Socialization, agent of socialization

A branch of social science

1. Socialization The process of socialization begins in childhood, when we internalize the beliefs, values, and mindsets of our parents, siblings, and culture. But it can also continues throughout our lives as we’re exposed to wide varieties of social groups and experiences. The act of adapting behavior to the norms of a culture or society is called socialization . Socialization can also mean going out and meeting people or hanging out with friends. The word socialization can mean "the process of making social."The process of socialization is, according to Rocher‘s (1989) stance, the: “ process by which throughout life the human person learns and internalizes the sociocultural elements of his/her environment” (p. 126).

2. Socialization, from a sociological perspective, refers to all the ways in which people learn to become members of a society and culture (Turner, 2006). Agents of Socialization You may have noticed above that I used the term ‘agents of socialization’. An agent of socialization is an entity (such as a person or institution) which socializes people. For example, the school is an agent of socialization because it goes about instilling values, norms, and belief systems in us through active instruction. Similarly, friend groups are agents of socialization because the informal group norms within a friend group often become internalized as personal values and beliefs. Examples Family (Primary Agent): Parents teach their children to speak, to use the bathroom, or to eat with a fork and knife – these are all early examples of socialization.

3. Educational Institutions (Secondary Agent): In school, children learn not just academic skills, but also societal norms and values. They learn about cooperation, punctuality, discipline, and respect for authority, for instance. Peers (Secondary Agent): A teenager adapting their clothing style or slang to fit in with their friends is an example of socialization through peer groups. Culture (Secondary Agent): Participating in cultural traditions or ceremonies, like a Thanksgiving dinner or a wedding, teaches individuals about societal values and norms. Religious Institution (Secondary Agent): Attending religious services or studying religious texts can socialize individuals into a particular religious worldview and its associated values and behaviors.

4. Workplace (Tertiary Agent): A new employee learns the norms, expectations, and culture of their workplace – this could include everything from formal procedures to more informal practices like after-work socializing. Media (Secondary Agent): Watching a TV show or movie, or engaging with social media, can also socialize individuals. These media can communicate societal norms and values, or influence perceptions of reality (Kelly & Donohew , 1999). The State (Secondary Agent): Laws and their enforcement socialize people by setting societal norms and expectations for behavior. For instance, traffic laws teach drivers the rules of the road. Sporting Groups (Secondary Agent): Participating in a sports team can teach individuals about teamwork, discipline, and fair play.

5. Theories on Socialization The development of self C.H . Cooley emphasised that an individual's sense of self or own identity arises through social interaction . The basic forms of interaction that occur in the primary and secondary groups in the process of socialisation serve as the foundation for the development of one's personal identity. An individual, in the midst of an interaction, takes into account how others evaluate their behaviour . Based on their reaction, the individual establishes an understanding of themselves. The process is like looking in a mirror; one tries to imagine how they appear to others and imagines how others perceive them. Cooley termed this concept the looking-glass self. The theory implies that the sense of 'self' is an outcome of socialisation , and individuals adjust their behaviour according to their judgement of how others think about them.

6. Stages of formation of self: According to Cooley, there are three steps (stages) in the process of formation of looking-glass self: 1. The imagination of our appearance of how we look to others. 2. The imagination of their judgment of how we look or how we think others judge our behaviour . 3. How we feel about their judgment, i.e., our feelings (self feeling) about their judgments. We know that we exist, that we are beautiful or ugly, serious or funny, lively or dull etc., through the way other people think of us, of course, but we can imagine how we appear to them and how they evaluate our appearance. We often respond to these imagined evalu­ations with pride, embarrassment, humiliation or some other feeling. In conclusion, the looking-glass self means that we see ourselves and we respond to ourselves, not as we are and not as other think we are, but as we imagine others think we are. Evaluation of Cooley’s theory: There is a difference of opinion among some scholars about the functioning of the ‘looking-glass self. Several researches have been done to seek empirical evidence of the correlation between one’s perception of responses of others and the actual judgments they have made of him.

