sex and gender

2. 1. Aims 2. Introduction 3. A biological psychology of sex and gender 4. Evolutionary Psychology 5. The Social construction of gender 6. Conclusions

3. 1 .Aims: 1.a To be able to understand the different meaning of the terms sex and gender and use them appropriately 1.b To present three different psychological perspectives on sex and gender , and evaluate their strengths and weaknesses 1.c Examine ways in which the three perspectives compliment , conflict or coexist with each other

4. 2. Introduction The psychology of sex and gender is one of the most topical, important and engaging topic that psychology must address. Psychology demonstrates the numerous levels of analysis – from genes and neurons, to language and socially – structured power relations. To add to the interest, the topic of sex and gender highlights the political and ideological implications that arise from explanations of differences between the sexes

5. What is sex? What is gender? What is sexuality?

6. Sex and gender: What do they mean? Possible responses: “Sex” means The act of sexual intercourse The fact of being biologically male or biologically female ‘Gender’ means The difference between sexes, as manifested in behaviors, relationships, practices. Coming across as, or feeling masculine or feminine

7. 2.1 Sex and gender : what do they mean People often get confused between the terms sex and gender. Sex refers to biological differences between males and females. For example, chromosomes (female XX, male XY), reproductive organs (ovaries, testes), hormones (estrogen, testosterone). Gender refers to the cultural differences expected (by society/ culture) of men and women according to their sex. A person’s sex does not change from birth, but their gender can.

8. In the past people tend to have very clear ideas about what was appropriate to each sex and anyone behaving differently was regarded as deviant. Today we accept a lot more diversity and see gender as a continuum (i.e.  scale ) rather than two categories. So men are free to show their “feminine side” and women are free to show their “masculine traits”.

9. 2.2 The Biosocial Approach to Gender The biosocial approach (Money & Ehrhardt , 1972) is an interactionist approach where by  nature and nurture  both play a role in gender development. John Money’s (1972) theory was that once a biological male or female is born, social labeling and differential treatment of boys and girls interact with biological factors to steer development. This theory was an attempt to integrate the influences of nature and nurture.

10. 2.3 Gender role preferences determined by a series of critical events:

11. Psychological perspectives Biological Sex Differences / Biological Psychology Evolutionary Psychology Social Constructionist Theory

12. Perspectives Object of knowledge What it investigates Biological Effect of biological process on behavioural differences between man and woman The effects of these processes through scientific procedures Evolutionary How evolution might have shaped human thinking and behaviour It derives hypothesis based on evolutionary reasoning. Social Construction How knowledge about sex and gender has been constructed within particular historical and social context It uses evidence largely taken from what people say and write.

13. 3. Biological psychology Asks what effect biological process have on behavioral differences between men and women. Its object of knowledge is biological (physiological , cellular , biochemical and molecular)

14. Male or female? Sexing human bodies Physical Characteristics Hormones Genes

15. 3.1 Physical chARACTERISTICS The most obvious method, and the most commonly used to ‘sex’ children after birth , is observation of the external (visible) genitals

16. 3.1 Physical chARACTERISTICS

17. 3.2 hormones Sex organs, or at least their early external appearance, depend on hormones. Children usually have lower level of sex hormones and more balanced sex hormones than adults. Both males and females mostly have ‘both’ male and female hormones and so it is the balance of these hormones rather than the mere presence that generally produces secondary characteristics. It is possible to ingest synthetic hormones and so alter the natural hormone balance.

18. 3.2 hormones

19. 3.3 genes Humans have typically 23 pairs of chromosomes , one of which is used to direct the sex of the person. Males – X and Y Females – X and X

20. At about 6 weeks, the SRY gene on the Y chromosome causes the gonads (sex organs) of the embryo to develop as testes. If the embryo has no Y chromosome, it will not have the SRY gene, without the SRY gene, the gonads will develop as ovaries.

21. 3.4 Atypical Chromosomes Individuals with atypical chromosomes develop differently than individuals with typical chromosomes - socially, physically and cognitively. Studying people with Turner's syndrome and Klinefelter's syndrome might help our understanding of gender because by studying people with atypical sex chromosomes and comparing their development with that of people with typical sex chromosomes, psychologists are able to establish which types of behavior are genetic (e.g. determined by chromosomes).

22. Turner's syndrome (XO) occurs when females develop with only one X chromosome on chromosome 23 (1 in 5000 chance). The absence of the second X chromosome results in a child with a female external appearance but whose ovaries have failed to develop. The physical characteristics of individuals with Turner's syndrome include lack of maturation at puberty and webbing of the neck. In addition to physical differences, there are differences in cognitive skills and behavior compared with typical chromosome patterns. The affected individuals have higher than average verbal ability but lower than average spatial ability, visual memory and mathematical skills. They also have difficulty in social adjustment at school and generally have poor relationships with their peers.

23. Klinefelter's syndrome (XXY) affects 1 in every 750 males. In addition to having a Y chromosome, these men also have an additional X on the 23rd chromosome, leading to the arrangement XXY. Physically they appear male, though the effect of the additional X chromosome causes less body hair and under-developed genitals. The syndrome becomes noticeable in childhood, as the boy has poor language skills. At three years of age, the child may still not talk. At school, their poor language skills affect reading ability. When they are babies, their temperament is described as passive and co-operative. This calmness and shyness remains with them throughout their lives. This suggests that level of aggression have a biological rather than environmental component.

