Social Cognition for social psychology module

Socialpsychology ppt for social cognition

1. Module 2 Social Cognition: How We Think About the Social World

2. Social Cognition Definition Social cognition refers to how people think about themselves and the social world. It relates to how people select , interpret, remember , and use social information to make judgments and decisions. Schemas influence this process.

3. Schemas: A Historical Background The use of schemas as a basic concept was first used by a British psychologist named Frederic Bartlett as part of his learning theory. Bartlett's theory suggested that our understanding of the world is formed by a network of abstract mental structures. Theorist  Jean Piaget  introduced the term schema, and its use was popularized through his work. According to his theory of cognitive development, children go through a series of stages of intellectual growth. In  Piaget's theory , a schema is both the category of knowledge as well as the process of acquiring that knowledge. He believed that people are constantly adapting to the environment as they take in new information and learn new things. As experiences happen and new information is presented, new schemas are developed and old schemas are changed or modified.

4. How Do Schemas Guide the Way You Think about the World Around You? Schemas Cognitive frameworks Automatically created Guide us to understanding the world Can exist for people, places, events, or other stimuli

5. How Do Schemas Guide the Way You Think about the World Around You? (continued) Schemas are formed on the basis of experience Prime – to activate a schema through a stimulus The way a schema is primed affects our attention and processing Stereotypes are an example of a schema

6. Schemas and Their Influence Schemas are Mental Structures Schemas are mental structures people use to organize their knowledge about the social world around theme or subjects. Schemas affect what information we notice, think about, and remember. Schemas can sometimes misrepresent the world ( Carli , 1999), The question arises, then why do we have them? Because they fulfill certain functions .

7. Schemas and Their Influence Schemas Serve a Number of Functions Schemas provide – i . continuity . It is important to have continuity in our life, to relate new experiences to our past schemas. Otherwise, we must approach every situation as if we were encountering it for the first time. Schemas serve to reduce the- ii. amount of information we have to process, which saves time and effort Schemas provide us with a way of reducing- iii. ambiguity when we encounter ambiguous information (Kelly , 1950, warm-cold study).

8. Schemas and Their Influence Which Schemas are Applied: Accessibility Schemas are affected by accessibility . Accessibility refers to the extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of people’s minds and are therefore likely to be used when making judgments about the social world.

9. Schemas and Their Influence Which Schemas are Applied: Two Kinds of Accessibility There are two kinds of accessibility: Chronic accessibility due to past experience over time, eg, alcoholic parent; ii) Temporary accessibility of traits due to present thoughts, eg, reading about mental patients, or immediate experience, eg, encountering a drunk in the park.

10. Schemas and Their Influence Which Schemas are Applied: Priming increases Accessibility Priming increases accessibility of schemas, or traits . Priming is the process by which recent experiences increase a schema’s, or trait’s accessibility. Research supports the view that priming influences the formation of impressions of people’s behaviour (Higgins et al, 1977 Donald study)

11. Schemas and Their Influence Which Schemas are Applied: Primes have to be Relevant Not all thoughts and recent experiences act as primes increasing schema accessibility and influencing the formation of impressions of others’ behaviour . Such thoughts and/or experiences have to be relevant to the person’s actions (Donald study, Higgins et al, 1977)

12. Schemas and Their Influence Schemas Can Persist Even After They Are Discredited: The Perseverance Effect Schemas can persist even after the evidence for them has been completely debunked. This referred to as the perseverance effect . Perseverance effect : the tendency for people’s beliefs about themselves and their world to persist even when those beliefs are discredited (Ross , Leeper & Hubbard, 1975 card study).

13. Schemas and Their Influence Making Our Schemas Come True: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy People can inadvertently ( without intention) make their schemas come true by the way they treat others. This is called the self-fulfilling prophecy .

14. Schemas and Their Influence Making Our Schemas Come True: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Self-fulfilling prophecy is the case whereby people have an expectation about what another person is like ( e.g., teachers were told that one group of kids were bright, they should excel (Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968 study), which, influences how they act toward that person ( eg , teachers spend more time with, praise more, give more difficult assignments to, more detailed feedback to the group of bright students. Note, this is true of subsequent studies, but not of Rosenthal’s),

15. Schemas and Their Influence Making Our Schemas Come True: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy which causes that person to behave in a way consistent with the original expectations ( eg , students in the bright group did significantly better than controls in IQ tests at the end of the year ) making the expectations come true

16. Schemas and Their Influence Making Our Schemas Come True: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Self-fulfilling prophecies are not limited to the way teachers treat students. Each of us has all sorts of schemas about what other people are like, and whenever we act on these schemas in a way that makes the schema come true, a self-fulfilling prophecy results. -e.g., university students have schemas about what potential dating partners are like. -e.g., mothers have schemas about what premature babies are like, etc .

17. Schemas and Their Influence Making Our Schemas Come True: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy A distressing implication of research on the self-fulfilling prophecy is that our schemas may be resistant to change because we see a good deal of false evidence that confirms them (e.g., boys’ superiority in math even though a number of girls do just as well).

18. Schemas and Their Influence Schemas are Influenced by our Culture There are fundamental differences in people’s schemas about themselves and the social world across cultures Different cultures have schemas about different things depending on what is important to that culture.

