Space Robotics And Autonomous Systems Technologies Advances And Applications Professor Of Space Autonomous Systems Yang Gao

Space Robotics And Autonomous Systems Technologies Advances And Applications Professor Of Space Autonomous Systems Yang Gao
Space Robotics And Autonomous Systems Technologies Advances And Applications Professor Of Space Autonomous Systems Yang Gao
Space Robotics And Autonomous Systems Technologies Advances And Applications Professor Of Space Autonomous Systems Yang Gao

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5. Edited by
Yang Gao
Space Robotics and
Autonomous Systems
Technologies, advances and
applications

6. Space Robotics and
Autonomous Systems
Technologies, advances and applications
IET CO
NTROL, RO
BOTICS AND SENSORS SERIES 131

7. Other volumes in this series:
Volume 8 A History of Control Engineering, 18
00–1930
S. Bennett
Volume 9 Embedded Mechatronics System Design for Uncertain Environments: Linux-based, MATLAB xPC Target,
PIC, Ardunio and Raspberry Pi Approaches C.S. Chin
Volume 18 Applied Control Theory, 2nd Edition J.R. Leigh
Volume 20 Design of Modern Control Systems D.J. Bell, P.A. Cook and N. Munro (Editors)
Volume 28 Robots and Automated Manufacture J. Billingsley (Editor)
Volume 33 Temperature Measurement and Control J.R. Leigh
Volume 34 Singular Perturbation Methodology in Control Systems D.S. Naidu
Volume 35 Implementation of Self-tuning Controllers K. Warwick (Editor)
Volume 37 Industrial Digital Control Systems, 2nd Edition K. Warwick and D. Rees (Editors)
Volume 39 Continuous Time Controller Design R. Balasubramanian
Volume 40 Deterministic Control of Uncertain Systems A.S.I. Zinober (Editor)
Volume 41 Computer Control of Real-time Processes S. Bennett and G.S. Virk (Editors)
Volume 42 Digital Signal Processing: Principles, devices and applications N.B. Jones and J.D.McK. Watson (Editors)
Volume 44 Knowledge-based Systems for Industrial Control J. McGhee, M.J. Grimble and A. Mowforth (Editors)
Volume 47 A History of Control Engineering, 1930–1956 S. Bennett
Volume 49 Polynomial Methods in Optimal Control and Filtering K.J. Hunt (Editor)
Volume 50 Programming Industrial Control Systems Using IEC 1131-3 R.W. Lewis
Volume 51 Advanced Robotics and Intelligent Machines J.O. Gray and D.G. Caldwell (Editors)
Volume 52 Adaptive Prediction and Predictive Control P.P. Kanjilal
Volume 53 Neural Network Applications in Control G.W. Irwin, K. Warwick and K.J. Hunt (Editors)
Volume 54 Control Engineering Solutions: A practical approach P. Albertos, R. Strietzel and N. Mort (Editors)
Volume 55 Genetic Algorithms in Engineering Systems A.M.S. Zalzala and P.J. Fleming (Editors)
Volume 56 Symbolic Methods in Control System Analysis and Design N. Munro (Editor)
Volume 57 Flight Control Systems R.W. Pratt (Editor)
Volume 58 Power-plant Control and Instrumentation: The control of boilers and HRSG systems D. Lindsley
Volume 59 Modelling Control Systems Using IEC 61499 R. Lewis
Volume 60 People in Control: Human factors in control room design J. Noyes and M. Bransby (Editors)
Volume 61 Nonlinear Predictive Control: Theory and practice B. Kouvaritakis and M. Cannon (Editors)
Volume 62 Active Sound and Vibration Control M.O. Tokhi and S.M. Veres
Volume 63 Stepping Motors, 4th Edition P.P. Acarnley
Volume 64 Control Theory, 2nd Edition J.R. Leigh
Volume 65 Modelling and Parameter Estimation of Dynamic Systems J.R. Raol, G. Girija and J. Singh
Volume 66 Variable Structure Systems: From principles to implementation A. Sabanovic, L. Fridman and S. Spurgeon
(Editors)
Volume 67 Motion Vision: Design of compact motion sensing solution for autonomous systems J. Kolodko and
L. Vlacic
Volume 68 Flexible Robot Manipulators: Modelling, simulation and control M.O. Tokhi and A.K.M. Azad (Editors)
Volume 69 Advances in Unmanned Marine Vehicles G. Roberts and R. Sutton (Editors)
Volume 70 Intelligent Control Systems Using Computational Intelligence Techniques A. Ruano (Editor)
Volume 71 Advances in Cognitive Systems S. Nefti and J. Gray (Editors)
Volume 72 Control Theory: A guided tour, 3rd Edition J. R. Leigh
Volume 73 Adaptive Sampling with Mobile WSN K. Sreenath, M.F. Mysorewala, D.O. Popa and F.L. Lewis
Volume 74 Eigenstructure Control Algorithms: Applications to aircraft/rotorcraft handling qualities design S.
Srinathkumar
Volume 75 Advanced Control for Constrained Processes and Systems F. Garelli, R.J. Mantz and H. De Battista
Volume 76 Developments in Control Theory towards Glocal Control L. Qiu, J. Chen, T. Iwasaki and H. Fujioka (Editors)
Volume 77 Further Advances in Unmanned Marine Vehicles G.N. Roberts and R. Sutton (Editors)
Volume 78 Frequency-Domain Control Design for High-Performance Systems J. O’Brien
Volume 80 Control-oriented Modelling and Identification: Theory and practice M. Lovera (Editor)
Volume 81 Optimal Adaptive Control and Differential Games by Reinforcement Learning Principles D. Vrabie, K.
Vamvoudakis and F. Lewis
Volume 83 Robust and Adaptive Model Predictive Control of Nonlinear Systems M. Guay, V. Adetola and D. DeHaan
Volume 84 Nonlinear and Adaptive Control Systems Z. Ding
Volume 86 Modeling and Control of Flexible Robot Manipulators, 2
nd
edition M. O. Tokhi and A.K.M. Azad
Volume 88 Distributed Control and Filtering for Industrial Systems M. Mahmoud
Volume 89 Control-based Operating System Design A. Leva et al.
Volume 90 Application of Dimensional Analysis in Systems Modelling and Control Design P. Balaguer
Volume 91 An Introduction to Fractional Control D. Valério and J. Costa
Volume 92 Handbook of Vehicle Suspension Control Systems H. Liu, H. Gao and P. Li
Volume 93 Design and Development of Multi-Lane Smart Electromechanical Actuators F.Y. Annaz
Volume 94 Analysis and Design of Reset Control Systems Y.Guo, L. Xie and Y. Wang
Volume 95 Modelling Control Systems Using IEC 61499, 2nd Edition R. Lewis & A. Zoitl
Volume 96 Cyber-Physical System Design with Sensor Networking Technologies S. Zeadally and N. Jabeur (Editors)

8. Volume 99 Practical Robotics and Mechatronics: Marine, Space and Medical Applications I. Y amamoto
Volume 100 Organic Sensors: Materials and Applications
E Garcia-Breijo and P Cosseddu (Editors)
Volume 102 Recent Trends in Sliding Mode Control L. Fridman JP. Barbot and F. Plestan (Editors)
Volume 104 Control of Mechatronic Systems L. Guvenc, B.A Guvenc, B. Demirel, M.T Emirler
Volume 105 Mechatronic Hands: Prosthetic and Robotic Design P.H. Chappell
Volume 107 Solved Problems in Dynamical Systems and Control D. Valério, J. T Machado, A. M. Lopes and
A. M. Galhano
Volume 108 Wearable Exoskeleton Systems: Design, Control and Applications S. Bai, G.S. Virk and T.G.Sugar
Volume 111 The Inverted Pendulum in Control Theory and Robotics: From Theory to New Innovations O. Boubaker
and R. Iriarte (Editors)
Volume 112 RFID Protocol Design, Optimization, and Security for the Internet of Things A. X. Liu, M. Shahzad, X Liu
and K. Li
Volume 113 Design of Embedded Robust Control Systems Using MATLAB® / Simulink® P.H. Petkov, T.N. Slavov and
J.K. Kralev
Volume 114 Signal Processing and Machine Learning for Brain-Machine Interfaces T. Tanaka and M. Arvaneh (Editor)
Volume 116 Imaging Sensor Technologies and Applications W Yang (Editor)
Volume 117 Data Fusion in Wireless Sensor Networks D. Ciuonzo and P.S. Rossi (Editors)
Volume 118 Modeling, Simulation and Control of Electrical Drives M. F. Rahman, S. K. Dwivedi (Editors)
Volume 119 Swarm Intelligence Volumes 1 – 3 Y. Tan (Editor)
Volume 120 Imaging and Sensing for Unmanned Aircraft Systems Vol1 and 2 V. Estrela, J. Hemanth, O. Saotome,
G. Nikolakopoulos and R. Sabatini (Editors)
Volume 121 Integrated Fault Diagnosis and Control Design of Linear Complex Systems M. Davoodi, N. Meskin and
K.Khorasani
Volume 123 Data-Driven Modeling, Filtering and Control: Methods and applications C. Novara and S. Formentin (Edi-
tors)
Volume 125 Short-Range Micro-Motion Sensing with Radar Technology C. Gu and J.Lien (Editors)
Volume 126 Fault Diagnosis and Fault-tolerant Control of Robotic and Autonomous Systems Monteriù, Longhi and
Freddi (Editors)
Volume 127 Sensors, Actuators, and Their Interfaces: A multidisciplinary introduction 2nd Edition N. Ida
Volume 128 IoT Technologies in Smart Cities: From sensors to big data, security and trust F. Al-Turjman and M.Imran
(Editors)
Volume 129 Signal Processing to Drive Human-Computer Interaction: EEG and eye-controlled interfaces I. Kompat-
siaris, C. Kumar and S. Nikolopoulos (Editors)
Volume 130 Transparency for Robots and Autonomous Systems: Fundamentals, technologies and applications
R.Wortham

9. This page intentionally left blank

10. Space Robotics and
Autonomous Systems
Technologies, advances and applications
Edited by
Yang Gao
The Institution of Eng
ineering and Technolog
y

11. Published by The Institution of Engineering and Technology, London, United Kingdom
The Institution of Engineering and Technology is registered as a Charity in England &
W
ales (no. 211014) and Scotland (no. SC038698).
© The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2021
First published 2021
This publication is copyright under the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyright
Convention. All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or
private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents
Act 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by
any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of
reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright
Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to
the publisher at the undermentioned address:
The Institution of Engineering and Technology
Michael Faraday House
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Herts, SG1 2AY, United Kingdom
www.theiet.org
While the authors and publisher believe that the information and guidance given in this
work are correct, all parties must rely upon their own skill and judgement when making use
of them. Neither the author nor publisher assumes any liability to anyone for any loss or
damage caused by any error or omission in the work, whether such an error or omission is
the result of negligence or any other cause. Any and all such liability is disclaimed.
The moral rights of the author to be identified as author of this work have been asserted by
him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this product is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-83953-225-2 (Hardback)
ISBN 978-1-83953-226-9 (PDF)
Typeset in India by Exeter Premedia Services Private Limited
Printed in the UK by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon

12. Contents
List of �gures xvii
List of tables xxix
F
ore
word xxxi
Alistair Scott
About the editor xxxv
1 Introduction 1
Yang Gao
1.1 Technologies 1
1.2 Applications 3
1.3 Recent advances 4
1.3.1 Part I: mobility and mechanisms 5
1.3.2 Part II: sensing, perception, and GNC 6
1.3.3 Part III: astronaut–robot interaction 8
1.3.4 Part IV: system engineering 9
1.4 Acknowledgements 10
References 10
PART I Mobility and mechanisms
2 Wheeled planetary rover locomotion design, scaling, and analysis 13
Andrew Thoesen and Hamidreza Marvi
2.1 Background: modeling the granular environment 13
2.2 Methods 17
2.2.1 Theory: wheel parameter scaling for output
parameters of mechanical power and translational
velocity in granular media 17
2.2.2 Experimentation: planetary regolith simulants and
testing environments 21
2.3 Studies giving context to scaling theory 23
2.3.1 Study one: mechanical power and translational
velocity prediction variance by granular material
and wheel shape 23
2.3.2 Study two: mechanical power prediction variance
by mass, velocity, and motor placement 26

13. viii Space robotics and autonomous systems

2.3.3 Study three: context of deviations and e
xamination
of scaling law application sinkage threshold 29
2.3.4 Study four: investigating gravity-variant scaling
using MBD-DEM simulations 32
2.4 Recommendations and future work 36
References 38
3 Compliant pneumatic muscle structures and systems
for extra- vehicular and intra- vehicular activities
in space environments 43
Samuel Wandai Khara, Alaa Al- Ibadi, Hassanin S. H. Al- Fahaam,
Haitham El- Hussieny, Steve Davis, Samia- Nefti Meziani, and
Olivier Patrouix
3.1 Introduction 43
3.2 Robotic solutions for space environments 44
3.2.1 Soft robotic systems as an alternative robotic
solution for space environments 45
3.3 Soft robotic systems based on PMA as an alternative to rigid
robotic systems for space environments 47
3.3.1 Modeling of a pneumatic muscle actuator 49
3.3.2 Characterization of contractor PMA 51
3.3.3 Analysis of contractor PMA 52
3.3.4 Modeling of extensor PMA 57
3.4 PMA designs that can be adapted as robotic manipulators
for space 58
3.4.1 Self-bending contraction actuator and
extensor-bending pneumatic arti�cial muscles 59
3.4.2 Double-bending pneumatic muscle actuator 61
3.4.3 Extensor-contraction pneumatic muscle actuator 63
3.4.4 Circular pneumatic muscle actuator 65
3.5 PMA applications in developing novel grippers, manipulators,
and power assistive glove for space environments 65
3.5.1 Three �ngers gripper base on SBCA 66
3.5.2 Extension-circular gripper 67
3.5.3 Three CPMAs gripper 68
3.5.4 Soft robot manipulators 69
3.5.5 Power assistive soft glove 71
3.6 Recommendations and future works 72
References 74
4 Biologically- inspired mechanisms for space applications 77
Craig Pitcher, Mohamed Alkalla, Xavier Pang, and Yang Gao
4.1 Subsurface exploration 78
4.1.1 Ovipositor drilling 78