24. 3.5 Male or female brain Human brain region difference

25. Biological psychology

26. According to the researchers, the “results suggest that male brains are structured to facilitate connectivity between perception and coordinated action, whereas female brains are designed to facilitate communication between analytical and intuitive processing modes.

27. Biological perspective

28. 3.6 conclusion While some sex differences are established at birth for most individuals like biological characteristics (genetic , hormonal , molecular) , bodies and brains may become gendered over a lifetime of use.

29. 4. Evolutionary Psychology Asks how evolution might have changed and shaped human thinking and behavior. Its object of knowledge is how human evolution has changed and shaped human thinking and behavior.

30. 4. Evolutionary Psychology What is it to be a man or a woman? Evolutionary Psychologists would argue that there few consistent differences between the sexes. Sexual behaviors and attitudes differs because of different reproductive strategies that have evolve in men and women.

31. 4. Evolutionary Psychology Evolutionary Psychologists focus particularly on the process involved in sexual selection. This relates to the characteristics or patterns of behavior that promotes reproductive success (optimal reproductive style)

32. 4.1 Parental investment The amount of energy and effort required to produce and rear an offspring. Reproductive success Ensuring offspring would survive to sexual maturity and so in turn pass on genes.

33. 4.2 differences in sexual style Preferences regarding sexual behaviors and attitudes Most men want sexual variety while enabling them to maintain an ongoing committed relationship; it thus offers them a way of coping with urges that evolutionary pressure has selected for in their behavior.

34. 4.3 features in choosing potential partners Particularly salient dimensions for men are physical appearance and youth , which would both relate to reproductive capacity (Buss and Schmidt ,1993). Cultural and historical variation in appreciation of body types changes (Singh , 1995)

35. 4.3 features in choosing potential partners For women, height seems to be a particular attractor ( Greggor ;1985 Jackson;1992; Wiederman 1993) A preference for taller and more powerful males would have been more likely to ensure protection and support.

36. 4.4 conclusion Evolutionary Psychologists are not implying that the preferences and feelings discussed here are conscious strategies. Evolutionary Psychology can only provide limited understanding of sexual relationships. Sexual styles and preferences are desirable for the optimal strategies of reproductive success.

37. 5. Social construction of gender This perspective suggests that all knowledge – even knowledge that looks as if it is obvious and about reality – is constructed by people within their own particular history and social contexts.

38. 5.1 Social constructionist perspective Social constructionists argue that we construct the world to have two basic types of people , men and women. Social Identity theory suggests that , when we see ourselves as belonging to a group or category , we try to maximize our perceived similarity to others in the group , or minimize it with others outside the group. Gender is one of the most important and powerful of social categories by which individual define themselves.

39. 5.2 from gender as construct to constructing gender Bem’s Gender Schema Theory – Sandra Bem (1981) proposed that individuals absorb culturally produced understanding of gender that they can use to interpret and make sense of themselves and their behavior , cultural lens.

40. Bem’s gender schema These understandings are acquired as children learn to see the world through what Bem later discussed as the cultural lens of femininity and masculinity (1994)

41. Social constructionists do not see gender as a set of characteristics or properties that are acquired by the individual. They see it as something that exist only when it is being done or accomplished. Individuals establish and re-establish their gender continuously in actions , behaviors or experiences throughout their lives, both at the level of the individual and of the group of the society.

42. Gender therefore is an ongoing project , a construction of identity that is undertaken throughout one’s life. It is dynamic because what is constituted as feminine or masculine will change with historical period or personal context of one’s life.

43. 5.4 conclusion According to the social constructionist’s perspective , biological sex is not central to explaining what it is to be man or woman, rather it is a signpost to which a whole set of socially constructed gender differences are attached. Socially created discourses about masculinity and femininity are used by individuals to create their own gendered subject positions.

44. 5.4 conclusion Sandra Bem developed the idea of cultural lens of masculinity and femininity. This lens is a way of perceiving the world that makes behaviour and experience gendered. In social constructionism , gender is seen as continuously throughout the lifetime, as people construct and interpret their behaviour and experience through the cultural lens of gender.

45. 7. Strengths and weaknesses Biological Perspective has the strength of referring to material characteristics , using material data. However , it can only demonstrate but not explain or say anything about the realm of human experience.

46. 7. Strengths and weaknesses Evolutionary Psychology – has the strength of keeping in view the basic principle that the genetic make-up has evolved according to natural and sexual selection. However , this principle can not explain other behavioural outcomes as to specific and particular behavioural evolution.

47. 7. Strengths and weaknesses Social Constructionist – takes account the historical and cultural situation of human beings. Failure – inability to explain the origins of gender differences.

48. 7.1 complementary – interaction among influences Combination of biological and social theories are compatible. Once biology is understood to be a two – way process not just acting on individual behaviour , meaning and experience , but also being affected by it , then we can begin to see behaviors affected by social meanings.

49. 7.2 conflicting – ONLY ON POLITICAL EXPLANATIONS Biological theories are deterministic. Evolutionary Psychology - natural selection / strategies – because social influences can be changed , explains behavioral changes but not at genetic level.

50. Conclusion The objectives and knowledge of each perspectives are all valid and useful in a general psychology of sex and gender. No perspective on its own can tell the whole story Don’t worry if you cannot come up with a single psychological explanation of sex and gender. Certainly ,you should not expect , or try to produce , a single explanation of the psychology of sex and gender. It might be more productive to enjoy diversity.