19. Cognitive Development Theories Jean Piaget (1952) Cognitive Development Theory Lev Vygotsky Sociocultural Theory

20. Jean Piaget (1952) and the Role of Schemas Cognitive Development Schema A cognitive structure that is used to used to identify and process information. It operates like a mental index file where each index card represents a different category (or schema) of information Once acquired, individual schemas (or categories) can be accessed for future reference.

21. Jean Piaget and the Role of Schemas Cognitive Development Jean Piaget used five key concepts to explain how cognitive development occurs: Schema Assimilation ( absorbing information) Accommodation ( adjustment of differences; reconciliation) Equilibrium ( a state of rest or balance due to the equal action of opposing forces) Equilibration ( to balance equally)

22. Jean Piaget and the Role of Schemas Cognitive Development Assimilation The cognitive process that occurs when a child uses an existing schema to classify a new stimulus (or piece of information) This process influences the growth of an individual schema but it does not change the change the schema

23. Jean Piaget and the Role of Schemas Cognitive Development More Examples of Assimilation A college student learning how to use a new computer program A sees a new type of dog that he's never seen before and he immediately points to the animal and says, "Dog!" A chef learning a new cooking technique A computer programmer learning a new programming language In each of these examples, the individual is adding information to their existing schema.

24. Jean Piaget and the Role of Schemas Cognitive Development Accommodation The term accommodation refers to part of the adaptation process.The process of accommodation involves altering one's existing  schemas , or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences. New schemas may also be developed during this process. The process allows a child to modify an existing schema to accommodate a new stimulus (or piece of information) If modification does not work, the child will create a new schema

25. Jean Piaget and the Role of Schemas Cognitive Development Accommodation example , Small children learn about different types of animals. A young child may have an existing schema for dogs. She knows that dogs have four legs, so she might automatically believe that all animals with four legs are dogs. When he later learns that cats also have four legs, he will undergo a process of accommodation in which his existing schema for dogs will change and he will also develop a new schema for cats. Accommodation Takes Place Throughout Life Accommodation does not just take place in children; adults also experience this as well. When experiences introduce new information or information that conflicts with existing schemas, you must accommodate this new learning in order to ensure that what's inside your head conforms to what's outside in the real world.

26. Jean Piaget and the Role of Schemas Cognitive Development Assimilation and Accommodation both work in tandem as part of the learning process. Some information is simply incorporated into our existing  schemas  through the process of assimilation while other information leads to the development of new schemas or total transformations of existing ideas through the process of accommodation.

27. Jean Piaget and the Role of Schemas Cognitive Development Equilibrium Piaget used this term to describe the rapid mental process that occurs when assimilation and accommodation work together to create increasingly more adequate schemas for the understanding of the world This mental process suggests a steady and comfortable state

28. Jean Piaget and the Role of Schemas Cognitive Development Equilibrium According to Piaget,  equilibrium  occurs when a person's background knowledge allows him or her to deal with most new information through assimilation.  Ever heard the phrase 'If it walks like a duck and acts like a duck, then it must be a duck?' In a very simple way, this explains the concept of equilibrium. You know a duck when you see one because you have seen plenty of pictures of them and maybe have seen a duck or two in person.

29. Jean Piaget and the Role of Schemas Cognitive Development Disequilibrium Disequilibrium , then, refers to our inability to fit new information into our schema. When you come across information or experiences that do not fit into your current knowledge base, this is where disequilibrium begins. What if you encounter an animal that walks like a duck and acts like a duck, but it has a long, furry tail? You know that ducks have beaks and webbed feet, but the furry tail throws you for a loop. This is where disequilibrium sets in because this new thing does not fit into what you already know about ducks.

30. Jean Piaget and the Role of Schemas Cognitive Development Equilibration On occasion, the nature of the new stimulus (or information) does not submit to the equilibrium process and disequilibrium occurs This uncomfortable state forces the child to make their cognitive structure more adequate Once this is done, the child shifts back to assimilation; it is this process that Piaget calls equilibration

31. Jean Piaget and the Role of Schemas Cognitive Development What Is Equilibration? As children interact with the world, they are surrounded by countless objects to discover and ideas to think about. Simply by living each day, they are confronted with the opportunities to develop their knowledge. A young child, for example, is constantly learning about the world. She learns about different types of animals, what foods she likes, and how to play with various toys. She also begins forming an understanding of the aspects of life. She learns that her mother is still home even when she is in another room and out of sight, or that if she cries she will get her mother's attention. Of course, these examples barely scratch the surface of all the new ideas that come a child's way. The question is, how do children take in and adopt all the new information they receive on a daily basis? There is actually a pattern by which all children process new material.  Jean Piaget , explained that the shift they take from one stage of thought to another is done through a search for  equilibration , or an inner sense of balance between old and new thoughts.

32. First Schema for Tree

33. New Stimulus for a tree

34. Schema for Cat

35. New Stimulus for Cat

36. Schema for Caterpillar

37. New Stimulus for Caterpillar

38. Mental Strategies and Shortcuts: Heuristics

39. Heuristics Judgmental Heuristics When we have important decisions to make, e.g., which car to buy, which job to take, etc., we usually do not conduct a thorough search of all the options. Rather we use mental strategies and shortcuts called judgmental heuristics . Judgmental heuristics are mental shortcuts people use to make judgments quickly and efficiently.