14. Contents ix
4.1.1.1 Dual-reciprocating drill 80

4.1.2 Peristaltic motion 81

4.2 Surface mobility inspired by animals 81
4.2.1 Gecko and spider adhesion 82
4.2.1.1 Waalbot 83
4.2.1.2 Abigaille 84
4.2.1.3 Legged excursion mechanical utility rover 84
4.2.1.4 Additional concepts 85
4.2.2 Legged locomotion 85
4.2.2.1 Abigaille 85
4.2.2.2 SCORPION 86
4.2.2.3 Additional concepts 86
4.2.3 Hopping locomotion 87
4.3 Object capture 88
4.3.1 Adhesive grippers 88
4.3.2 Kangaroo vibration suppression 89
4.4 Mobility inspired by plants 90
4.4.1 Seed dispersal 90
4.4.1.1 Mars Tumbleweed 90
4.4.2 Vine and tendril climbing 91
4.4.2.1 Tendril 92
4.4.3 Plant root growth 93
4.5 Arti�cial muscle actuators 93
4.5.1 Ionic polymer metal composites 93
4.5.2 Dielectric elastomers 94
4.6 Aerial mobility 95
4.6.1 Wing-�apping mechanisms 95
4.7 Navigation systems for mobility 96
4.7.1 Natural and invasive interfacing 96
4.7.1.1 Insect/machine hybrid controller 98
4.7.2 Honeybee optics 98
4.7.2.1 Bio-inspired engineering of exploration systems 99
4.7.3 Optic �ow landing 99
4.7.3.1 Elementary motion detectors 100
4.7.3.2 Additional concepts 100
4.8 Multi-agent spacecraft system architectures 101
4.8.1 Swarm intelligence 101
4.8.1.1 Autonomous Nano Technology Swarm 102
4.8.1.2 Additional concepts 102
4.8.2 Cellular spacecraft architecture 103
4.8.2.1 Cell apoptosis 103
4.8.2.2 Satellite Stem Cell 104
4.9 Hibernation for human space�ight 105
4.10 Summary and future 105
References 108

15. x Space robotics and autonomous systems
P
ART II Sensing, per
ception and GNC
5 Autonomous visual navigation for spacecraft on- orbit operations 125
Arunkumar Rathinam, Zhou Hao, and Yang Gao
5.1 Introduction 125
5.2 Theoretical foundation 128
5.2.1 The equations of relative motion 128
5.2.2 Camera pose estimation 131
5.2.3 Relative pose estimation 132
5.2.4 Emerging trends 133
5.3 Deep-learning-based spacecraft pose estimation 134
5.3.1 Keypoint-based pose estimation 134
5.3.1.1 Object detection 134
5.3.1.2 Landmark regression 136
5.3.1.3 PnP + RANSAC 137
5.3.2 Non-keypoint-based pose estimation 138
5.4 Advancements in simulators and experimental testbeds 139
5.4.1 Digital simulators 139
5.4.2 Ground-based physical testbeds 142
5.4.3 The methodology of simulating relative motion 146
5.5 Analytical results and comparison 150
5.6 Recommendations and future trends 152
References 154
6 Inertial parameter identi�cation, reactionless path planning
and control for orbital robotic capturing of unknown objects 159
Chu Zhongyi, Hai Xiao, and Ma Ye
6.1 Introduction 160
6.1.1 Relative work and development status 162
6.1.1.1 Method for identifying inertial parameters of space
non-cooperative targets 162
6.1.1.2 Reactionless path planning for non-cooperative
objects capture 163
6.1.1.3 Attitude stable control method of
spacecraft-manipulator-target system 165
6.2 Joint kinetic model of spacecraft and unknown object 165
6.2.1 System kinematic analysis 166
6.2.1.1 System position vector analysis 166
6.2.1.2 System velocity vector analysis 166
6.2.1.3 Velocity Jacobian matrix 167
6.2.1.4 System linear and angular momentum calculation 167
6.2.2 System kinetic analysis 168
6.3 Unknown object inertial parameter identi�cation 169
6.3.1 Basic theory of identi�cation 169

16. Contents xi
6.3.2
Identi�cation scheme incorporating information
of contact force to
gether with force/torque
of end-e�ector 172
6.3.3 Solution of the modi�ed identi�cation equation
using the hybrid RLS-APSA algorithm 174
6.4 Adaptive reactionless control strategy during manipulation
of unknown object 175
6.4.1 Adaptive reactionless path planning via SW-RLS 175
6.4.2 Robust adaptive control strategy via
the PSO-ELM algorithm 177
6.4.2.1 Adaptive control term via PSO-ELM algorithm 177
6.4.2.2 Robust control strategy 179
6.4.2.3 Stability analysis of the proposed control strategy 180
6.5 Numerical simulation 180
6.5.1 Inertial parameter identi�cation simulation 180
6.5.2 Path planning and control simulation 186
6.6 Experimental results 192
6.7 Recommendations and future work 197
References 198
7 Autonomous robotic grasping in orbital environment 203
Nikos Mavrakis and Yang Gao
7.1 Introduction 203
7.2 Human grasping in space 204
7.3 Applications of orbital grasping 206
7.3.1 On-Orbit Servicing 206
7.3.2 In-space telescope assembly 207
7.3.3 Active debris removal 207
7.3.4 Astronaut–robot interaction 208
7.4 Robotic hardware for orbital grasping 209
7.4.1 Coupling interfaces 210
7.4.2 Engine nozzle probing 213
7.4.3 Robotic grapples 214
7.4.4 Dexterous hands 216
7.5 Latest R & D on orbital grasping 218
7.5.1 Alternative gripper designs 218
7.5.2 Adhesive grasping 220
7.5.3 A�ordance-based grasping 221
7.5.4 Grasp synthesis 222
7.6 Related missions 225
7.6.1 ETS-7 225
7.6.2 OSAM-1 225
7.6.3 ELSA-d 226
7.6.4 MEV-1 226

17. xii Space robotics and autonomous systems
7.6.5
ClearSpace-1 226
7.7 T
echnical challenges of orbital grasping 227
7.7.1 Algorithmic modelling – design challenges 227
7.7.1.1 Target state estimation 227
7.7.1.2 Identi�cation of grasping point 227
7.7.1.3 Grasp analysis and modelling 227
7.7.1.4 Machine learning 228
7.7.1.5 Gripper design 228
7.7.2 Physical challenges 228
7.7.2.1 Space environment 228
7.7.2.2 Impact mitigation 228
7.7.2.3 Debris generation 229
7.7.3 Operational – veri�cation challenges 229
7.7.3.1 Post-capture operations 229
7.7.3.2 Standardisation and benchmarking 229
7.7.3.3 Veri�cation and validation 229
References 230
PART III Astronaut–robot interaction
8 BCI for mental workload assessment and performance evaluation in
space teleoperations 237
Fani Deligianni, Daniel Freer, Yao Guo, and Guang- Zhong Yang
8.1 Human–robot interaction in space – what we learn
from simulators 237
8.1.1 Soyuz-TMA 239
8.1.2 Canadarm2 and Dextre 240
8.2 Cognitive models underlying neuroergonomics in space �ight 243
8.2.1 Neuroergonomics and spatial attention 244
8.3 Workload and performance measures in human–robot
collaborative tasks 245
8.4 BCIs in workload and attention 248
8.4.1 EEG-based BCI 248
8.4.2 fNIRS-based BCI 251
8.4.3 Eye-tracking-based BCI 252
8.4.3.1 Point of gaze and eye movements 252
8.4.3.2 Eye-tracking systems 253
8.4.3.3 Eye-tracking-based mental workload detection 255
8.4.3.4 Eye-tracking-based skill assessment 256
8.4.4 NeuroImaging in space 256
8.5 Arti�cial intelligence in BCI-based workload detection 258
8.6 Cognitive workload estimation during simulated
teleoperations – a case study 260
8.7 Recommendations and future work 266
References 268

18. Contents xiii
9 Physiological adaptations in space and w
earab
le technology for
biosignal monitoring 275
Shamas U. E. Khan, Bruno G. Rosa, Panagiotis Kassanos, Claire F. Miller,
Fani Deligianni, and Guang- Zhong- Yang
9.1 Introduction 275
9.2 Cardiovascular system 278
9.2.1 Blood pressure, haemodynamic response and orthostatic
intolerance 278
9.2.1.1 Heart rate, blood pressure and cardiac output 278
9.2.1.2 Central venous pressure and hypovolemia 280
9.2.1.3 Orthostatic intolerance 282
9.2.2 Electrocardiographic variations 283
9.2.3 Cardiac remodelling in space 284
9.2.4 Vascular function and cell adaptations in space 285
9.2.5 Jugular venous blood �ow and thrombus formation 286
9.2.6 Biomarkers of cardiovascular diseases 287
9.2.7 Cardiovascular disease mortality and radiation risks
in astronauts 289
9.3 Other physiological adaptations in microgravity 292
9.3.1 Gastrointestinal system and nutrition 292
9.3.2 Respiratory system 294
9.3.3 Brain and peripheral nervous system 295
9.3.3.1 Adaptations to neuro-vestibular, visual and somatosensory
systems 295
9.3.4 Thermoregulation in space 298
9.3.5 The stress response in astronauts 299
9.3.6 Lymphatic and urinary systems 301
9.3.7 Endocrine system 303
9.3.7.1 Sweat as a biosignalling �uid 305
9.4 Musculoskeletal system modi�cations in space 306
9.4.1 Muscle atrophy in space 306
9.4.2 Bone demineralization 308
9.4.3 Markers of bone health 310
9.4.4 Bone health monitoring 311
9.4.5 Cartilage 311
9.5 Wearable technology for space biosignal monitoring 312
9.5.1 Wearable systems for thermoregulation 321
9.6 Recommendations and future trends 324
References 325
10 Future of human–robot interaction in space 341
Stephanie Sze Ting Pau, Judith- Irina Buchheim, Daniel Freer, and
Guang- Zhong Yang
10.1 The challenge of human–robot interaction in space 342

19. xiv Space robotics and autonomous systems

10.1.1 Humans, the complexity of spaceoperations 344

10.1.2 Space robots, a technological challenge 348
10.1.3 Interaction, theory and practice 353
10.2 Future of interaction with autonomous robotics in space 357
10.2.1 Motivations for shared autonomy 357
10.2.2 Capabilities for the future of interaction 359
10.2.2.1 Research on signi�ers from human agent – sensors
and neuro-ergonomics 360
10.2.2.2 Research on natural mapping and feedback
mechanisms – embodied interaction/humanoids 360
10.2.2.3 Research to support human capabilities – crew
autonomy 361
10.2.2.4 Research of di�erent interaction paradigms of
human–robot teaming 361
10.2.2.5 Research to simulate operation realism and
pressure – working with time delay 362
10.3 Case study: a future crew assistant 363
10.3.1 CIMON
®
– the intelligent astronaut assistant 363
10.3.1.1 Hypothesis 363
10.3.1.2 Implementation as fast track experiment for
the horizons mission 364
10.3.1.3 Functionalities of CIMON on board 365
10.3.2 The case for crew assistance robot – for space and earth 366
10.4 Recommendations and trends 367
10.5 References 368
PART IV System engineering
11 Veri�cation for space robotics 377
Rafael C. Cardoso, Marie Farrell, Georgios Kourtis, Matt Webster,
Louise A. Dennis, Clare Dixon, Michael Fisher, and Alexei Lisitsa
11.1 Formal speci�cation and veri�cation techniques 378
11.1.1 Formal speci�cation and veri�cation for autonomous
robotic systems 378
11.1.1.1 Methodology 378
11.1.1.2 Answering RQ1: challenges 379
11.1.1.3 Answering RQ2: formalisms, tools and
approaches 379
11.1.1.4 Answering RQ3: limitations 380
11.1.1.5 Application to space robotics 380
11.2 Theorem proving for space robotics using modal and
temporal logics 380
11.2.1 The multi-modal logic K 381
11.2.2 Metric temporal logic 382

20. Contents xv
11.3 V
eri�able space robot architectures 382
11.3.1 FOL contract speci�cations 383

11.3.2 Measuring con�dence in veri�cation 384
11.3.3 Related work 385
11.4 Case study 1: Simulation and veri�cation of the Mars
Curiosity rover 386
11.4.1 Simulation 387
11.4.2 Model checking 391
11.4.3 Runtime veri�cation 391
11.5 Case study 2: Veri�cation of astronaut–rover teams 392
11.6 Modelling and veri�cation of multi-objects systems 396
11.6.1 Motivation 396
11.6.2 Logics for parameterised systems 398
11.6.3 Translating broadcast protocols to MFOTL 400
11.7 Conclusions, recommendations and future trends 403
References 403
12 Cyber security of new space systems 409
Carsten Maple, Ugur Ilker Atmaca, Gregory Epiphaniou, Gregory Falco,
and Hu Yuan
12.1 A reference architecture for attack surface analysis in
space systems 410
12.2 Threat modelling 413
12.2.1 Cyber security requirements 418
12.2.2 Evaluation of threat modelling approaches 420
12.3 Risk management 422
12.4 Security-minded veri�cation of space systems 426
12.4.1 Security-minded veri�cation methodology 426
12.5 Discussion 429
12.6 Conclusion 430
References 430
Index 437