7. G.H . Mead outlined the process through which the social 'self' is developed. Mead's theory is based on the concept of 'I' and 'me'. 'I' is the biologically driven ' unsocialised ' child, whereas 'me' is the ' socialised ' aspect of the individual who is aware of society's expectations. 'I' allows the individual to express spontaneously and creatively. 'Me' is based on learned behaviours and attitudes and relates to the expectation of others in society. One learns to distinguish between 'I' and 'me'. This is the process through which the 'self' is developed. This development of 'self' is divided into different stages - imitation, the play stage, and the game stage. Let's examine these below. Imitation At this initial stage, young children engage in imitating the actions of others around them even if they might not understand the significance of the action. A child sees their parent talking on the phone and imitates the motion by holding an object close to the ear.

8. Progressing through the imitation stage, the child reaches: The play stage At this stage, the child enacts a specific role in the form of play. A child enacts the role of a parent, teacher, or any other intimate relation, and 'behaves' like the person they are playing. Mead defines the group that shares a close emotional relationship with the child as significant others . Gradually, the child progresses into: The game stage At this stage, the child engages in organised games. They gain an understanding of the rules of the game and notions of fairness in order to be successful in the activity. The child takes the role of generalised others and grasps an understanding of the expectation and judgements that others may have towards the role. Mead used basketball as an example. In basketball, when one player has the ball in hand, they look at their teammates or coach to understand what they expect from them, and play accordingly. In other words, one tries to understand the perspective of others and acts accordingly to complete the task successfully.

9. The transition from the play stage to the game stage plays a crucial role in the development of 'self'. The child goes through a process of internalising external opinions and emerges with a discrete identity . One also gets a deeper understanding of 'me' (the part of 'self' that lets one take the role of others) and 'I' (that part that is biologically driven ). Freud’s theory (psychoanalysis): Sigmund Freud, the Austrian psychiatrist and founder of psycho­analysis, was not directly concerned with the problem of the individual’s socialisation (he has not used the word ‘ socialisation ’ anywhere in his writings), he nevertheless contributed amply toward the clarification of the process of personality development. Process of personality development: Freud’s theory of personality (self) development rests on the following process. He divided the self (human mind) into three parts: (2) The ego, and (3) The superego. (1) The id represents the instinctive desires, which may be viewed as an unsocialised aspect of human nature. It is the obscure inaccessible part of our personality. It is the source of drives (animal impulses of man—hunger, aggression, and sexual drives) demanding immediate satisfaction in some way or the other. These impulses are controlled and partially repressed into the unconscious, while a reality-oriented conscious self or ego appears.

10. (2) The ego is the acting individual. It serves as the mediator between desires and action representing the urges of the id when necessary. It tries to mediate the resultant conflicting demands of the id and the superego. (3) The superego (the conscience) represents the social ideals (norms, values, traditions, the idea of moral and immoral etc.). It is seen as internalised parental and social authority. The parent is no longer outside telling the child what to do, but is inside the psyche, invisibly overseeing the child’s thoughts and actions, praising what is right and making the child feel guilty for wrong doing. For Parsons, the Freudian superego is the key device by which society’s values are transmitted to the child. Thus society’s norms and values are passed down from gener­ation to generation in this way. Freud presents the relation between the id and the ego as similar to that between a horse and its rider. The function of the ego is that of the rider guiding the horse which is the id. But, like the rider, the ego sometimes is unable to guide the horse as it wishes and perforce must guide the id in the direction it is determined to go or in a slightly different direction. Evaluation of Freud’s theory: Freud’s all theories have inspired bitter controversies and numerous interpretations. This theory (development of self) is opposite to the views of Cooley and Mead. Cooley and Mead have demonstrated that the very emergence of the self is a social process and not a psycho­logical process as contended by Freud.