40. The Availability Heuristic Our assessment of how likely an occurrence is based on how easily an example of that event can be recalled Tversky and Kahneman (1973) Which are there more of – words starting with N or words that have N as the third letter? Is your answer based on the examples you can immediately call to mind? Which is safer? Travelling by plane or by car?

41. Heuristics Availability Heuristic We often rely on ready-made judgmental schemas to provide answers to questions that arise. I.e., we rely on how easily different examples of schemas come to mind. This is called the availability heuristic . The availability heuristic is a mental rule of thumb whereby people base a judgment on the ease with which they can bring something to mind .

42. Heuristics Use of Availability Heuristic Although not always accurate, the availability heuristic is generally a good strategy to use. Do people use the availability heuristic to make judgments about themselves ? Yes , people use the availability heuristic when making judgments about themselves and other people (Schwartz et al, 1991).

43. Availability Heuristics A person response to those things which are easily available in their memory. Example 1: When we ask a psychology student to give or recall 10 names of psychologists or 10 names of economist??? (Most probably he recall 10 names of psychologists then economists because psychologists name are easily available in his mind then economists.)

44. Example2: Suppose a group of students read a story about a women being attracted by a shark and another group read about a women winning the lottery.  we asked questions about both the cases??? (1 st group of students are probably more able to answer the question about the women being attested by a shark and 2 nd group is more able to answer questions being asked about the women win lottery.)

45. The Representativeness Heuristic Our assessment of how likely an occurrence is based on how much it resembles our expectation for a model of that event Tversky and Kahneman (1974) "Deciding the probability that object A belongs in category B ﾉ based on how closely A seems to represent B."

46. Representative heuristics Person trying to decide where the current situation make represent the previous related situation which they experienced.  trying to relate characteristics of current situation to his mental representative characteristics of the situation.

47. The Representativeness Heuristic People use another mental shortcut when trying to categorize something: they judge how similar it is to their idea of the typical case.This is called the representativeness heuristic . The representativeness heuristic is a mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to their conception of a typical case (e.g., a lawyer, politician, doctor, accountant, construction worker, farmer, etc.).

48. The Representativeness Heuristic The base rate fallacy An error caused by drawing a conclusion using the representativeness heuristic without considering the base rate. an error in  prediction  and decision-making which occurs when  base rate  is ignored as a prior  probability . As such, the factor of  base rate  is not given enough weight, and false conclusions may be drawn from information simply based on a particular trait and its rate of occurrence in a specific  population . BASE-RATE FALLACY : "Continual base-rate fallacies can lead to a lack of  validity  due to the flaws in the result set."

49. Heuristics Base Rate Information People don’t always use the representativeness heuristic. They might use another source of information: base rate information . Base rate information is information about the relative frequency of members of different categories in the population.

50. Heuristics Base Rate & Conflicting Information What happens when people have both base rate information and conflicting information about the person in question? They tend to base their judgments on individual information ( i.e , whether the traits used to describe the person fit their conception of lawyers, or engineers, etc), ignoring base rate information( Kahneman & Tversky 1973 study).

51. For example: A person have to make decision on the basses of representative heuristics is whether the given characteristics of a male or female??  Long hairs  Black eyes  High heals  5.5 inch height  Wearing sari Male Female

52. Example 2: Whether the person is a truck driver or a professor??  1 st description  2 nd description  Wearing Glasses  Wearing Dhoti- kurta  Drink Tea &Coffee  Smoking  Using Library  Using Radio  Having Books  Having License Truck-driver Professor Truck-driver Professor

53. Heuristics The Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic People also rely on the anchoring and adjustment heuristic , wherein an initial piece of information acts as an anchor, or starting point, for subsequent thoughts on the topic. The anchoring and adjustment heuristic is a mental shortcut that involves using a number (e.g., 2500) or value (e.g., burned food at a fancy restaurant) as a starting point, and then adjusting one’s answer away from this anchor (Wilson et al, 1996 handwriting study).

54. Heuristics The Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic & Errors in Judgment Use of the anchoring heuristic is a good strategy under many circumstances, but sometimes leads to major errors in judgment (Wilson et al, 1996 study).

55. The Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic We use a number as a starting point on which to anchor our judgment Have you ever bought a car? What did you expect to spend? Was the sticker price above or below your estimate? Did your final purchase price change based on these data?

56. Heuristics The Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic & Errors in Judgment The anchoring and adjustment heuristic operates even when we know our experiences are unusual ( Gilvich et al, 2000). This is called biased sampling —making generalizations from a sample of information we know to be biased.

57. Heuristics The Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic: Errors in Judgment Even when we know that a piece of information is biased or atypical, it can be hard to ignore it completely ( Hamill et al, 1980).

58. Anchoring/Adjustment Heuristics We make an approximation about something (to anchor it), once its anchored, we then make some adjustments with the additional information and then take final decision. Example 1: When we ask a student - How many hairs you have in your head?? [Average 12000] (His answer may be around 12650 or 11999 something)

59. Example 2 : How many hurricanes comes last year ?? Group A : given average of 50 Result: 60 hurricanes last year Group B : given average of 10 Result: 6 hurricanes last year (Therefore we can see how responses differed from two groups when they anchored there available information.)

60. Condition apply: Like most heuristics anchor/adjustment heuristic can be helpful but if the anchor is misleading ….it may lead down the wrong path.