21. This page intentionally left blank

22. List of �gures
Figure 1.1
Applications and mission scenarios of space RAS,
from orbital to inter- planetar
y [1] 4
Figure 2.1 Granular scaling parameters labeled for craft and straight
grousered wheel 17
Figure 2.2 (a) Craft with curved grousered wheels attached in silica sand
bed and (b) simulant containment unit with tools displayed 23
Figure 2.3 Predicted power versus actual power consumption
with black line indicating perfect prediction.
Quikrete on the left and BP-1 on the right 25
Figure 2.4 Predicted velocity versus actual velocity achieved
with black line indicating perfect prediction.
Quikrete on the left and BP-1 on the right 26
Figure 2.5 Prediction error percentage as a function of mass is displayed 27
Figure 2.6 The power ratio trend of all data points shows
a decrease with wheel rotational speed, with signi�cantly
more decline in heavier sets 28
Figure 2.7 Power prediction error is di�erentiated by front or
rear motor; rear motors show signi�cantly less deviation
from predicted values 29
Figure 2.8 MBD- DEM simulation displays the vehicle with larger
wheels in lunar gravity; color warmth corresponds
to sinkage with blue indicating deeper impressions 33
Figure 2.9 Simulation results paired with their respective predictions
with solid black line indicating perfect prediction 35
Figure 3.1 The structure of the PMA where L and D are the length and
the diameter of the rubber muscle, respectively, at zero air
pressure and θ being the braided angle, which is the angle
between the vertical line and the braided strand 47
Figure 3.2 Schematic representation of contractor and extensor
PMA to the right and left, respectively, and their summary
in length changes with respect to pressure changes 48
Figure 3.3 (a) Constant load test of the PMA and (b) Constant
pressure test of the PMA 49
Figure 3.4 The parameters of the PMA 50
Figure 3.5 Prototype of a contractor PMA used in the characterization
experiments 51

23. xviii Space robotics and autonomous systems
F
igure 3.6 (a) Changes in length to changes in air pressure and (b)
Experimental data for three PMA prototypes of di�erent
initial lengths of 20, 30, and 40 cm 52
F
igure 3.7 Changes in length of (a) 20 cm, (b) 30 cm, and (c) 40 cm
PMA with respect to changes in pressure at �xed loadings 53
Figure 3.8 Changes in length of (a) 20 cm, (b) 30 cm, (c) 40 cm
PMA with respect to changes on loadings at �xed pressures 53
Figure 3.9 Experimental and theoretical force analysis for a 30 cm
PMA using equations 3.10 and 3.11 55
Figure 3.10 A two 30 cm PMA connected in series and its comparison
force results to a single 60 cm PMA, showing their similar
output results by having their line graph overlapping
each other 55
Figure 3.11 Protype and mechanical design of the �xed and free end
of the four parallel actuators for the continuum arm [30] 56
Figure 3.12 Comparison experiment for a single contractor PMA
and a continuum PMA arm with four parallel actuators,
(a) length- pressure characteristic and (b) force- pressure
characteristic 56
Figure 3.13 (a) A contractor PMA continuum- arm with
ı bending
angle and (b) bending angles relative to loading values
57
Figure 3.14
Change of actuator length against air pressure for
(a) 20 cm, (b) 30 cm, (c) 49 cm PMA., and (d) Practical
and theoretical lengths against pressure changes 57
Figure 3.15 Practical and the presented theoretical force for a 30 cm
extensor PMA 58
Figure 3.16 Changes in length of (a) 20 cm, (b) 30 cm, (c) 40 cm
PMAs at varying loads with �xed pressures 59
Figure 3.17 Changes in length of (a) 20 cm, (b) 30 cm, and (c) 40 cm
PMAs at varying loads with �xed pressures 60
Figure 3.18 (a) A four extensor PMA continuum- arm and (b) at
a certain bending angle when pressurized [30] 60
Figure 3.19 Result analysis for the four extensor PMA continuum- arm.
(a) The bending angle against the pressure at di�erent
load conditions and (b) comparison for experimental and
theoretical bending angle at three di�erent load conditions 61
Figure 3.20 An EBPMA at bending when pressurized at 300 kPa [30] 61
Figure 3.21 (a) SBCA with a �exible rod inserted between the braided
sleeve and rubber tube, and (b) 30 cm SBCA pressurized
at 300 kPa [31] 62
Figure 3.22 (a) The structure of the double- bend pneumatic muscle
actuator (DB- PMA), (b) the bending behavior and
the geometrical analysis of the DB- PMA, and (c) DB- PMA
at di�erent pressure values of 200 and 400 kPa 62

24. List of �gures xix
Figure 3.23
(a) The modi�ed caps with two inlets for air suppl
y and
three state of the extensor- contractor PAM depending
on pressure input (initial length, contraction, extension).
(b) Change in length of extensor- contractor PAM
when pressurizing the two muscles independently 63
Figure 3.24 Experiment to test the forces exerted by either contraction
or extension of the ECPMA [31] 64
Figure 3.25 Dimensions of circular PMA and actual experiments for
its validation [32] 65
Figure 3.26 A three and six �ngers gripper based on SBCA handling
di�erent objects and a diagram representation of
the three- �nger design’s �ngertip at di�erent positions
within its workspace 67
Figure 3.27 The structure of the extension- circular gripper also showing
its ability to grasp objects of di�erent shapes and
center axis [32] 67
Figure 3.28 The dimensions and the structure of the three CPMAs gripper
and a grasp lifting experiment at di�erent loadings [30] 68
Figure 3.29 Two manipulator designs that can �ex in all direction
of a workspace to handle objects using their attached
grippers at the free end [31] 69
Figure 3.30 A single bending continuum arm and the three �ngers
gripper with two of them performing a collaborative task 70
Figure 3.31 A controllable sti�ness and bendable actuator and
its application on soft robotic glove [32] 71
Figure 3.32 Study of the impact on human muscles when using
the power assistive glove to pinch or grasp an object 72
Figure 4.1 Diagram of the locust ovipositor mechanics (left) and
pictures showing the macro- scale physical model (right) [17] 79
Figure 4.2 The wood wasp (left) [19], reproduced by permission
of Yang Gao, and a cross- section of its ovipositor (right) [20],
reproduced by permission of Julian Vincent 79
Figure 4.3 The DRD bit (left) [22], the external test rig (centre) [23],
reprinted with permission from Elsevier, and the integrated
actuation mechanism design (right) 80
Figure 4.4 Diagram of the contraction and relaxation of earthworm
muscles (left), reprinted from [31] with permission
from Elsevier, and a schematic of the excavation and
propulsion units in the peristaltic mole concept LEAVO (right)
©2018 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission, from [32] 81
Figure 4.5 Microscopic images of the setae in the gecko’s feet and
their spatula- shaped endings. Reprinted by permission
from Springer Nature Customer Service Centre
GmbH: [42] ©2000 82

25. xx Space robotics and autonomous systems
F
igure 4.6 Microscopic images showing the setae hairs in the scopula
of the jumping spider foot (left) and the broad endings of
the setules co
vering the setae (centre) [44] ©IOP Publishing.
Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. Picture of
the Abigaille- III robot (right), reprinted from [49]
with permission from Elsevier 83
Figure 4.7 CAD models and pictures of the Waalbot tri- foot design
with adhesive pads (left), showing how the feet stick to
walls as it climbs a vertical surface (right) ©2006 IEEE.
Reprinted, with permission, from [41] 84
Figure 4.8 Pictures of the gecko adhesive in its attached and
detatched states, a gripper attached to a solar panel (left)
and LEMUR 3 climbing a cli� wall (right) ©2017 IEEE.
Reprinted, with permission, from [52] 85
Figure 4.9 Diagrams of the Smart Stick held within an elastic joint (left)
and the joint bending caused by the pressurised elliptical
section expanding (right) [69]. Reproduced by permission
of AISB 87
Figure 4.10 Schematic of the kangaroo- inspired hopping robot (left)
and the second experimental prototype (right) [74] 88
Figure 4.11 Picture of the pulled load tendon attaching adhesive pads
to a surface (left) [77] ©2016, reprinted by Permission of
SAGE Publications, Inc. CAD models of the integrated
gripper instrument’s adhesive pads (right), from [79].
Reprinted with permission from AAAS 89
Figure 4.12 Models of the on- orbit capturing mechanism using the
kangaroo- based (top) BIQS (left) [84] and the XSSIP (right)
vibration suppression systems [85], reprinted with permission
from Elsevier 90
Figure 4.13 Pictures of the tumbleweed (left) and Dandelion
design (centre) used in aerodynamics testing [93] and
the Dandelion with whisk- shaped legs concept (right) [94].
Source: NASA 91
Figure 4.14 Picture of a vine coiling around a tree (left) ©2015 IEEE.
Reprinted, with permission, from [99]. The vine tendril
concept (centre) and a close- up of the spines attached to
the robot body (right) ©2018 IEEE. Reprinted,
with permission, from [103]. 92
Figure 4.15 The IPMC- actuated dust wiper concept for the MUSES- CN
Nanorover, and a picture of the robotic arm and four- �nger
IPMC gripper [111]. Reproduced with permission from ASCE 94
Figure 4.16 Graph of the Reynolds numbers of various insects (left)
[124] and numerical results of the leading- edge vortices on
(clockwise from top left) the thrip, fruit �y and
hawkmoth (right) [125], reproduced by permission
of Wei Shyy and AIAA Journal 95

26. List of �gures xxi
Figure 4.17
Concept model of the Entomopter (left) [123] and a picture
of the Marsbee concept (right) [128]. Source: NASA 96
Fi
gure 4.18 Pictures of the naturally- interfaced silkworm- controlled
robot (left) [135] and an invasive multi- electrode array
inserted into the coxa of a cockroach (right) [136],
reprinted with permission from Elsevier 97
Figure 4.19 Diagram showing how the position of the paths travelled
by a bee through a tunnel are dependent on the motion of
the patterned walls [143]. Reproduced with permission of
the Licensor through PLSclear 98
Figure 4.20 A starling murmuration as an example of swarm
intelligence [167] 101
Figure 4.21 Overview of the ANTS/PAM mission concept ©2004 IEEE.
Reprinted, with permission, from [177] 102
Figure 4.22 Diagram of cell apoptosis and necrosis (left) ©2011 IEEE.
Reprinted, with permission, from [185]. An apoptotic
mechanism in a proof of concept (right) ©2019 IEEE.
Reprinted, with permission, from [186] 103
Figure 4.23 Simpli�ed di�erentiation in a biological cell and a proposed
arti�cial implementation. Reprinted from [193] with
permission from Elsevier 104
Figure 5.1 OOS developments timeline [3] 126
Figure 5.2 Reference frames for relative navigation 129
Figure 5.3 Keypoint- based framework for the spacecraft pose
estimation [31] 135
Figure 5.4 Network details of YOLOv3 136
Figure 5.5 The HRNet architeture 137
Figure 5.6 Pose estimator framework used in [27] 138
Figure 5.7 Examples of rendered images of a Soyuz model
simulated using OrViS 140
Figure 5.8 Two examples of ground- based testing facilities by using
air- bearing systems, (b) system is retrived from [46] 143
Figure 5.9 Two examples of ground- based testing facilities using
high- DoF robotic arms for space robotics research 143
Figure 5.10 The STAR LAB’s Orbital Robotic Testbed has a typical
ground- based testbed con�guration: service arm (left) and
target arm (right). The end- e�ector of the service arm
is exchangeable. This setup uses a pair of form- �t
mechanical connectors 146
Figure 5.11 Flowchart of simulating the relative motion between
the service and target arms 147
Figure 5.12 The relative motion (
dt1 in the local reference frame)
of the target after a dynamic contact. The impact force
direction is opposite to the nominal target orbiting velocity 148
Figure 5.13 ROS MoveIt framework to control the simulated
relative motion of the target 149

27. xxii Space robotics and autonomous systems
F
igure 5.14 An example of demonstrating the relati
ve motion of
an orbiting target. (Courtesy to CAS- CIOMP for providing
a sample of orbiting target) 149
Figure 5.15 Sample from keypoint- based approach 151
Figure 6.1 Space robotic manipulator system in International
Space Station (ISS) [8] 161
Figure 6.2 Non- cooperative targets (disposed satellites [14],
aerolite [15], etc.) 161
Figure 6.3 Spacecraft- manipulator- unknown object system
(space robotic system)[50] 169
Figure 6.4 Two- step identi�cation [50] 172
Figure 6.5 Force analysis of end- e�ector[50] 173
Figure 6.6 Adaptive reactionless control strategy [35] 175
Figure 6.7 ELM network diagram [57] 176
Figure 6.8 Proposed control strategy for the joint controller 178
Figure 6.9 Dynamic model of space robotic system [50] 181
Figure 6.10 Comparison results of conventional RLS algorithm and hybrid
RLS- APSA algorithm (modi�ed identi�cation equation)[50] 185
Figure 6.11 Comparison results of conventional identi�cation equation
and modi�ed identi�cation equation (RLS- APSA)[50] 187
Figure 6.12 Space robot with 4- DOF robotic arm 188
Figure 6.13 Total linear/angular momentum measurement 190
Figure 6.14 Adaptive reactionless path planning via various algorithm 190
Figure 6.15 Position tracking e�ort of each joint controller via
various control strategy 191
Figure 6.16 Angular velocity measurement of the spacecraft via
various control strategy 193
Figure 6.17 Experimental system 194
Figure 6.18 VKCP controller and sensor interface 195
Figure 6.19 Experimental results 196
Figure 7.1 The ESA GRASP experiment is one of the experiments
that study how astronauts vary their gripping force with
changes in the handled load [15]. The results of these
experiments can be used to build better robotic controllers
for orbital grasping. Image: ESA 205
Figure 7.2 The NASA STS- 51A human space�ight mission was one of
the �rst to involve capturing malfunctioning satellites, to
service them on Earth. The Westar 6 satellite is shown
captured with the aid of an Apogee Kick Motor Capture
Device. Image: NASA 206
Figure 7.3 A proposed architecture of a spacecraft for in- space modular
telescope assembly. The robotic manipulator captures modules
from the module compartment using an active connector and
connects them radially to the main mast of the mirror.
Image by [19]. Image: STAR LAB 208