11. Social Institutions This very nature of man not wanting to live in isolation but instead in association with fellow humans necessitated the need for man to create the institutions of the family and marriage, kinship and decent systems through which every individual in the social group develops an identity and a distinctive origin. The Family The most basic institution in any society is the family and it is the social context into which members of a society derive their primary identity. Okodudu (2010 ) defines the family as a domestic group in which parents and children live together, and in its elementary form consists of a couple and their children. Ingiabuna et al . 2003 ) define a family as a universal institution whose most important functions are to socialise and nurture the younger generation. To Farly (1994) the family is a group of people related by ancestry, marriage or other committed sexual relationship, or adopted and live together , form an economic unit, and rear their children (if any).

12. Thus i . The family is a group of people related or connected by bloodline, marriage rite or adoption ii. They share common residency. They live together. iii. They share sentiments of oneness. They view themselves as a unit. iv. They share values and responsibilities. Perform caretaking services for others especially the very young. Forms of Family On the basis of authority, a family may be patriarchal or matriarchal. The Patriarchal Family: The patriarchal family was prevalent not only in the civilized society of antiquity but also in the feudal society. This type of family has become world famous. The Old Testament affords many descriptions of patriarchal families, such as those of Abraham, Jacob and Isaac. The Matriarchal Family: What is a matriarchal family? MacIver prefers to call it by the name of maternal family rather than the matriarchal family. In a matriarchal family the authority vests in the woman head of the family with the males being subordinate. She is the owner of property and rules over the family. .

13. On the basis of structure, the family has been classified nuclear and extended family: A nuclear family is one which consists of the husband, wife or wives and their children. The children leave the parental households as soon as they are married. A nuclear family is an autonomous unit free from the control of the elders. The American family is of a nuclear type. An extended family can be viewed as a merger of several nuclear families. Thus a small extended family may include an old man and his wife, their son, the son’s wife and the son’s children, two nuclear families, the son being a member of both. On the basis of ancestry the family is classified into: ( i ) Matrilineal and (ii) Patrilineal In the matrilineal family mother is the basis of ancestry. A woman is believed to be the ancestor of the family. The rights of each member of the family depend on his relation to the mother. In the patrilineal family ancestry continues through the father. This is the common type of family prevalent today.

14. On the basis of residence the family may be classified as follows: ( i ) Matrilocal Family. In this type of family the husband goes to live in the house of his wife. (ii) Patrilocal Family. In this kind of family, the wife goes and lives in the house of her husband. (4) On the basis of marriage, the family may be classified into: ( i ) Monogamous family. In which one man marries one woman only at one time. (ii) Polygamous family. In this kind of family one man marries many women at one time. (iii) Polyandrous family. In this kind of family one woman marries many men and lives with all of them or with each of th On the basis of residence the family may be classified as follows: ( i ) Matrilocal Family. In this type of family the husband goes to live in the house of his wife. (ii) Patrilocal Family. In this kind of family, the wife goes and lives in the house of her husband. On the basis of marriage, the family may be classified into: ( i ) Monogamous family. In which one man marries one woman only at one time. (ii) Polygamous family. In this kind of family one man marries many women at one time. (iii) Polyandrous family. In this kind of family one woman marries many men and lives with all of them or with each of them alternately.

15. What are the Various Functions of the Family? The importance of family is closely related to the various functions which it performs towards society . Through functions of family may differ with cultures, yet they can be broadly divided into two main categories: Basic or Universal Functions These are further classified into two types: (a) Biological Functions: These functions are performed by the family since its very formation. These include: ( i ) Satisfaction of sexual desires: Sexual desires are basic human instincts. It is an important function performed by the family. Butevery society has social control over an individual’s sex desires in its own traditions .

16. (ii) Reproduction It is yet another important biological function which is essential for the survival of the human beings . Though this function is possible outside the family also but then it does not have social approval . The reproductive function depends upon the relation between husband and wife through the marriage bonds and bears social approval. It also provides stable nature to family. (iii) Nurture of children: Since time immemorial family has provided a security to children and environment for their growth. This function of family has been tried out to be performed by other social institutions at many places, but the results are not fully satisfactory .