61. What Is Hindsight Bias? Have you ever tried to stop something from happening, yet the very thing you tried to prevent happened anyway? In this instance, you might have said to yourself, 'Ugh! I knew that was gonna happen!' Once an event occurs, it's easy for us to believe that we knew the outcome in advance. This phenomenon is formally known as hindsight bias. Hindsight bias  is when, after an event occurs, we feel we already knew what was going to happen. Hindsight bias is also sometimes called the  I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon . This bias is a common occurrence for all of us.

62. Automatic Versus Controlled Processing Automatic processing helps us deal with the enormous ( vast) amount of information in our world Sometimes we are "forced" into controlled processing When a situation does not match our schemas When we need to think with extra care and logic

63. Automatic Versus Controlled Processing Automatic processing Unconscious Effortless and on-the-fly Controlled processing Takes careful thought and effort

64. Automatic Versus Controlled Processing What parts of the brain are involved? Automatic processing The limbic system – emotional processing The amygdale – emotional learning and fear conditioning

65. Automatic Versus Controlled Processing (continued) What parts of the brain are involved? Controlled processing The prefrontal cortex Involved in higher-order thinking and evaluation May be involved in automatic processing as well

66. Automatic Versus Controlled Processing

67. Automatic versus Controlled Thinking Automatic Processing Automatic processing refers to thinking that is nonconscious , unintentional, involuntary, and effortless ( eg , thinking can become automatic with practice, just like riding a bicycle). This adds efficiency to our processing of information, but at a cost incorrect categorization, some times . If we incorrectly categorize people, or objects, then our subsequent behaviour can be inappropriate ( e.g . Senior male professor thinking that a junior female professor is a secretary, gives her typing to complete ).

68. Automatic versus Controlled Thinking Controlled Processing Not all thinking is automatic. Sometimes we pause and think deeply about ourselves and the social world. This is called controlled processing. Controlled processing is defined as thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary and effortful.

69. Automatic versus Controlled Thinking Controlled Processing Controlled thinking requires motivation and effort . It is reserved for situations in which the stakes are high and accuracy in judgment is paramount. When the stakes are low and accuracy is not essential then automatic thinking takes over. One purpose of controlled thinking is to provide checks on automatic processing.

70. Automatic versus Controlled Thinking Automatic and Controlled Thinking According to Gilbert (1991,1998) people are programmed to automatically believe everything they hear and see. Then they step back and assess the acceptability of the decision (controlled processing ), and accept, or reject the initial decision (Fig. 3.9).

71. Automatic versus Controlled Thinking Automatic and Controlled Thinking In general, studies show that when stakes are high ( e.g . decisions are important to us), we tend to: i ) use more sophisticated strategies; ii) be more accurate in their judgments; iii) be more likely to notice facts that conflict with their schemas (Dark et al, 1998 ).

72. Automatic versus Controlled Thinking Controlled Thinking & Thought Suppression When people are unmotivated or preoccupied controlled processing is difficult. In such cases people are more likely to accept false information and to have difficulty engaging in thought suppression. Thought suppression is the attempt to avoid thinking about something we would just as soon forget.

73. Automatic versus Controlled Thinking Thought Suppression: Two Processes According to Wegner, thought suppression depends on the interaction of two processes : i . monitoring— searching for evidence that the unwanted thought is about to intrude ( to go into a place or situation in which you are not wanted or not expected to be) upon consciousness (automatic ), and ii. operating— the effortful, conscious attempt to distract oneself by finding something else to think about ( controlled ).

74. Automatic versus Controlled Thinking Thought Suppression & Social Stigmas Studies show that people with non obvious stigmas ( e.g. eating disorder) are especially likely to experience the cycle of thought intrusion and subsequent attempts to suppress them (eating study by Smart & Wegner, 1999). In this study, women who were trying to conceal their eating disorder experienced the most thought intrusions about eating habits and body image, and were most likely to engage in thought suppression.

75. Automatic versus Controlled Thinking Thought Suppression & Hyperaccessibility What happens when the controlling process is weakened because the person is tired, or preoccupied? The monitoring process continues to find instances of unwanted thought, which then intrude upon consciousness unchecked by the conscious control system. Thus, a state of hyper accessibility exists, whereby the unwanted thought occurs with high frequency (Wegner et al, 1995).

76. Automatic versus Controlled Thinking Attempts at Thought Suppression Attempts at thought suppression can have the opposite effect, ie , can lead to more thought intrusions, not less (pain study by Sullivan et al, 1997). The authors of this study felt that the effort required to suppress participants’ thoughts may have prevented them from engaging in active coping strategies . First, people experience difficulty suppressing thoughts. The second, and more important finding, is that people experience a rebound effect after trying to suppress a thought

77. Automatic versus Controlled Thinking Counterfactual Reasoning Another intriguing aspect of human cognition is our ability to reflect on how events might have turned out differently .This is engaging in counterfactual thinking. Counterfactual thinking is mentally changing some aspect of the past as a way of imagining what might have been.

78. Automatic versus Controlled Thinking Counterfactual Reasoning We are most likely to engage in counterfactual thinking when negative events occur, especially if those events are unusual. Participants experience greater regret following unusual events (e.g., Mr. Caution), and receive greater compensation for an injury (greater sympathy) following an unusual event (Miller & McFarland 1986 study).