28. List of �gures xxiii
Figure 7.4
Illustration of the ESA e- Deorbit mission [22]. A spacecraft
with a robotic ar
m and grapple attempts to capture and deorbit
the non- operative 8- ton Envisat satellite. Image: ESA 209
Figure 7.5 The Robonaut2 robot was developed by NASA and General
Motors. It has dual- arm and equipped with anthropomorphic
hands. It has performed a large number of dexterous
manipulations on board the ISS. Image: NASA 210
Figure 7.6 Examples of standardised mechanical interfaces for
capturing orbital payloads. (a) The end- e�ector of Canadarm.
The wire- based capturing system enables it to capture any
payload equipped with the matching grapple �xture. Image:
NASA. (b) Grapple �xture compatible with the Canadarm
end- e�ector, on a Cygnus cargo spacecraft. The end- e�ector
wires close tightly around the central rod, securing the payload.
Image: NASA. (c) A standardised connector for payload
grappling [26]. The central pantograph expands when inserted
in the matching part of the payload, e�ectively capturing it.
The driving pins facilitate the insertion, and the other pins
transfer data, power, and propellant to the target.
Image: Elsevier 211
Figure 7.7 Probe insertion on an engine nozzle [33]. The approaching
spacecraft inserts a probe on the nozzle interior, using a
compliant controller for minimum disturbance. The probe
expands upon reaching the throat, securing the payload.
Image: Taylor and Francis 214
Figure 7.8 The Astrobee robotic platform, designed for operations
inside the ISS. Among other systems, it is equipped with
a 3- DOF arm and gripper system that enable it to perch
on the handrails of the station. Image: Sage Publishing 215
Figure 7.9 Dexterous hands are a technology for orbital grasping
developed for teleoperation and applications on board
the ISS. (a) The Dexhand developed by DLR. It is a dexterous
4- �ngered hand designed for applications on board the ISS.
Image: DLR. (b) The Spacehand is an improved version of
Dexhand, designed for teleoperation in geosynchronous orbits.
Its electronics are stowed in an aluminium shell for radiation
hardening, and it operates under the Spacewire data protocol.
Image: DLR 217
Figure 7.10 The 3- �ngered gripper presented in [51]. The �ngers are
designed to optimally capture a triangular handle on the target.
Image: Springer Nature 219
Figure 7.11 Researchers at Stanford and JPL have developed a new
adhesive grasping method inspired by gecko climbing.
It has been tested as an alternative method for capturing
orbital targets. Image: NASA 220

29. xxiv Space robotics and autonomous systems
F
igure 7.12 The A�ordance Lear
ning Framework is a ROS- based
framework that enables shared control of the Robonaut2
humanoid [28]. A button template is placed by the user in
the corresponding art of the scene and the robot plans
the hand trajectories to press it. Image: TracLabs 223
Figure 7.13 Grasp synthesis on the surface of a rocket engine [59].
Images: STAR LAB. (13) The chasing arm faces the nozzle
engine mockup mounted on the right arm. (13) The RGB- D
sensor extracts a point cloud of the nozzle that is
preprocessed. (13) The result of the grasp synthesis
algorithm is a reachable pose on the nozzle. The calculation
speed can be as fast as 0.2 s. (13) The robot executes
the reaching motion and grasps the nozzle 224
Figure 8.1 A Soyuz- TMA simulator at the UK Space Conference
2019 at Wales. [Photo credited to the British Interplanetary
Society.] 240
Figure 8.2 In order to control the CanadaArm2, users rely on 2D views
of cameras located at close proximity to the joints of the
CanadaArm2 and other key locations at ISS 242
Figure 8.3 A consensus cognitive model that shows how attention and
working memory interact to process information 245
Figure 8.4 BCIs are coupled with advanced 3D space simulator to
monitor human attention, cognitive workload and spatial
learning. (a) An advanced 3D simulator has developed
to allow users to control Canadarm2 under realistic
scenarios [2, 46]. Wearable EEG and eye- tracking technology
is combined to monitor neurophysiological responses.
(b) Combined Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy
(fNIRS) and EEG technology promises to improve our
understanding on learning processes and cognitive workload.
(c) An example of wearable eye- tracking device 249
Figure 8.5 (a) Demonstration of the top view of two 3D eye models
and the point of gaze (POG) on the scene plane.
(b) Illustration of the listing’s plane and the 3D orientation
of the eye and its axes of rotation 253
Figure 8.6 Illustration of three basic eye movements and the gaze
points of �xation and eye saccade on the image planes.
Accordingly, features such as �xation duration and saccade
speed can be extracted 254
Figure 8.7 Human factors and neuroergonomics in space �ights.
Current research needs to be seen in light of the homeostatic
adaptations that take in space due to physiological,
psychological and habitability factors in space 257
Figure 8.8 University of North Dakota space analog simulations (photo
provided by Dr Travis Nelson and Prof. Pablo De Leon) 258

30. List of �gures xxv
Figure 8.9
Classical BCI framework in
volves signal acquisition
followed by machine learning techniques to preprocess
the signal, extract features and perform classi�cation.
Intuitive interactive approaches can increase the robustness
of the BCI [83, 84] 259
Figure 8.10 A photo- realistic 3D simulator of the ISS developed at
Imperial College London [1]. The simulator allows the user
to interact with the CanadaArm2 robot based on four camera
views as shown at Figure 8.2 259
Figure 8.11 Normalised values of performance measures during
teleoperations via VR simulation of the Canada arm at
the ISS that include: the grasp time (Gr. Time), grasping
distance error (Gr. Distance Error), grasping angular error
(Gr. Angle Error), grasping score (Gr. Score), docking time
(D. Time), docking distance error (D. DistError), docking
angular error (D. AngleError) and docking overall score
(D. Score). These performance measures are examined in
conditions that induce varying cognitive workload:
The ‘Low Workload’ condition refer to performing the task
without additional time- pressure and timelatency (LW),
under time- pressure only (TP), under time- latency of 0.5 s
only (TL), under both time- pressure and time- latency of 0.5 s
(TP & TL0.5 s), under time- latency of 1 s only (TL1 s), under
both time- pressure and time- latency of 1s (TP & TL1 s),
under timelatency of 1.5 s (TL1.5 s) and under time- pressure
and time- latency of 1.5 s (TP & TL1.5 s). 262
Figure 8.12 Normalised values of eye- tracking features with relation to
di�erent cognitive workload conditions. Blink Frequency (BF),
Index of Pupillary Activity (IPA), Mean Fixation
Duration (MFD), Mean Pupil Diameter (MPD), Mean
Saccade Speed (MSS) and Saccade Frequency (SF). 263
Figure 8.13 Two- class classi�cation results on with or without
time- latency and with and without time- latency under the
Leave- One- Subject- Out cross- validation protocol.
Testing accuracy and F1 scores are shown for window
sizes of 2, 5, 10 and 20 s as well as for the whole trial data
for each classi�er, respectively. The classi�er is based on SVM
with radial basis kernel functions. A number of eye- tracking
features are examined to determine whether they can reliably
identify cognitive workload. 264
Figure 8.14 Beta power as a neurophysiological index of cognitive
workload. EEG data are z- normalised. A large variability is
observed and for these reasons outliers have been excluded
by estimating con�dence intervals at 95 (beta95) and 99 per
cent (beta99), respectively. 265

31. xxvi Space robotics and autonomous systems
F
igure 8.15 Beta pow
er and Riemannian distance as measures of cognitive
workload. Statistically signi�cant di�erences are identi�ed
based on Kruskal- Wallis pairwise comparisons 266
Figure 9.1 From basic medical research to wearable diagnostic and
assistive devices and therapeutics, there is a need for novel
technological innovations to address current and future needs
for space explorations and to sustain human life. Astronaut
image by Vadim Sadovski/shutterstock.com and icons by
bsd/shutterstock.com, Griboedov/shutterstock.com and
elenabsl/ shutterstock.com 277
Figure 9.2 The physiological stressors of the space environment.
Astronaut image by Peter Rondel/shutterstock.com 277
Figure 9.3 (a) Compact �exible wearable device for measurement of ECG,
GSR, body temperature and motion signals in the chest region.
The maximum thickness of the device is 9.65 cm.
(b) Contribution of each signal modality in the estimation of
the training matrix used for the classi�cation of di�erent tasks
(exercise, rest and mental activity). (a–b): © 2019 IEEE.
Reprinted, with permission, from [197]. (c) Bluetooth
Low Energy device integrated into an eyeshade for
measurement of EEG, head motion and chemical analytes
(pH and cortisol) in the ear. The PCB device was 2 × 2.1 cm.
(d) Fast Fourier Transform of the EEG signals acquired from
the same subject in the awake (relaxation) and sleep states.
(c–d): © 2019 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission, from [198].
(e) NFC- powered chest patch for monitoring of cardiac,
haemodynamic and endocrine (pH, temperature) parameters.
(f) Spectrogram of the heart sound signal (superimposed
in black) involved in the calculation of the haemodynamic
systolic intervals. (e–f): © 2019 IEEE. Reprinted, with
permission, from [199] 317
Figure 9.4 (a) A �exible and stretchable multiparametric soft device
with stretchable horseshoe interconnects and electrodes for
potentiometric (orange box), amperometric and impedimetric
(yellow box) electrochemical sensors, with a temperature
sensor and a Joule heating element (purple box), a bioimpedance
sensor (green box) and electrodes for ECG and iontophoresis
(blue box). (b) Reduction of interface impedance of the
bioimpedance sensor electrodes via electrochemical deposition
of Pt black. (c) SEM imaging of the electrode surface before
and after Pt black deposition, with and without ultrasonication.
(d) Characterization of the bioimpedance sensor with saline
solutions of varying conductivity at di�erent frequencies.
(e) Characterization of the temperature sensor.
(f) Characterization of the Joule heating element.
© 2019 IEEE. Reprinted, with permission, from [135] 320

32. List of �gures xxvii
Figure 9.5
(a) LCVG wor
n on the body, as the base layer of the EMU
spacesuit. Image source NASA. Image obtained from
the NASA website (https://www.nasa.gov/audience/
foreducators/spacesuits/home/clickable_suit_nf.html).
(b) LCVG fabric and tubing layout construction from
the Apollo missions. Image obtained from the NASA website
(https://history.nasa.gov/SP-368/s6ch6.htm). (c) LCVG
gaping away from the body during motion. From [208].
© Crystal Marie Compton 2016, reprinted with permission
from the author. (d) A wrist- worn thermotherapy and
thermoregulation device for future �uidic integration and
astronaut inner suit use. The image at the bottom was obtained
from a thermal camera, and it demonstrates the device
achieving a temperature of ~42
o
C. (e) The temperature
dependence of the resistance of the copper FPC meandering
track. (f) The relationship between injected current and
achieved temperature of the FPC copper meandering track
used for Joule heating. (d)–(f): © 2019 IEEE. Reprinted,
with permission, from [130] 322
Figure 10.1 The interface as a bridge between the capabilities of
the human and robot 342
Figure 10.2 DIKW pyramid 343
Figure 10.3 John Space Center Mission Control (Source: NASA) 347
Figure 10.4 Levels of autonomy of space robots (using a picture
of astronaut from NASA) 349
Figure 10.5 ERA control panel for use in EVAs (Source: ©ESA–SJM
Photography) 353
Figure 10.6 CIMON, the graphical interface (Source: ESA/NASA/DLR) 355
Figure 10.7 Robotic workstations in the cupola (main controls,
MSSRMS) and in the laboratory (backup controls,
JEMRMS) (Source: NASA) 355
Figure 10.8 (Left) Haptics-1 control interface (source: ©ESA/NASA);
(right) Haptics-2 controls interface (source: ©ESA) 356
Figure 10.9 NASA’s OnSight software created by JPL in collaboration
with Microsoft (Hololens) facilitate scientists and engineers
to virtually walk on Mars (Source: NASA) 362
Figure 10.10 ESA Astronaut Alexander Gerst interacting with CIMON
(Source: ESA/NASA/DLR) 365
Figure 11.1 We specify the Assume- Guarantee contracts for each node
(denoted by
A(i) and G(o) , respectively). These are then used
to guide the veri�cation approach applied to each node,
denoted b
y dashed lines, such as software testing for a
black- box implementation of the Vision node. The solid
arrows represent data �ow between nodes and that the
assumptions of the next node should follow from the
guarantee of the previous node. 383

33. xxviii Space robotics and autonomous systems
F
igure 11.2 The Mars Curiosity rov
er simulation in Gazebo. (a) The Mars
Curiosity model in Gazebo. (b) The Mars world in Gazebo 387
Figure 11.3 RVIZ view with all of the e�ectors in the simulated Mars
Curiosity rover 388
Listing 11.1 Environment code for the control wheels action 390
Listing 11.2 Plan for turning to move to waypoint B 390
Listing 11.3 Con�guration �le for the �rst Curiosity example 392
Figure 11.4 Simulation of the astronaut–rover scenario using the
Brahms Composer IDE 394
Figure 11.5 Semantics of FOTL 399
Figure 11.6 Each rover’s voting behaviour 402
Figure 12.1 Instantiation of functional viewpoint of satellite reference
architecture for autonomous debris collection [1] 413
Figure 12.2 Instantiation of functional viewpoint of ground segment
reference architecture for autonomous debris collection [1] 414
Figure 12.3 Attack tree for adversary aiming to prevent autonomous
debris collection [1] 415
Figure 12.4 Integrated approach to combining veri�cation and security
analysis which allows to use results from the threat
modelling [4] 427
Figure 12.5 Autonomous on- orbit docking between a chaser and
a target is comprised of multiple stages including far range
and close range rendezvous [4] 428

34. List of tables
Tab
le 1.1 Successfully �o
wn robotic mobility systems on Earth orbit,
the Moon, Mars, and small bodies as of 2020, updated based
on tables in [2, 3] 3
Table 2.1 Locomotion parameters and dimensionless expressions 18
Table 2.2 Wheel and experiment design parameters 24
Table 2.3 Scaling parameters tested 27
Table 2.4 Properties of simulated BP-1 and craft 34
Table 3.1 Speci�cations of a contractor PMAs under experiment 52
Table 4.1 Summary of the mechanisms discussed 106
Table 5.1 A comparison of the orbital visual simulators 141
Table 5.2 A comparison chart of the ground- based testbeds for
close- approximate space experiments. This table is recreated
from the early work [52]. 145
Table 5.3 Results for di�erent approaches for Soyuz dataset [31] 152
Table 6.1 Geometric and inertial parameters of space robot model
with 3- DOF manipulator 182
Table 6.2 Actuating signals of each joints 183
Table 6.3 Impulsive noises v3 184
Table 6.4 Parameter setting 184
Table 6.5 Identi�cation results of modi�ed and conventional
identi�cation equations with RLS- APSA algorithm 186
Table 6.6 Identi�cation results of two algorithms 188
Table 6.7 Geometric and inertial parameters of the space robot 189
Table 6.8 Parameter setting of dynamic simulation 189
Table 6.9 Mean value of position tracking errors for each joint
controller (5–40 s) 192
Table 6.10 Position tracking steady- state mean square errors for each
joint controller (5–40 s) 192
Table 6.11 Mean value of spacecraft’s angular velocity 193
Table 6.12 Position tracking steady- state mean square of spacecraft’s
angular velocity (5–40 s) 194
Table 6.13 Identi�cation results – cylinder 196
Table 6.14 Identi�cation results – cuboid 197
Table 7.1 Mechanical interfaces for orbital grasping and their
properties, as noted in [28]. Image: Frontiers 212