17. (b) Psychological Functions: This is also a very important universal function of family. The feelings of love, affection, respect, cooperation, faith, etc., play a very crucial role in the development and mental status of each member of family. These feelings make family bonds stronger. ( i ) Psychological security: This is the first psychological function that a family performs. This aspect is very significant especially for younger and immature members of the family. They feel secured and get solace in home from the outside world. The psychological security provided by family gives them confidence to face adversities of the world . It develops their total personality- mental as well as physical. (ii) Affection: Another important aspect of psychological functions of family is affection. The sentiment of love and affection makes a family member to feel that he is wanted in the world and is an important entity as others are. This affects the personality he develops. The people, who are denied such feelings by the family, generally develop criminal tendencies or unbalanced personalities.

18. Meaning and Types of Marriage Marriage is one of the universal social institutions established and nourished by human society. It is closely connected to the institution of family. According to Gillin and Gillin , "Marriage is a socially approved way of establishing a family of procreation." Westermarck says that marriage is rooted in the family rather than the family in the marriage. Marriage is an institution of society with different purpose, functions and forms in different societies but is present everywhere as an institution . According to Malinowski, " marriage is a contract for the production and maintenance of children." According to Robert H Lowie," Marriage is a relatively permanent bond

19. 1. Monogamy:  Monogamy is an ideal, widespread and rational type of marriage. It is found in all civilized societies. Monogamy refers to a marriage in which one man marries one woman. Monogamy is of two types such as serial Monogamy and non-serial Monogamy . i . Serial Monogamy:  In serial Monogamous marriage, the possibility of remarriage exists in case of divorce or death. Inspite of his remarriage, he remains to be monogamous. ii. Non-serial Monogamy:  In the case of non-serial monogamy, the question of remarriage does not arise by either of the couples. Here a spouse has the same single-spouse throughout his life.

20. 2. Polygamy:  Polygamy is a type of marriage in which there is a plurality of partners. It allows a man to marry more than one woman or a woman to marry more than one man at a time. Polygamy is of two types such as polygamy and polyandry . a. Polygyny:  Polygyny is a type of marriage in which a man marries more than one wife at a time. It was practiced in most of the ancient civilizations. It prevailed among the ancient Hebrews, Assyrians, Babylonians, Indian and others. At present, it is widespread among primitive tribes but it is often simply confined to the wealthier classes. i . Sororal Polygyny:  Sororal polygyny is often called a surrogate. The term surrogate comes from the Latin word ‘sorer’ which means sister. Accordingly, it refers to a marriage practice in which a man marries the sisters of his wife at a time or after the death of his wife.

21. ii . Non- Sororal Polygyny:  It is just opposite of the sororal polygyny, when a man marries several women at a time who are not necessarily sister to each other it is known as non- sororal polygyny. b. Polyandry:  Polyandry is a very rare type of marriage in the present day. In this type of marriage, a woman marries several men at a time. In the words of K.M . Kapadia , “Polyandry is a form of union in which a woman has more than one husband at a time or in which brothers share a wife or wives in common”. It is practiced among the Tibetans, Marquesas Islanders of Polynesia, the Bahamas of Africa, the tribals of Samoa and others.

22. Polyandry is divided into two types: i . Fraternal Polyandry:  When several brothers share a common wife it is called fraternal or adelphic polyandry . It is prevalent among the Todas . ii. Non-fraternal Polyandry: It is just the opposite of fraternal polyandry. In this type of marriage husbands of a woman is not necessarily brother to each other. This type of marriage is found among the Nairs of Kerala. 3. Cenogamy or Group Marriage:  Group marriage means the marriage of two or more women with two or more men. Every woman is the wife of every man belonging to a particular group ..