79. Automatic versus Controlled Thinking Counterfactual Reasoning We are also most likely to engage in counterfactual thinking when we were nearly able to avoid a negative event. -eg missing a plane by five minutes causes more counterfactual thinking (‘if only I had driven faster’) than missing a plane by one hour.

80. Automatic versus Controlled Thinking Counterfactual Reasoning People who have been exposed to tragedy (eg spinal cord injury, loss of a child) and who engage in more counterfactual thinking ( ‘ If only I had done something different my spouse/child would still be alive’ ) suffer more distress than those who do not engage in as much counterfactual thinking (see Davis et al, 1995 study of trauma persons).

81. Automatic versus Controlled Thinking Counterfactual Reasoning People who succeed ( e.g. winning a silver medal at the Olympics), but engage in more counterfactual thinking ( eg , ‘I almost pulled it off; it’s too bad’), are more unhappy than those who succeed (winning a bronze medal) but do not engage in such ‘I almost won’ counterfactual thinking ( Medvec et al, 1995)

82. Automatic versus Controlled Thinking Heuristics Counterfactual Reasoning There are two kinds of counterfactual thinking: i ) Upward : imagining outcomes that are better than reality, e.g., imagining winning a gold medal rather than the silver which was won. Upward comparison makes us work harder.

83. Automatic versus Controlled Thinking euristics Counterfactual Reasoning ii) Downward : imagining outcomes that are worse than reality; e.g., I’m in a wheelchair but I could have been killed in the car accident. Downward comparisons makes us feel better.

84. Automatic versus Controlled Thinking Counterfactual Reasoning Counterfactual thinking involves thinking not only about about why an event occurred, but also about how various outcomes could have been avoided. Thus, counterfactual thinking can be useful when it motivates us to take steps to prevent similar outcomes from occurring in the future, But it can be harmful when people are stuck with their thoughts about unpleasant events and not able to think about anything else.

85. Social Perception Social perception is defined as the study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about other people. One important source of information about others is their nonverbal behaviour.

86. Nonverbal Behaviour Nonverbal communication is defined as the way in which people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without words. Non-verbal cues include facial expressions, tones of voice, gestures, body position and movement, the use of touch, and eye gaze.

87. Nonverbal Behaviour Nonverbal behaviour is used to, 1)express emotion ( eg , your eyes narrow, your eyebrows lower, you stare intently, your mouth is set is a thin, straight line__your angry), 2)convey attitudes (‘I like you’__smiles , extended eye contact__or ‘I don’t like you’ __eyes averted, flat tone of voice, body turned away, 3)communicate personality traits (‘I’m outgoing’__broad gestures, changes in inflection when speaking, an energetic tone of voice), and

88. Nonverbal Behaviour Nonverbal behaviour is used to, 4) facilitate , or modify verbal communication (eg, you lower your voice and look away as you finish you sentence so that your conversational partner knows that you are done and it is his/her turn to speak), 5) repeat, or compliment the spoken language, as when your smiling and say ‘I’m so happy to meet you,’

89. Nonverbal Behaviour Other uses of nonverbal behaviour 6) In other cases, nonverbal behaviour contradicts spoken behaviour (eg, use of sarcasm, as when someone says, ‘I’m so happy for you’ sarcastically, 7) Finally, nonverbal cues can substitute for the verbal message (eg, hand gestures indicating A OK are used to convey the message that all is well).

90. Nonverbal Behaviour Facial Expressions of Emotions: The Universality Hypothesis Foremost among the nonverbal channels of communication are facial expressions. Charles Darwin believed that human emotional expressions are universal—that all humans encode and decode expressions in the same way ( the universality hypothesis ).

91. Nonverbal Behaviour Facial Expressions of Emotions: The Universality Hypothesis Encode: to express or emit nonverbal behaviour, such as smiling or patting someone on the back Decode: to interpret the meaning of the nonverbal behaviour other people express, such as deciding that a pat on the back was an expression of condescension and not kindness.

92. Nonverbal Behaviour Facial Expressions of Emotions: The Universality Hypothesis Early research suggested that Darwin was right for the six major emotional expressions (see Ekman & Freisen 1971 New Guinea study): anger, happiness, surprise, fear, disgust, and sadness. Subsequently, researchers added contempt to this list.

93. Nonverbal Behaviour Facial Expressions of Emotions: The Universality Hypothesis But, not all theorists agreed with the ‘universality’ conclusion. The universality hypothesis would suggest that the basic emotions should be accurately identified regardless of, culture, whether participants are identifying positive or negative emotions,

94. Nonverbal Behaviour Facial Expressions of Emotions: The Universality Hypothesis The universality hypothesis would suggest that the basic emotions should be accurately identified regardless of (continued), the participants’ personal situation, the context in which the emotion is judged, and whether participants must name the emotion, or select from a list of names.

95. Nonverbal Behaviour Facial Expressions of Emotions: The Universality Hypothesis In non of these instances was the universality hypothesis fully supported by research studies.

96. Nonverbal Behaviour Facial Expressions of Emotions: The Universality Hypothesis Consider the issue of accuracy of identification of the basic emotions shown by participants across cultures (see Japan, U.S., Brazil, Chile, Argentina, New Guinea studies). In these studies, 82% accurately identified happiness, but only 54% identified fear, and 44% identified disgust.