35. xxx Space robotics and autonomous systems
T
able 9.1 Summar
y of biomarkers useful for monitoring issues in
the various systems in the body 290
Table 10.1 A short except from the declassi�ed air- to- ground transcripts
to illustrate the complexity in robotic operations 345
Table 11.1 Summary of the types of formalisms for specifying the system
and the properties to be checked [14, Table 2] 379
Table 11.2 Summary of the veri�cation approaches used throughout
the literature [14, Table 4] 380
Table 11.3 Veri�cation techniques applied to each node 385
Table 11.4 Properties veri�ed for the Brahms model of the astronaut–rover
scenario 396
Table 12.1 Threat actors with space ecosystem speci�c examples [1] 416
Table 12.2 Summary of the threat modelling approaches 421
Table 12.3 Summary of the evaluation 423

36. Foreword
Alistair Scott
1
I am honoured to have been asked by Professor Y
ang Gao to contribute to this
fascinating book. As Space Robotics and Autonomous Systems is primarily a textbook
and, knowing of my lifelong passion for promoting wider education in astronautics,
she invited me to write the Foreword. The words Robotics and Autonomy just did not
exist in my childhood vocabulary or my schooling and even my early working life,
but I have found this book fascinating, revealing and certainly educational.
Back in the mid-1950s, I remember hearing the unmistakeable rattle of the
abacus as the local shopkeepers near our home in Bangkok totted up our bills. Our
little primary school tried to teach us how to use the abacus, but I never did get the
hang of it. However, technology was catching up with us fast, as I was able to watch
my �rst TV programme there, though it was in Siamese, and our telephone system
was self-dial rather than operator connected. The most advanced piece of equipment
I used, apart from the transistor radio, during my school days back in Scotland, was
the slide-rule, which became an essential tool at the start of my working life and at
university.
In the 1960s, more rapid progress was being made on automation in aviation.
The Auto-Land system was developed on the Trident airliner and came into service
while I was working on the Trident production line at Hawker Siddeley Aviation.
Hat�eld. I think the biggest problem for the pilots was �nding their way o� the
runway after the plane had landed in thick fog! A bit later, in 1968, when I joined the
A300B Airbus wing design team, we were still using hand-drawn drawings, graph-
paper and slide-rules. Though a huge mainframe computer had just been installed, I,
as an apprentice, was not allowed near it and had to share two mechanical calculators,
one electric-drive and the other hand-cranked, with the 100 other engineers in the
department. The �rst Sinclair calculator actually arrived when I was there, but you
needed a magnifying glass to read the LED display and the batteries only lasted 45
minutes!
What a transformation we have seen in the 50 years since. The automation I
valued then has become the autonomy of the present and the future. But what I did
not realise, until I moved from aircraft and missiles into Space systems in the mid-
1980s and later joined the British Interplanetary Society, was where and when many
of the ideas that made the use of Space feasible originated. Some of the ideas came
from Science Fiction writers like Arthur C. Clarke and comic book stories like Dan
Dare in the Eagle.
1
Alistair D. Scott, TD, BSc, FBIS, MRAeS - UK Board Member, The Arthur C. Clarke Foundation, Past
President, The British Interplanetary Society, [email protected]

37. xxxii Space robotics and autonomous systems
Ar
thur C. Clarke was one of the early members of the British Inter
planetary
Society (BIS) in the mid-1930s and members of the BIS were understood to have
been advisors to the Eagle comic in the 1950s. In 1938 the BIS, egged on by Jules
Verne’s 1865 book From the Earth to the Moon and H.G. Wells’ 1901 book The
First Men in the Moon, set, as one of its �rst technical studies, the design of a Lunar
Spaceship to carry a crew of three to land on the Moon and, after 14 days, return
safely to Earth.
Though a few members of the BIS team had some experience in aircraft design
and propulsion systems, they were starting with a blank sheet and so had to use their
imaginations to create a conceptual design that would complete this challenging task
using the materials and technologies available at the time. They opted for a 6-step
rocket. The �rst 5 launch stages, each containing 168 large solid rocket motors,
would be discarded after �ring. The 6th stage had 45 medium motors and 1 200 small
motors, which were to be controlled by the crew of the Spaceship for landing on the
Moon, for lift-o� 14 days later and �nally as retro rockets for Earth re-entry.
It’s all a far cry from the robotic and autonomous systems available today and
proposed in Part I of this book, but that’s how things were in the 1930s and 50s. They
were actually way ahead of their time and it wasn’t until the 60’s that the same ‘four-
landing-leg’ design proposed for the 1939 Lunar Lander was used on the Apollo
Landers and the cooling system worn by the Apollo astronauts was similar to that
proposed by the BIS for its Moon Suit in 1952.
The BIS continues to look to the future with technical study projects on
interstellar travel, space colonies, nuclear propulsion and, closer to home, small
launch vehicles and UK spaceports.
When I started working with communications satellites and scienti�c spacecraft
in the 1980s and 1990s, I thought them to be the most sophisticated of robots.
Figure 1 The trident 3B production line, Hawker Siddeley Aviation, Hat�eld
Photo courtesy of HSA

38. Foreword xxxiii
They could travel millions of miles, surviv
e the harshest of conditions, from the
high structural loadings and vibrations in launch to temperature extremes and
even meteorite damage in Space, and still operate and provide essential services,
from scienti�c exploration to communications, broadcasting, navigation and Earth
observation. However, though they often had some automated sub-systems like
Drawings courtesy of BIS
Photo courtesy of MMS
Figure 2 The 1938 BIS lunar
spaceship
Figure 3 The 1939 BIS lunar lander
Figure 4 A Eur ostar 2000 communications satellite

39. xxxiv Space robotics and autonomous systems
ther
mal control and solar array driv
e mechanisms, they all required some level
of control or instruction from the ground for navigation or station-keeping and
instrument control or transponder switching. Now, as indicated in Part II of the
book, it appears that everything and anything is possible, even down to servicing
and refuelling satellites in orbit to extend their lifetimes.
Space Robotics and Autonomous Systems (RAS) have advanced signi�cantly,
as revealed on almost every page of the book. This has been a bit of an eye opener
for me. Where else could one �nd such a range of technological concepts and
developments on everything from planetary rover chassis design, pneumatic muscle
actuators and the use of biologically evolved mechanisms, to autonomous visual
navigation for on-orbit servicing, the control challenges for the capture of orbital
objects and the autonomous robotic grasping for in-orbit assembly or debris removal.
I am pleased to say there is a lot more, as in Part III of the book, one can also
learn about the brain–computer interface technology for monitoring mental states
and fatigue, the wearable technology for biosignal monitoring and the future of
human–robotic interaction in space. We face testing times both here on Earth and in
exploring our Universe. Arti�cial Intelligence, Autonomy and Robotics are essential
tools, but we must be sure that they work as we expect them to and are safe and
secure if we are to succeed in these challenging missions.
The book ends with further chapters that highlight system-level technologies
critical for the future of all space activities – the veri�cation, validation and
cybersecurity of space RAS within the NewSpace era.
I would like to take this opportunity to congratulate Professor Yang Gao on
consolidating such a diverse and interesting range of research topics that tackle
the challenging subject of space RAS and thank the authors for their excellent
and fascinating contributions. It is a good, insightful read. There is something for
academia and industry, as well as anyone who is interested in RAS and space.

40. About the editor
Yang Gao is the Professor of Space Autonomous Systems at Sur
rey Space Centre
of the Uni
versity of Surrey, UK. Prof. Gao founded and heads the multi-awards
winning Space Technology for Autonomous and Robotic systems Laboratory (STAR
LAB), which specializes in robotic sensing, perception, visual GNC and biomimetic
mechanisms for industrial applications in extreme environments. She has been the
Principal Investigator of internationally teamed projects funded by UK Research
Councils, InnovateUK, Royal Academy of Engineering, European Commission,
European Space Agency (ESA), UK Space Agency, as well as industrial companies.
She has also been actively involved in real-world space missions such as ESA’s
ExoMars, Proba3 and VMMO, UK’s MoonLITE/Moonraker, and CNSA Chang’E3.
Prof. Gao is an elected Fellow of the Institute of Engineering and Technology
(IET) and the Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS). She was named by the Times
Higher Education in 2008 as one of ten UK’s young leading academics who are
making a very signi�cant contribution to their disciplines, and was also awarded the
Mulan Award in 2019 for Contributions to Science, Technology and Engineering.
Research work under her leadership and supervision has also received many
international recognitions such as the IAF’s 3AF Edmond Brun Silver Medal,
COSPAR’s Outstanding Paper Award, Top places in ESA Grand Challenges, etc.
Prof. Gao holds a B. Eng (1st Hons) and Ph.D. on electrical and control
engineering from the Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.

41. This page intentionally left blank

42. 1
STAR LAB, Surrey Space Centre, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom, yang. gao@
surrey. ac. uk
Chapter 1
Introduction
Yang Gao
1
The current desire to go and explore space is as strong as ever. Past space powers
have been gradually joined
by a �urry of new nations eager to test and demonstrate
their technologies and contribute to an increasing body of knowledge. Space robotics
and autonomous systems (RAS) are important to human’s overall ability to explore or
operate in space, by providing greater access beyond human space�ight limitations
in the harsh environment of space and operational handling that extends astronauts’
capabilities. RAS can help reduce the cognitive load on humans given the abundance
of information that has to be reasoned upon in a timely fashion and hence are critical
for improving human and systems’ safety. RAS can also enable the deployment and
operation of multiple assets without the same order of magnitude increase in ground
support. Given the potential reduction to the cost and risk of space�ight both manned
and robotic, space RAS are deemed relevant across all mission phases such as develop-
ment, �ight system production, launch, and operation [1].
This chapter introduces the book by providing the basis of space RAS, such as
key technological challenges, relevant applications over the horizon as well as the
recent advances to be presented in the remainder of the book.
1.1 Technologies
Modern space RAS represents a multidisciplinary �eld that builds on as well as
contributes to the knowledge of space engineering (e.g. software and hardware har-
ness, system engineering, and space quali�cations), terrestrial robotics (e.g. sensing
and perception, mobility and locomotion, and navigation), computer science (e.g.
mission planning, machine learning, and soft computing) as well as many other mis-
cellaneous subjects like advanced materials, information technologies, and bionics.
The goals of next- generation space RAS are to extend humanity’s reach, exploration
and exploitation of space, expand our ability to manipulate assets and resources in outer
space, prepare them for human arrival, support human crews in their space operations,

43. 2 Space robotics and autonomous systems
manage the assets they leave
behind, and enhance the e�ciency of mission operations
across the board. Commercial endeavors already have eyes on space and actively promote
the Moon and Mars as possible destinations for long- term human presence or habitation.
Advances in robotic sensing and perception, mobility and manipulation, rendezvous and
docking, onboard and ground- based autonomous capabilities, and human–robot interop-
erability will drive these goals. Furtherance of these goals can bene�t the public good in a
broader sense beyond the attainment of purely practical ends: Space �ight has a hold on the
public’s imagination unlike that of any other realms of scienti�c endeavor; it is a barom-
eter of national prestige as underpinned by industrial and technological sophistication; it
can inspire wider participation in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
(STEM)- oriented educational programs.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in its latest tech-
nology roadmap has identi�ed several RAS areas needed by 2035. Similarly, the
European Space Agency (ESA) has been developing technology roadmaps in RAS
through various European Commission- funded projects such as Space Robotics
Strategic Research Cluster and SpacePlan2020. Other spacefaring nations like
Russia, China, India, and Japan have also announced their individual plans on future
missions involving space RAS. Apart from the di�erence in mission timetable by
di�erent space players, there are quite a number of common technological needs or
challenges in RAS that are widely acknowledged by the international space com-
munity. These technological topics typically include:
Mobility to reach and operate at sites of scienti�c interest on extra- terrestrial
surfaces or in free- space environments (see Table 1.1 for existing successfully �own
robotic mobility systems): mobility on, into, and above an extra- terrestrial surface
using locomotion like �ying, walking, climbing, rappelling, tunneling, swimming,
and sailing; and manipulations to make intentional changes in the environment or
objects using locomotion like placing, assembling, digging, trenching, drilling, sam-
pling, grappling, and berthing.
Sensing and perception to provide situational awareness for space robotic
agents, explorers, and assistants: new sensors; sensing techniques; algorithms for 3D
perception, state estimation, and data fusion; onboard data processing and generic
software framework; and object, event, or activity recognition.
High- level autonomy for system and subsystems to provide robust and safe
autonomous navigation, provide rendezvous and docking capabilities, and enable
extended- duration operations without human interventions to improve overall per-
formance of human and robotic missions: guidance, navigation, and control (GNC)
algorithms; docking and capture mechanisms and interfaces; planning, scheduling
and common autonomy software framework; multi- agent coordination; recon�gu-
rable and adjustable autonomy; and automated data analysis for decision- making.
Human–robot interaction (HRI) to enable humans to accurately and rapidly under-
stand the state of the robot in collaboration and act e�ectively and e�ciently toward the
goal state: multi- modal interaction; remote and supervised control; proximate interaction;
distributed collaboration and coordination; and common human–system interfaces.
System engineering to provide a framework for understanding and coordinating
the complex interactions of robots and achieving the desired system requirements:

44. Introduction 3
modularity, commonality, and interfaces; veri�cation and
validation of complex
adaptive systems; robot modeling and simulation; software architectures and frame-
works; and safety and trust.
1.2 Applications
Space RAS covers all types of robotics for surface exploration or in orbit around
the moon, planets, or other small bodies such as asteroids. They include sen-
sors and platforms for mobility and navigation as well as for deployment of sci-
ence instruments in space (see Figure 1.1). Depending on the space environments
applied, orbital robots can be used for repairing satellites, assembling large space
telescopes, capturing and returning asteroids, or deploying assets for scienti�c
investigations, while planetary robots play a key role in the surveying, observa-
tion, extraction, close examination of extra- terrestrial surfaces (including natural
phenomena, terrain composition, and resources), constructing infrastructures on
a planetary surface for subsequent human arrival, mining planetary resources, or
in situ resource utilization (ISRU) [1].
Depending on these applications (either orbital or planetary), space robots are often
designed to possess mobility (or locomotion) to manipulate, grip, rove, drill, and/or
Table 1.1 Successfully �own robotic mobility systems on Earth orbit, the Moon,
Mars, and small bodies as of 2020, updated based on tables in [2, 3]
Launch year Mission name Country Target Robotic mobility
1967 Surveyor 3 USA Moon Sampler
1970/72/76 Luna 16/20/24 USSR Moon Arm, drill, sampler
1970/73 Luna 17/21 USSR
Moon Rover
1975 Viking USA Mars Arm, sampler
1981/2001/08 ISS Canadarm1/2/DextreCanada Earth orbit Arm
1996 Mars Path Finder USA Mars Rover
2003 Mars Express (Beagle2*) Europe Mars Arm, drill, sampler
2003 Hayabusa Japan Asteroid Sampler
2003 Mars Exploration Rovers USA Mars Rovers, arm, sampler
2007 ISS Kibo Japan Earth orbit Arm
2008 Phoenix USA Mars Arm, sampler
2011 Mars Science Laboratory USA Mars Rover, arm, sampler
2013 Chang’E 3 China Moon Rover
2004 Rosetta (Philae) Europe Comet Arm, drill, sampler
2016 Aolong-1 China Earth orbit Arm
2018 Osiris- Rex Sample Return USA NEA Arm, sampler
2018 Insight USA Mars Arm, drill, sampler
2018 Chang’E 4 China Moon- far side Rover
2020 Mars 2020 USA Mars Rover, arm, helicopter
2020 Chang’E 5 Sample Return China Moon Arm, drill, sampler
2020 Tianwen-1 China Mars Rover
*Beagle2 lander lost communication after landing. Onboard robotic mobility did not have the chance
to operate.

45. 4 Space robotics and autonomous systems
sample. Driven similarly by the
nature of the mission and distance from the Earth, these
robots are expected to possess varying levels of autonomy, ranging from tele- operation
by humans to fully autonomous operation by the robots themselves. Depending on the
level of autonomy, space robots can act as (1) robotic agents (or human proxy) in space to
perform various tasks using tele- operation up to semiautonomous operation or (2) robotic
assistants that can help human astronauts to perform tasks quickly and safely, with higher
quality and cost e�ciency using semi- to fully autonomous operation. Some future mis-
sions will require the coworking between the robotic assistants and astronauts to achieve
goals that would not be possible without such a collaboration; or (3) robotic explorers that
are capable of exploring unknown territories in space using fully autonomous operation.
Coordination or cooperation between autonomous robotic explorers is also envisaged
within multi- robot missions to enable complex tasks such as cave exploration, construc-
tion, and resource extraction [1].
It is worth noting that the global space sector is currently moving toward the
NewSpace era driven by space commercialization and resource exploitation, where
RAS will play a central role and be directly responsible for meeting stringent
requirements in cost, operability, reusability, and sustainability of long- lived assets
in the harsh space environments. This paradigm shift is also echoed by fast emerg-
ing applications on Earth that rely on data and information from in- space assets
for future smart cities, industry 4.0 (4th industrial revolution), disaster and climate
change monitoring, and homeland security, etc.
1.3 Recent advances
This book presents a range of recent research outcomes beyond the state- of- the- art
that covers the key technological topics described in Section 1.1 and key space
applications mentioned in Section 1.2. We provide below a summary of each
Figure 1.1 Applications and mission scenarios of space RAS, from orbital to
inter- planetary [1]

46. Introduction 5
subsequent book chapter to help guide readers to navigate through the book in the
most e�cient way.
1.3.
1 Part I: mobility and mechanisms
In the �rst part of the book, three chapters are presented to include the latest reviews,
R & D work, and �ndings in relation to space robotic mobility and mechanism
designs. These works also relate to a wide range of space applications covering both
planetary and orbital environments, as well as for human space�ight.
Chapter 2
1
entitled “Wheeled planetary rover locomotion design, scaling and
analysis” o�ers an introduction to the novel granular scaling laws (GSL) for wheeled
planetary rover design. This recently developed approach examines how to predict
the performance of larger, more massive vehicles from the study of smaller vehicles.
We evaluate how material properties, wheel shape, wheel position, sinkage, angular
velocity, and preparation of granular media in�uence these predictive laws through
experimental case studies. We conclude by using coupled multibody dynamics and
discrete element method (MBD- DEM) simulations to examine gravity variant GSL
for predicting the performance of a craft at reduced gravity.
Chapter 3
2
entitled “Compliant pneumatic muscle structures and systems for
extra- vehicular and intra- vehicular activities in space environments” o�ers detailed
discussions on how the current robotic mobility used in space environments for intra-
and extra- vehicular activities can be improved to rely on more convenient structures
that o�er equivalent or better services. These improved structures involve one of the
popular branches of soft robotics, namely pneumatic muscle actuators (PMAs). The
robotic mobility systems based on PMAs have provided promising results that can
potentially replace their rigid robotic counterparts. Especially it is recognized that
PMAs have a higher power to weight ratio, have inherently soft properties useful
for safety when interacting with humans, are compliant to colliding with objects of
di�erent shapes, are less costly in materials used to make them, and are �exible to
perform motions that might be a challenge with rigid systems. The chapter presents
and discusses the PMA designs on multi- �ngered grippers using the self- bending
contraction actuator (SBCA) and ring- shaped circular gripper that uses a circular
pneumatic muscle actuator (CPMA). An extensor bending PMA (EBPMA) is used
to design a power assistive glove that can be implemented for spacesuit gloves.
Chapter 4
3
entitled “Biologically- inspired mechanisms for space applications”
highlights the implementation of the �eld of biomimetics in the development of mecha-
nisms and mobility systems for a wide variety of space applications. This chapter col-
lates as many of these concepts as possible into a single review study, detailing their
journeys from the initial biological inspiration to the latest design and development
1 
Corresponding author: Hamid Marvi, School for Engineering of Matter, Transport & Energy, Arizona
State University, 501 E. Tyler Mall, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA. Email: [email protected].
2 
Corresponding author: Haitham El- Hussieny, School of Science, Engineering & Environment, The
University of Salford, Salford, M54WT, UK. Email: [email protected].
3 
Corresponding author: Craig Pitcher, STAR LAB, Surrey Space Centre, University of Surrey, Guild-
ford, GU2 7XH, UK. Email: [email protected].

47. 6 Space robotics and autonomous systems
iteration, organized by which application they had been considered for in space. First
to be discussed is subsurface planetary exploration, with drilling and mole concept
designs based upon insect ovipositors and peristaltic motion. Planetary and spacecraft

surface mobility systems have implemented gecko- inspired adhesive pads, legged and
hopping locomotion mechanisms based upon spiders, scorpions, locusts, and kanga-
roos, as well as techniques inspired by plants including tumbleweed designs, vine- based
climbing in continuum robots, and root growth processes in probes. Object capturing
mechanisms have also used gecko- inspired adhesion techniques and a kangaroo- based
vibration suppression system. Di�erent classes of arti�cial muscle actuator, which
mimic the properties of muscles, have been used in several robotic concepts, and sev-
eral wing- �apping mechanisms inspired by the lift generation methods employed by
insects have been designed in aerial mobility systems for �ying on Mars. Navigation
systems for surface traversal navigation explored methods for interfacing living organic
matter into robotic systems, whereas vehicles �ying around and landing on extrater-
restrial bodies explored the ways insects use optic �ow to solve complex problems.
Multi- agent system architectures, including swarms of animals and the processes that
govern biological cells, have been implemented into the architectures of small satellite
mission concepts and scenarios. Finally, induced hibernation for human space�ight has
been proposed for long- term manned missions.
1.3.2 Part II: sensing, perception, and GNC
The second part of the book includes three chapters on spacecraft visual perception and
GNC algorithms. These works represent the latest R & D results and demonstrations of
beyond state- of- the- art solutions for robotic manipulation tasks, primarily within orbital
applications such as dealing with cooperative targets (e.g. satellite servicing and space
telescope assembly) and/or noncooperative targets (e.g. active debris removal). This
part of the book puts focus on orbital manipulation applications but in principle the pre-
sented work can be extended or applied for manipulation on planetary surface environ-
ment too. As for GNC of other robotic platforms such as the planetary rovers, readers can
refer to [3].
Chapter 5
4
entitled “Autonomous visual navigation for spacecraft on- orbit opera-
tions” presents the background on the spacecraft pose estimation and the shift in
trend toward the machine learning algorithms that can help achieve 6- DOF (degree
of freedom) relative orbital navigation using only monocular vision or minimum- visual
processing. The two major approaches in deep learning for spacecraft pose estimation are
discussed. The keypoint- based approach provides many advantages compared to the non-
keypoint (or direct) approach, including better performance since the former can be easily
updated to include the subcomponents o�ering state- of- the- art performance. One impor-
tant tool for using machine learning techniques is to have realistic datasets, and hence
4 
Corresponding author: Arunkumar Rathinam, STAR LAB, Surrey Space Centre, University of Surrey,
Guildford, GU2 7XH, UK. Email: [email protected].

48. Introduction 7
various simulators used for orbital scene dataset generation are summarized in the chapter.
Besides the digital simulators, the chapter also presents an
overview of typical ground-
based physical testbeds used for testing orbital GNC algorithms in close- proximity opera-
tion scenarios involving either cooperative or noncooperative targets.
Chapter 6
5
entitled “Inertial parameter identi�cation, reactionless path planning
and control for orbital robotic capturing of unknown objects” focuses on addressing
the GNC challenges for spacecraft equipped with a single multiple DOF robot arm
for tackling noncooperative objects in orbit. The chapter �rst presents the methods on
inertial parameter identi�cation of the noncooperative object through the equations of
Momentum Conservation and Newton- Euler to obtain the basis of a two- step iden-
ti�cation and then the error mechanism analysis. The chapter also includes a newly
designed adaptive reactionless path planning method for the manipulator to deal with
motion disturbance, a robust adaptive control strategy for arm joints, and a feedforward
control strategy for spacecraft to ensure the stability of the whole system. Both com-
puter simulations and ground- based testbeds are employed to verify parts of the overall
system.
Chapter 7
6
entitled “Autonomous robotic grasping in orbital environments”
provides a comprehensive review of past, present, and future scienti�c and engi-
neering developments of robotic grasping for orbital applications to help assess the
capabilities of existing technologies and reveal challenges for future systems. The
readers will be informed of both classical and recent approaches on robotic grasp-
ing, grappling, and docking. First, an overview of experiments of human grasp-
ing in microgravity is provided, related to experiments conducted both in parabolic
�ights and onboard the International Space Station, with the intention of providing
both inspirational and scienti�c background on weightless grasping and a historical
overview of the importance of grasping for space activities. Then, the most impor-
tant applications that require dexterous space robots are described, namely on- orbit
servicing, assembly, debris removal, and astronaut–robot interaction. An extensive
review of grasping methodologies for orbital targets is then given, with emphasis
on coupling interface grasping, motor nozzle probing, grapple- based grasping, and
usage of dexterous hands for space operations. Relevant state- of- the- art technolo-
gies in the �eld are analyzed, demonstrating the shift from mechanized grappling
to intelligent grasping. Representative missions for the past, present, and future are
also described to showcase the existing and planned technologies in robotic grasp-
ing. The chapter �nishes with a summary of algorithmic, physical, and operational
(veri�cation) challenges that future space robotic grasping needs to overcome as
well as help characterize relevant existing solutions.
5 
Corresponding author: Zhongyi Chu, School of Instrumentation Science & Opto- Electronics, Beihang
University, No. 37, Xueyuan Road, Haidian District, Beijing, China. Email: [email protected].
6 
Corresponding author: Nikos Mavrakis, STAR LAB, Surrey Space Centre, University of Surrey,
Guildford, GU2 7XH, UK. Email: [email protected].

49. 8 Space robotics and autonomous systems
1.3.3
Part III: astronaut–robot interaction
The third part of the book includes three chapters on the latest research work and
advances on HRI. These works result in new �ndings and technical proposals con-
necting wearable technologies with astronaut operations in space for the near and
long terms.
Chapter 8
7
entitled “BCI for mental workload assessment and performance
evaluation in space teleoperations” investigates teleoperated robotic systems used
for several decades in space applications to perform complex assembly tasks in a
particularly hostile environment. It explores why designing and safely teleoper-
ating these systems require a multidisciplinary approach that relates high- �delity
simulation environments with brain–computer interfaces along with interactive
design interfaces. These human- in- the- loop systems drive toward online monitor-
ing of human mental states that relate to cognitive workload, attention, and fatigue.
The chapter includes analysis of how these attributes are related to performance in
human–robot- interaction systems and o�ers a hint of neurophysiological adaptations
in space that a�ect brain function and the underlying signals measured with brain–
computer interface (BCI) technology. These adaptations are driven by microgravity,
con�nement, and isolation and result in profound changes in circadian rhythm, brain
waves, and autonomic system responses. The chapter also provides an overview of
recent advances in machine learning and information fusion, underlying the current
state of the art in BCI that could potentially be used in future space exploration.
Chapter 9
8
entitled “Physiological adaptations in space and wearable technol-
ogy for biosignal monitoring” reviews the astronaut’s physiological adaptations
in space extreme environments that in�uence the cardiovascular, nervous, muscu-
loskeletal, endocrine, and other human physiological systems. The e�ects on key
biomarkers (e.g. for cardiovascular and musculoskeletal issues and stress) and bio-
signals for biomonitoring in space are further discussed. Wearable technology can
facilitate our understanding of these e�ects, providing greater insight into human
physiology in space. Wearable medical devices can also provide continuous or fre-
quent monitoring of physiological parameters to evaluate the astronaut’s status dur-
ing missions and/or to help determine required robotic assistance. Thus, the rest of
the chapter discusses space wearable biosignal monitoring technology with a focus
on technologies for sweat analysis, cardiovascular, and endocrine responses, which
can act as indices of acute stress and increased workload. Technologies for wearable
thermoregulation in the inner astronaut suit are also discussed, as a means of sup-
porting life during space missions.
Chapter 10
9
entitled “Future of human–robot interaction in space” takes a
view that as opposed to becoming obsolete in the face of autonomous systems, HRI
7 
Corresponding author: Fani Deligianni, School of Computing Science, Glasgow University, Glasgow
G12 8RZ, UK. Email: [email protected].
8 
Corresponding author: Panagiotis Kassanos, Hamlyn Centre, Institute of Global Health Innovation,
Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ, UK. Email: [email protected].
9 
Corresponding author: Stephanie Sze Ting Pau, Hamlyn Centre of Robotics Surgery, Bessemer Build-
ing, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ, UK. Email: [email protected].