97. Nonverbal Behaviour Facial Expressions of Emotions: The Universality Hypothesis Moreover, there was even less accuracy when participants were asked to name the emotion shown in the face rather than select an emotion from a list as was done in the Ekman et al studies. (See Russell et al 1993 studies in Canada, Greece, Japan.) These results are contrary to expectations from the universality hypothesis.

98. Nonverbal Behaviour Facial Expressions of Emotions: The Universality Hypothesis Other research in Quebec and Belgium confirmed earlier findings that negative emotions (e.g., anger) are more difficult to identify than positive ones (e.g., happiness). (See Hess et al, 1998.) These results are contrary to expectations from the universality hypothesis that people from all cultures should be able to identify these emotions with ease, even the negative ones.

99. Nonverbal Behaviour Facial Expressions of Emotions: The Universality Hypothesis The universality hypothesis would also suggest that facial expressions should be easily identified regardless of the context in which they are perceived. This does not appear to be true. (See Russell & Fehr 1987 University of BC study.) Nonsupport for the universality hypothesis.

100. Nonverbal Behaviour Facial Expressions of Emotions: The Universality Hypothesis Finally, the universality hypothesis would suggest that the situation a person is in should not influence identification of facial expressions. This also is not true . The situation does influence the identification of emotions. (See Carroll & Russell, 1996 study.) Nonsuppor t for the universality hypothesis

101. Nonverbal Behaviour Factors which Decrease the Accuracy with which Facial Expressions are Decoded Researchers agree on other factors that limit the accuracy with which facial expressions are decoded. 1) Affect Blends : Facial expressions may sometimes be hard to interpret accurately because people may display blends of multiple affects simultaneously. Affect Blend: a facial expression in which one part of the face is registering one emotion (eg, anger) and another part of the face is registering a different emotion (eg, disgust).

102. Nonverbal Behaviour Factors which Decrease the Accuracy with which Facial Expressions are Decoded 2) Display rules . Decoding facial expressions accurately can be difficult because culture plays a role as when and how people display emotions on their faces. Display rules are culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviours are appropriate to display.

103. Nonverbal Behaviour Factors which Decrease the Accuracy with which Facial Expressions are Decoded Display rules are culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviours are appropriate to display (cont’d). - eg , In North American culture norms discourage emotional displays in men, such as grief or crying, but allow such displays in women. - eg , Japanese norms lead people to cover up negative facial expressions with smiles and laughter, and to display fewer facial expressions in general, than norms in Western culture.

104. Nonverbal Behaviour Factors which Decrease the Accuracy with which Facial Expressions are Decoded Other factors that limit the accuracy with which facial expressions are decoded have yet to be discovered. Studies using facial electrodes attached to participants’ faces to record movements of muscles involved in producing certain facial expressions may allow researchers to determine precisely factors involved in the expression of emotion (See Hess et al 1995 facial electrode study.)

105. Nonverbal Behaviour There are other channels of noverbal communication. Other Channels of Nonverbal Communication 1 ) Eye contact and gaze are powerful nonverbal cues. 2) The use of personal space is a nonverbal behaviour with wide cultural variation. 3) Emblems are nonverbal gestures (e.g., the OK sign, Trudeau’s finger), that have well understood definitions within a given culture; each culture has their own emblems.

106. III. Causal Attribution: Answering the “Why” Question

107. Causal Attribution Although nonverbal behaviour may be relatively easy to decode, there is still substantial ambiguity about why people act the way they do. This is the focus of attribution theory. Attribution theory is a description of the way in which people explain the causes of their own and other people’s behaviour .

108. Causal Attribution The Nature of the Attributional Process: Heider Fritz Heider is considered the father of attribution theory. He believed that people are like amateur scientists , trying to understand other people’s behaviour by piecing together (connecting ) information until they arrive at a reasonable cause.

109. Causal Attribution The Nature of the Attributional Process: Internal-External Attributions He proposed a simple dichotomy for people’s explanations of behaviour : internal attributions and external attributions . Internal Attribution: the inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about him or her, such as his/her attitude, character, or personality.

110. Causal Attribution The Nature of the Attributional Process: Internal-External Attributions External Attribution: the inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the situation he or she is in; the assumption is that most people would respond the same way in that situation. Whether one makes an internal or external attribution can have serious consequences . (Coates , 1997)

111. Causal Attribution The Nature of the Attributional Process: Preference for Internal Attributions Another of Heider’s observations was that people generally prefer internal attributions over external ones, i.e., they tend to see the causes of behaviour as residing in the person , not the situation.

112. Causal Attribution The Covariation Model Kelly (1967) took a different approach to answer the question of why people behave the way they do. He focused how people decide whether to make an internal or an external attribution and developed what was called the covariation model .

113. Causal Attribution The Covariation Model The covariation model states that in order to form an attribution about what caused a person’s behaviour , we systematically note the pattern between the presence (or absence) of possible causal factors and whether or not the behaviour occurs . Kelly (like Heider ) assumes that when we are in the process of forming an attribution, we that will help us reach a judgment . gather information

114. Causal Attribution The Covariation Model Kelly’s covariation model (cont’d) The data we use are how a person’s behaviour covaries ( two random variables) across time, place, different actors, and different targets of the behaviour . By discovering covariations in people’s behaviour ( eg , your friend reuses to lend you his car; but he agrees to lend it to others), you reach a judgment about what caused their behaviour .