50. Introduction 9
research becomes more important. New tools and approaches are necessary for
the successful adoption and integration of autonomous space robots, shifting from
human–robot systems in teleoperations to human–robot teams in shared autonomy.
The chapter presents
“new” de�nitions of HRI by bringing in the Data- Information-
Knowledge- Wisdom (DIKW) pyramid. This includes descriptions of robotic agent
capability and limitation in di�erent space environments and the HRI design in
relation to Don Norman’s work from the 1990s, which has been deeply embedded
into human–computer interaction theory. The chapter further presents a projected
future of HRI based on technological trends in the space industry. A case study on
CIMON, a future crew assistance robot using ground- based arti�cial intelligence
(AI) (IBM Watson), is used to help demonstrate the long- term vision. The case study
shows the feasibility of a novel conversational interface and the use of AI in space,
representing the potential bene�ts that AI can bring to HRI in space.
1.3.4 Part IV: system engineering
The fourth part of the book provides two further chapters that address the veri�cation,
validation, and security design issues for future space RAS. These system engineering
topics are equally important to sustainable, long- term development of RAS for space, par-
ticularly under the NewSpace era, where there will be fast- growing intelligent capabilities
and potential new threats to manage for robotic machines operating in space.
Chapter 11
10
entitled “Veri�cation for space robotics” discusses veri�cation
and validation for autonomous space robotics that help to assess the safety, reliabil-
ity, functional correctness, and trustworthiness of systems. The chapter covers both
formal veri�cation, a mathematical analysis of systems, and nonformal techniques
such as simulation. Following an overview of veri�cation for RAS, the chapter dis-
cusses a range of tools and techniques including logical speci�cation, model check-
ing, temporal theorem proving, runtime veri�cation, and simulation as applied to
space robot architectures, the Mars Curiosity rover, robot astronaut teamwork, and
multiple object systems such as satellites.
Chapter 12
11
entitled “Cyber security of new space systems” presents the work
on examining the security of emerging space RAS. A novel reference architecture for
space systems (RASA) is used for the identi�cation of the attack surface of RAS in
the NewSpace era. An autonomous debris collection use case is analyzed using the
proposed RASA and developing attack trees of the speci�c threats. Then the existing
threat modeling approaches are evaluated based on the identi�ed requirements of the
space systems. Threat modeling aims to provide a broader view of the system, which
allows establishing opportunities for risk management. At this point, space systems
have distinctive security vulnerabilities. A risk management strategy, which is based
on the practices drawn from other sectors, is introduced. The common practice is that
10 
Corresponding author: Clare Dixon, Department of Computer Science, University of Manchester.
Email: [email protected].
11 
Corresponding author: Carsten Maple, WMG, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK.
Email: [email protected].

51. 10 Space robotics and autonomous systems
of conducting threat modeling to analyze and manage threats and conducting formal
veri�cation independent from the
threat modeling. However, it is ine�ective since each
analysis can independently lead to signi�cant changes and it may be challenging to con-
verge. Thus, a security- minded formal veri�cation methodology, which is inspired by
techniques in agile software development, is proposed to integrate threat modeling and
formal veri�cation analysis. An autonomous docking use case is analyzed, to illustrate
it can be applied in these settings.
1.4 Acknowledgements
The book editor and coauthors would like to thank IET for publishing this work and the
editorial team for their support. Some parts of the book are based on scienti�c results,
knowledge, and experience gained from funded R & D activities. The following funded
projects would be acknowledged: “Future AI and Robotics for Space (FAIR- SPACE)”
funded by UK Research and Innovation and UK Space Agency for Robotics and AI
Hubs in Extreme and Hazardous Environments under grant number EP/R026092; “Chair
Professorship in Emerging Technologies” for Michael Fisher supported by the Royal
Academy of Engineering; “dual reciprocating drill technique for use in horizontal drilling”
funded by British Telecom; “in- orbit robotic assembly for large space science telescope”
funded by CAS- CIOMP; “Inertial Parameter Identi�cation, Reactionless Path Planning
and Control for Orbital Robotic Capturing of Unknown Object” funded by National
Natural Science Foundation of China under grant number 51975021; “Crew Interactive
MObile companion (CIMON)” commissioned by the DLR Space Administration, with
funding from the Federal Ministry for Economic A�airs and Energy of Germany.
The editor and coauthors also thank the following organizations or colleagues
for their support to the work presented in this book: Aleksander Maslowski and
Richard Gillham- Darnley at Surrey Space Centre for their lab technical support in
relation to Chapters 5 and 7; Matthew Bradbury, Sara Cannizzaro, Marie Farrell,
Clare Dixon, Michael Fisher, and Chronis Kapalidis for coauthorship of the research
papers which Chapter 12 is based upon; Saurav Sthapit for proof- reading of Chapter
12; and major space agencies like NASA, ESA, and DLR for their public or autho-
rized access to images used by several chapters.
References
[1] Gao Y., Jones D., Ward R., Allouis E., Kisdi A. UK- RAS network White Paper
on space robotics and autonomous
systems: widening the horizon of space ex-
ploration [online]. 2018. Available from www. ukras. org/ wp- content/ uploads/
2018/ 10/ UK_ RAS_ wp_ Space_ 080518. pdf [Accessed 28 April 2021].
[2] Gao Y., Chien S. ‘Review on space robotics: toward top- level science through
space exploration’. Science Robotics. 2017;2(7):eaan5074.
[3] Gao Y. (ed.). Contemporary Planetary Robotics – An Approach to Autonomous
Systems. Berlin: Wiley- VCH; 2016. pp. 1–450. Available from eu. wiley. com/
WileyCDA/ WileyTitle/ productCd- 3527413251. html.

52. Part I
Mobility and mechanisms

53. This page intentionally left blank

54. 1
Arizona State University, School for Engineering of Matter, Transport & Energy
Chapter 2
Wheeled planetary rover locomotion design,
scaling, and analysis
Andrew Thoesen
1
and Hamidreza Marvi
1
Rover locomotion on extraterrestrial surfaces is of general interest to the space com-
munity. Understanding and characterizing the
surface processes that contribute to
locomotion can increase e�ciency, safety, and mission duration. This chapter pre-
sents an explanation of recent methods developed for modeling rover locomotion in
granular media at a fundamental level. We begin by examining a brief progression
of granular locomotion modeling, important regolith characteristics, and how these
inform the choice to use a scaling approach in the remainder of the chapter. We then
address recent experiments that reveal limitations of such theories, and how one
can develop simple criteria and test methods that may allow better design of roving
vehicles. Finally, we close by examining current and future directions that can pos-
sibly lead to better modeling.
2.1 Background: modeling the granular environment
Vehicles traverse deformable and granular media through complex interactions.
These mobility mechanisms are the interest of the robotics, terramechanics, and
physics communities [1–12]. Granular mechanics as a �eld tends to favor empirical
or semiempirical approaches. This was the precedent set by Bekker [13, 14] includ-
ing for extraplanetary mobility [15]. He popularized many of the theories at the time,
and we will brie�y dive into the meaning behind these formulas so that it is better
understood why modern methods are important to incorporate. The �rst of the two
foundational relationships is that between pressure and sinkage, seen here:

p=kz
n
(2.1)
The equation states that the average pressure of a plate p
pushed into homogeneous
terrain is dependent on an exponential function of sinkage z. Both the sinkage
exponent, n, and the proportionality constant, k, are properties dependent on the
soil and empirically derived �tted parameters for each particular terrain. Bekker

55. Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content

56. Many young toms have one attack, and a she-cat never has a fit
after having once littered.
 
 

57. CHAPTER VII.
ON THE DISEASES OF CATS.
(Continued.)
Pneumonia, or Inflammation of the Lungs, is not an uncommon
malady in the cat, and the tendency to pulmonary weakness appears
to be transmitted from generation to generation, and is certainly
more generally met with in cats of foreign origin, as Persian, etc.,
than in our own native kind. In fact, all the felines are evidently
much more liable to lung disease than are the dogs. Nor are the
larger forms exempt, for many a majestic lion, or a beautiful leopard
in our best-managed zoological collections, has succumbed to this
fatal distemper. Exposure to cold and damp, poor feeding, etc., are
generally the immediate causes of lung disease in the feline, as in
the human subject. The symptoms in pneumonia are a dull, uneasy
restlessness; the poor cat looks miserable, as doubtless it feels, and
mopes about in a very dejected manner. It is less disposed to lie
than it is to squat about. Pneumonia is usually accompanied by
pleurisy, and if this complaint is as distressingly painful as I have
experienced it to be, I am sure the cat must at times suffer the most
acute pain. Inflammation of the lungs, although so generally fatal,
may nevertheless be overcome by good nursing under favourable
circumstances. It occurs more generally in winter and spring—the
most trying time, in our English climate, for both man and beast.
Keep the cat indoors, and in a room of comfortable temperature, but
not too warm, at, say, not much over 55° Fahr. A troublesome cough
distresses the poor cat frequently, and the laborious breathing is
manifest by the heaving of the flanks. In the treatment of the
disease, apply, in the first instance, a stimulating liniment composed
of equal parts of compound camphor liniment of the British

58. Pharmacopœia and soap liniment. Rub it in upon the sides of the
chest, and do not spread about more than is necessary, as cats are
made miserable by the fur being soiled or tainted. The operation
may be repeated the next day if the liniment has not produced
tenderness. Administer, internally, the following mixture every four
hours, in a dose of ten drops:—Syrup of chloral, forty drops; syrup of
squills, forty drops; ipecacuanha wine, ten drops.
As, probably, the cat will not eat, it will be well to keep up its
strength by administering beef tea or good milk at intervals.
Bronchitis, or inflammation of the lining membrane of the bronchial
tube, arises from much the same causes that produce inflammation
of the lungs and pleura, and often accompanies these affections.
Bronchitis may be readily distinguished by the peculiar wheezing and
rattling sound which is made when the poor cat is coughing. It may
be treated the same as inflammation of the lungs, but the mixture to
be given may contain twenty instead of ten drops of ipecacuanha
wine, and also, in addition, ten drops of antimony wine; and fifteen
drops may be given every four hours.
Mange is caused by a minute insect which burrows into the skin and
there multiplies. The sarcoptic mange is the most common form that
attacks the cat, and generally appears first upon the head and neck,
and will, in time, if not destroyed, spread over other parts of the
unfortunate animal. It is both humane and prudent, therefore, to
check it at the outset. The disease is, moreover, contagious, and if a
mangy cat is allowed to wander at large, it will communicate its
trouble, to the ultimate distress of its fellows, and the annoyance of
their owners. Sarcoptic mange may be at first detected by an
irritating itching, but it soon breaks out into painful sores, which are
aggravated by the repeated efforts of the poor cat to ease itself by
rubbing and scratching. Fortunately, however, this disease is not
difficult to cure in the cat, and with but little trouble. The principal
agent employed, both externally and internally, should be sulphur.
On no account use the strong dressings that are prepared for the
skin diseases of animals of a different nature. An ointment

59. composed of flowers of sulphur and fresh lard, rubbed upon the spot
with the finger, is a very simple remedy, and I have proved it to be a
very effectual one. It is well, however, before applying this simple
compound, to foment the spot with tepid water, and dry it with a
soft, clean rag. Apply the flowers of sulphur and lard once or twice a
day until it has taken effect. As it is not in the least unpleasant to
the taste, the cat is sure to swallow more or less of it in dressing the
fur, and more readily so if within direct reach of the tongue. The
sulphur swallowed acts upon the system from within, most
effectually poisoning the offending intruders in course of time. Mr.
Harold Leeney, M.R.C.V.S., remarks that “a proof of this eccentric
behaviour of sulphur may be found in the blackened watches and
silver coins carried in the pockets of persons taking the drug.” In the
Animal World for October, 1882, Mr. Leeney alludes to the
application of sulphur as follows:—“Sulphur in almost any form will
destroy the parasites, but used as an ointment, much difficulty is
experienced in washing it off again, and sulphur pure and simple
being insoluble, and more active remedies dangerous, there is
nothing better than a solution of sulphuretted potash, which should
be applied warm, in the proportion of half an ounce dissolved in a
quart of water. In using any skin dressing, whether for mange or
fleas, or any other parasite, it is always advisable to begin at the
head, as the opposite course leaves open a retreat to the ears and
eyes, where the application is less likely to reach the enemy. That
fleas take refuge round the animal’s ears when in the water was, no
doubt, early observed, and gave rise to the story, current in sporting
circles, that foxes rid themselves of fleas by swimming with a piece
of wool in their mouths, to which the insects betake themselves for
safety, and find out their mistake when it is too late.
“The sulphuretted potash lotion need only remain on the cat an hour
or two, when it should be washed off with more tepid water, to
which some glycerine has been added, to about the proportion of
one ounce to each quart of water used. The animal should be
carefully dried, giving special attention to the face and ears.”