115. Causal Attribution The Covariation Model Kelly’s covariation model (cont’d) According to Kelly, we examine three types of information These are consensus , distinctiveness , and consistency information . Suppose your friend won’t let you borrow his car. You try to determine Why? To do this you gather consensus, distinctiveness and consistency information.

116. Causal Attribution The Covariation Model Kelly’s covariation model (cont’d) Consensus: information about the extent to which other people behave the same way as the actor does toward the same stimulus (eg, other people also, won’t let you borrow their car).

117. Causal Attribution The Covariation Model Kelly’s covariation model (cont’d) Distinctiveness: information about the extent to which one particular actor behaves in the same way to different stimuli ( e.g. your friend lets other people borrow his car).

118. Causal Attribution The Covariation Model Kelly’s covariation model (cont’d) Consistency: information about the extent to which the behaviour between one actor and one stimulus is the same across time and circumstances ( eg , your friend never lets you borrow his car, no matter what the circumstances). From this information we would conclude that it is something about you that is the reason why your friend won’t lend you his car ( ie , perhaps he thinks you’re a poor driver, and he doesn’t want the car wrecked)

119. Causal Attribution The Fundamental Attribution Error (Correspondence bias) The schema most of us have about human behaviour is that people do what they do because of the kind of people they are, not because of the situation they are in. This is referred to as the fundamental attribution error The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to overestimate the extent to which people’s behaviour is due to internal, dispositional factors and to underestimate the role of situational factors.

120. Causal Attribution The Fundamental Attribution Error There have been many empirical ( derived from or relating to experiment ) demonstrations of the tendency to see people’s behaviour as a reflection of their dispositions and beliefs, rather than as influenced by the situation . The classic example is Johns and Harris’s (1967) essay topic study where students persisted in making internal attributions even when a situational constraint on behaviour was obvious.(page 84)

121. Causal Attribution Self-Serving Attributions: Self-Esteem What about emotional factors ( e.g . a person’s needs, desires, hopes, fears). Do they bias our attributions? Yes, when people’s self-esteem is threatened ( eg , failure on an exam), they often engage in self-serving attributions. Self-serving attributions are explanations for one’s successes that credit internal, dispositional factors and explanations for one’s failures that blame external, situational factors.

122. Causal Attribution Self-Serving Attributions: Implications The self-serving bias has a number of implications: It leads people to believe that their actions are rational and defensible, but that the actions of others are unreasonable and unjustified. It influences people’s judgment of their involvement in tasks when working with others, even in their closest relationships e.g., marriage; people overestimate their own contribution (Ross & Sicoly , 1979 study).

123. Causal Attribution Self-Serving: Defensive Attributions People also alter their attributions to deal with other kinds of threats to their self-esteem. One of the hardest things to understand is the occurrence of tragic events (e.g., rape, terminal disease, fatal accident) : they remind us of our vulnerability (capable of or susceptible to being wounded or hurt). The recognition that bad things could happen to us leads us to take steps to deny this possibility. One way to do this is to make defensive attributions.

124. Causal Attribution Self-Serving: Defensive Attributions Defensive attributions (cont’d) Unrealistic optimism is one form of defensive attribution. Belief in a just world is another.

125. Causal Attribution Self-Serving_ Defensive Attributions Defensive attributions are explanations for behaviour , or outcomes that avoid feelings of vulnerability and mortality. Unrealistic optimism is a form of defensive attribution wherein people think that good things are more likely to happen to them than to their peers and bad things are less likely to happen to them than to others.

126. Causal Attribution Defensive Attributions: Unrealistic Optimism Unrealistic optimism pervades (To be present throughout) all aspects of people’s lives. It is evident in , - e.g . women’s attitudes about getting breast cancer, - e.g. herion users’ attitudes about the risk of overdosing, - e.g . gamblers’ attitudes about winning the lottery, - e.g . motorcyclists’ attitudes about having a serious accident ,

127. How Accurate Are Our Attributions and Impressions? In general, we are quite accurate perceivers of other people. But, there are problems with accuracy when we are unduly influenced by: a) first impressions b) schemas (implicit personality theories) c) self-fulfilling prophecies d) fundamental attribution errors

128. How Accurate Are Our Attributions and Impressions? In general: First impressions are notoriously inaccurate. We become more accurate the more we get to know people.

129. How Accurate Are Our Attributions and Impressions? Why are Our Impressions Inaccurate? One reason for our inaccuracy can be explained by the fundamental attribution error i.e., we tend to focus only on personalities rather than both personalities and the situation when attributing others’ behaviour.

130. How Accurate Are Our Attributions and Impressions? Why are Our Impressions Inaccurate? A second reason, we may not realize our impressions are wrong concerns the use of schema. Although many of our schemas are correct, some are not . These lead us to inaccurate impressions.

131. How Accurate Are Our Attributions and Impressions? Why are Our Impressions Inaccurate? Finally, we create inaccurate impressions of others through self-fulfilling prophecies. We can improve the accuracy of impressions by being aware of - a ) implicit personality theories, b) self-fulfilling prophecies, and c ) fundamental attribution errors, and counteracting these biases .

132. Implicit Personality Theory So, how do we form an impression about another person? That's the question behind  implicit personality theory . According to this theory, when we meet someone, we absorb the most evident traits and then make general assumptions about that person's personality. So, why is it called implicit? In this sense, implicit means automatic, so these assumptions aren't something we do intentionally or consciously. It's a subconscious reflex, a way for our minds to begin processing information about a person. In fact, you may not even be aware that this is happening.

133. Implicit Personality Theory It's important to note that this process does not work the same way for everyone. It's an individual process that is different depending on your personal history and experiences. Say you have a favorite uncle who wears bow ties. If you meet someone new wearing a bow tie, you're more likely to form a positive impression of that person, because bow ties are a positive part of your personal experience. Maybe your friend, on the other hand, had a really mean teacher who wore a bow tie, so he has a different association with it. Your friend, therefore, is likely to form a negative impression of a person in a bowtie.

134. Implicit Personality Theory Research on impression formation often notes that people weigh some traits more than others.  Central traits are the aspects of a person that create a strong impression, while  peripheral traits  are the aspects that do not create a major impression. Now, while there are some traits that many people focus on, like a sense of humor , central and peripheral traits are really a subjective impression. Researchers found that people tended to focus more on the central traits and occasionally even ignored or misinterpreted peripheral traits. So, while first impressions may be important, they're not necessarily accurate.

135. Perception A cognitive process: lets a person make sense of stimuli from the environment Affects all senses: sight, touch, taste, smell, hearing Includes inputs to person and choice of inputs to which the person attends Stimulus sources: people, events, physical objects, ideas Helps adaptation to a changing environment

136. Perception (Cont.) Perceptual defense: shield self from negatively valued stimuli Example: block out annoying sounds Organizational example: block some feedback from a supervisor or coworker when it is negative

137. Perception (Cont.) Perceptual errors: mistakes in the perceptual process Perceptual set Beliefs about a target based on information about the target or previous experiences with it Information about the target from any source Beliefs act like instructions for processing stimuli from the target

138. Perception (Cont.) Perceptual errors (cont.) Stereotype: beliefs and perceived attributes about a target based on the target’s group Examples American university students: energetic and spontaneous Russian university students: orderly and obedient

139. Self-Perception: A View of Self Self-perception: process by which people develop a view of themselves Develops from social interaction within different groups, including groups encountered on the Internet Self-perception has three parts: self-concept, self-esteem, self-presentation

140. Self-Perception: A View of Self (Cont.) Self-concept: Set of beliefs people have about themselves View people hold of their personal qualities and attributes Factors affecting a person's self-concept Observations of behavior Recall of past significant events Effect of the surrounding social context

141. Self-Perception: A View of Self (Cont.) Self-concept (cont.) Observations of behavior People see their behavior, and their situation, in the same way they see the behavior of other people Person believes the behavior occurred voluntarily: concludes the behavior happened because of some personal quality or attribute

142. Self-Perception: A View of Self (Cont.) Self-concept (cont.) Observations of behavior (cont.) People learn about themselves by comparing themselves to other people with similar qualities Example: you may want to assess your abilities to hold a supervisory position. You compare yourself to people with backgrounds similar to yours who have had recent promotions

143. Self-Perception: A View of Self (Cont.) Self-concept (cont.) Recall of past significant events and effect of the surrounding social context Recall events important in their lives; not error free Tend to recall events they attribute to themselves and not to a situation or other people Often overestimate their role in past events Place more weight on the effects of their behavior and less on the surrounding situation or other people

144. Self-Perception: A View of Self (Cont.) Self-esteem Emotional dimension of self-perception Positive and negative judgments people have of themselves People with low self-esteem tend to be unsuccessful; do not adapt well to stressful events Those with high self-esteem have the opposite experiences

145. Self-Perception: A View of Self (Cont.) Self-awareness People differ in degree of self-awareness Two forms Private self-consciousness: behave according to attend to inner feelings and standards Public self-consciousness: behave according to social standard correct for the situation

146. Self-Perception: A View of Self (Cont.) Self-presentation Behavioral strategies people use to affect how others see them How they think about themselves Goals of self-presentation Affect other people's impressions to win their approval Increase the person's influence in a situation Ensure that others have an accurate impression of the person

147. Self-Perception: A View of Self (Cont.) Self-presentation (cont.) Highly conscious of public image: change behavior from situation to situation. Readily conform to situational norms People who want others to perceive them in a particular way behave consistently in different situations. They act in ways they perceive as true to themselves with little regard for the norms of the situation

148. Social Perception: A View of Others Social perception: process by which people come to know and understand each other Forming impression of a person: perceiver first observes the person, the situation, and the person's behavior

149. Factors that influence social perceiver -Characteristics of the perceiver -Characteristics of the targeted person -Characteristics of the situation Barriers to accurate perceptions Characteristics of the perceiver -Familiarity with the target -Attitudes -Mood -Self concept -Cognitive structure

150. Cgnitive structure pattern of thinking. the more you know about yourself, the more you will look at other characteristics at the same time. Physical appearance Verbal communication nonverbal cues Characteristics of the situations Context of interaction Strength of situational cues Discounting principle

151. Barriers to accurate perceptions Selective perception Stereotyping and Implicit personality theory First impression error Projection Self-fulfilling prophecies (Pygmalion effect ) Selective perception -Screening out info that causes discomfort or that contradicts our beliefs and only filter info that proves belief/theory right. -Filter info that proves you right and discount info that does not fit the theory of them

152. Stereotyping and Implicit Personality theory First impression error Primacy effect Recentcy effect Projection Self-fulfilling prophecies (Pygmalion effect)