60. Follicular Mange, so named from its being caused by the presence of
a parasite distinguished as Demodex folliculorum, is of a different
nature to the sarcoptic mange, and is less readily expelled.
“Unlike sarcoptic mange, which oftenest affects the hairless parts of
the body, the follicular mange is found upon the back from the neck,
down the course of the spine, to the tail. I think the reason of the
selection on the part of the demodex is that the hair follicles, or little
bags from which the hairs grow, and in which the parasite lives, are
much larger, and afford better accommodation. The first symptom of
anger in a dog or cat is usually the elevation of these hairs, showing
them to be stronger, and consequently having a larger base, than at
other parts of the body.
“The unfortunate cat affected with this malady soon begins to arch
her back and rub it against the staves of the chairs or the under part
of a low couch or other convenient furniture; then the hairs are
observed to be broken, and their condition attributed to this habit of
rubbing, so that the real cause is often not suspected till great
mischief is done and the parasites thoroughly established, the back
becoming sore all the way down, and the animal rapidly losing
condition.
“Treatment.—Since the cause is parasitic, destruction of the
offenders is the object to be attained, and the best method is by
laying bare their stronghold, by removing the scurf, etc., with soft
soap, before applying any remedy. The reason for using soft soap is
that the potash it contains causes the outer cuticle to swell up and
become detached, and thereby permits the remedies to come in
close contact with the insects, who are tenacious of life, like most
low forms of animal life. Having thoroughly washed the sore skin,
apply gently, but with a good deal of persistence, a lotion composed
of one part of oil of tar to four parts of olive oil, taking care to cover
the infected area, but not using any more than is necessary, as it is
most easy to excite nausea in the cat, but not easy to allay it. This
should be repeated alternate days, washing it off in the intervals
with plain curd soap, until the skin begins to look dry and scaly, and

61. loses its redness. The administration of small doses of sulphur (milk
of sulphur, two to three grains) daily will facilitate the cure, because
it is found to make its way through the skin from within, rendering
the cat a less desirable host.”
Eczema (from the Greek, ekzeo, I boil out) is another form of skin
disease to which the cat is sometimes subject, and is the effect of an
unhealthy condition of the blood. Unlike mange, eczema is not
caused by the intrusion of an insect parasite. The disease, being of
quite a different nature, requires treatment of another character
altogether. Again I use Mr. Leeney’s words:—
“Those parts of the skin which have upon them the least hair, as the
belly and thighs, and under the elbows, are the most frequently
attacked. It commences with a simple reddening of the skin, and a
few days afterwards little watery bladders or vesicles are observed.
These breaking, and their contents drying upon the skin, form an
offensive, unctuous matter, which becomes mixed with dirt and the
débris of broken hair, etc., and reacts upon the already inflamed
skin. It is caused by an arid condition of the blood, or perhaps it
would be more correct to say an insufficiently alkaline condition of it,
since in health that fluid should have an alkaline reaction. Whatever
doubt may be cast upon this theory as to the origin of the malady,
there is no doubt but that alkaline bicarbonates produce a speedy
cure, and the recovery is much facilitated by soothing applications to
the abraded parts.
“I would advise as a mixture, bicarbonate of potash, two grains;
water, thirty drops; mix for one draught; to be taken twice a day. If
the nurse cannot give the medicine as a fluid, the same quantity of
potash may be mixed with a little butter or honey, and smeared
upon the cat’s toes or shoulders, for she will soon lick it off there.
Many cats will not detect it dissolved in a saucer of milk, as it has
only the slightest saline taste. If neither of these methods is
successful, two grains of exsiccated carbonate of soda may be made
into a tiny pill and given in a piece of fish.

62. “The skin should be well fomented with warm water and a sponge,
with a little curd soap and glycerine added to the water. After
carefully drying with a piece of lint or old, soft calico, an ointment of
zinc (benzoated zinc ointment of the British Pharmacopœia) should
be carefully applied for several minutes, careful manipulation being
of more service than a large amount of ointment. We have spoken of
the condition of the blood which gives rise to eczema, and of
remedies likely to cure it; but prevention is, of course, better still.
“I have been able to trace the disease in some cats to access to a
neighbouring fishmonger’s dust-hole, where offal has been thrown
and allowed to decompose; in others it is traceable to milk. It is
difficult enough to keep dogs from eating filth in the streets after
refusing good food at home; but who shall restrain the cat? The
removal of the offending material, rather than any additional
restraint upon pussy, will be, if permissible, the best remedy.
“I have known many cats quite cured without any other remedy than
an abundant supply of horse-flesh, as retailed by the cats’-meat
men.
“While the subject of food is under consideration, I may mention
that a very unfounded prejudice exists against horse-flesh; and while
our French neighbours are making it an article of human food, we
retain our insular prejudices to such an extent that many people do
not even like their dogs and cats to eat it. As a general rule, horses
are slaughtered because lame or incapable, and their flesh is in a
healthy state, and affords good, sound muscular fibre, while those
who die generally do so from acute diseases, as colic, inflammation
of the lungs, hernia, etc., etc., the flesh or muscular parts being in
no way injured or rendered deleterious. A noticeable example of
flesh-fed cats is to be seen in the many large and handsome cats at
the Royal Veterinary College, who feed themselves on the donkeys
and horses in the dissecting-room.”
Before concluding this chapter I may suggest that, with fair
attention, a good cat may be expected to live out a fair term of

63. years, and perhaps without any special ailment. Certainly the causes
of disease and death are not a few, sometimes obscure, or of a
complicated character; yet the cat is not singular in its liability to
pain and death, for such is the portion which falls to all creatures,
man not excepted. But when we consider that the cat is a rather
fast-breeding animal, and has fewer natural enemies than many
other creatures—the rodents, for example—it is evident that the
feline race, both in its wild and domesticated state, must be subject
to such a constant check upon its undue increase as is justly
required to maintain the right balance in creation. Few cats live to
old age, which may be estimated at fourteen years. I have heard,
however, of two cases at least in which the extraordinary age of
twenty-two years has been attained. But what a vast proportion are
not permitted to survive as many hours! The irrefutable assertion in
the Book of Ecclesiastes, that there is “a time to be born, and a time
to die,” having reference to the limited duration of human life, may
with equal truth and propriety be considered respecting the whole
animal creation. Death is one of the essential laws in nature. Disease
and violence may be regarded as but instruments of destruction in
the hand of the Almighty. No thoughtful student of nature can fail,
however, to be deeply impressed by the evidence that the great God
that made all things is not only infinite in power and wisdom, but a
God of love. To use the words of Isaac Walton: “The study of the
works of nature is the most effectual way to open and excite in us
the affections of reverence and gratitude towards that Being whose
wisdom and goodness are discernible in the structure of the meanest
reptile.”
Worms.—It may be difficult, however, to comprehend, or to regard
without disgust, such loathsome forms of life as are the different
worms, in some form peculiar to, perhaps, every species of mammal,
bird, or fish.
As Mr. Leeney observes:—“Cats are subject to wandering parasites,
which pierce the tissues and cause much pain and illness in seeking
‘fresh fields and pastures new.’ Pussy is not exempt from the Trichina

64. spiralis, which, as my readers are probably aware, is the cause in
man, in swine, and other animals, of the dreadful malady known as
trichinosis.
“It is during the wandering of these minute worms that the fever
and pain is produced in the subject, be he human or any other
animal.
“That cats should be more liable to this parasite than man is readily
understood when we take into account the liking they have for raw
meat, while cooking generally obviates the danger from man. The
prevalence of trichina, and the disease produced by it, in Germany,
is to be accounted for by the custom of eating uncooked ham and
other things. I have myself eaten this ‘schinken’ in Germany. I am
afraid if trichinosis could be detected in a cat no remedy could be
suggested; but in speaking of worms, it ought to be taken into
consideration, and may, perhaps, account for some of the obscure
causes of death in our domestic pet.
“There are, again, worms whose habitat is the blood-vessels, and
whose choice for a nest is the junction or branch of some artery—a
favourite one being that vessel which is given off from the great
trunk (posterior aorta) to the liver (hepatic). The presence of such a
nest occludes the vessel, and produces changes in the structure of
its coat, which, together with the diminished calibre of the vessel,
seriously affects the liver, by depriving it in a great measure of its
nourishment, its substance, like all other parts of the body,
depending for its maintenance and repair on the constant circulation
of fresh blood, charged with material for supplying the daily waste.
“The ducts or passages from the liver through which the bile should
pass are the favourite haunt of another kind of parasite—the fluke;
here ‘they do most breed and haunt,’ producing dropsy, a condition
well known in sheep, and called the ‘rot.’
“These, like the strongylus occasionally found in the kidneys, are
most fatal to their bearers, and unfortunately beyond the reach of

65. remedies.
“A great many remedies have been suggested for sheep suffering
from their presence, but the chief difficulty consists in the fact that
any remedy, in order to affect the parasite, must enter first into the
circulation of the bearer, and the turpentine which would kill the
fluke would first kill the cat; and again, the salt, which ruminants
enjoy, could not be given to the cat, because vomition is so easily
excited, and so much would be required.
“Fortunately for cats and dogs, the kind of worms to which they are
most subject are generally situated in the stomach and bowels, and
are to be dislodged without much difficulty. It may be taken as a
general rule that round worms can be expelled by santonin, and flat
worms by areca-nut; but some care should be exercised in the
administration of these drugs.
“If a cat is found to be very thin, and her coat is stiff and harsh,
accompanied with vomiting of round worms, or they are observed in
the excrement, a pill should be made of half a grain of santonin, and
ten grains of extract of gentian, and two or three grains of
saccharated carbonate of iron, and given fasting, at intervals of two
or three days. The best way of giving a pill to a cat is to stick it on
the end of a penholder, and, having opened her mouth, push it back
on the tongue without any fear of its going the wrong way, and
withdraw the penholder suddenly. The pill will almost certainly be
swallowed, as the rough, papillæ on the cat’s tongue will have
prevented the pill being withdrawn with the holder, and it should
have been placed too far back for the patient to do anything with it
but swallow it.
“If tape-worm has been observed, from one to three grains of areca-
nut (freshly grated) should be given in the form of a pill, mixed with
five grains of extract of gentian, and two grains of extract of
hyoscyamus. Areca-nut will probably produce the desired effect
given alone, but it too often produces acute colic, and even fits, if
not mixed with some sedative.”

66. There is a worm peculiar to the feline race only, and known as
Ascaris mystax, or the moustached worm, so called from the four
projections at the head. This worm more generally infests the
intestines, but often lodges in the stomach, and grows to a
considerable length, and is then usually vomited up, to the relief of
the poor cat.
“The presence of this or other guests within the stomach is often a
cause of gastric derangement, and the cat will be at times voracious,
and at others ‘very dainty,’ no doubt feeling faint and nauseated by
the irritating presence of the worms, and desperately hungry
sometimes from being robbed of its nourishment; for it must be
remembered that worms do not simply eat the food as it reaches the
stomach from time to time, but they live on the all but completely
digested food, or chyle, which is just ready to enter the circulation,
and contains all the most nutritive part of the food in a condition fit
for building up the animal structures, and replacing the waste which
is always taking place. It is only by the consideration of this fact that
we can understand how a few small worms can so rapidly cause the
bearer to waste away.”
And now, in concluding, may I suggest that there is “a time to kill,
and a time to heal,” and that when a favourite cat is really ill, in
pain, or has met with a serious accident, it is often both wise and
merciful to drown or shoot the poor animal effectually, and without
delay. Drowning, as I have before observed, is, perhaps, the
simplest and the least painful of the ordinary methods of
destruction. Shooting must be resorted to with care and forethought,
and no possibility allowed of the cat escaping but only wounded.
Poison is at all times to be avoided.
 
 

67. FELINE INSTINCT.
I.
Mitis and Riquet are two tom-cats saved from a litter of five; their
mother is an Angora, slate-coloured, with the neck, breast, and tips
of the paws white. Mitis has a large head and limbs, and a coat
which promises to be Angora and the same colour as his mother’s, a
white muzzle, and white underneath his eyes, while his lips and the
tip of his nose are bright pink. Riquet’s body and tail are black, with
grey marks; his head, which is smaller than his brother’s, is grey,
with zebra-like bands of black crossing longitudinally and laterally;
two white streaks branch out from the upper end of the nose, and
on the forehead two curved lines, starting from the corners of his
eyes, surround a disc of black and grey.
No sooner has their mother licked them over than they set off
whining and seeking for her teats. I made some observations of
their movements on the first and second days; but as I am afraid of
not recording them with sufficient accuracy from memory, I will
begin with the third day, when I took to writing down my
observations.
12th May.—They are perpetually moving about, even when sucking
and sleeping. Sleep overtakes them in the act of sucking, and then,
according to what position they were in at the moment, they either
remain ensconced in their mother’s silky breast, or fall over with
open mouths into some graceful attitude. The little gluttons, Riquet
especially, who seems to be delicately organised, are often troubled
with hiccoughs, reminding one of young children who have sucked
too copiously. It is curious to watch them when searching for a teat,
turning their heads abruptly from right to left, and left to right,
pushing now with their foreheads, now with their muzzles; tumbling

68. and jumping one over the other, sliding between their mother’s legs,
trying to suck no matter what part of her body; and finally, when
they have settled down to their meal, resembling leeches, whose
whole activity is concentrated on the work of suction, and who, as
soon as they have thoroughly gorged themselves, let go their hold
and fall back into inertia.
Whenever their sensibility is unpleasantly excited, as, for instance, if
their mother leans on them too heavily, or leaves them alone, or
performs their toilet too roughly, they give vent to monotonous—I
had almost said monosyllabic—plaints; sounds which can scarcely be
called mias, still less miaows; they are best described as trembling
mi-i-is. They also emit these plaintive sounds when they have been
searching long for a teat without finding one, or if they annoy each
other during the laborious search; or if I take them up too quickly, or
turn them over in the palm of my hand to examine them. If I set
them up in my hand in a standing position, they will remain
motionless for a few seconds, as if enjoying the warmth of my hand;
but very soon again they begin clamouring with loud whines for their
home in the mother’s warm, soft stomach, which is at once their
shelter and their dining-room, the familiar, and perhaps the loved,
theatre of their nascent activity.
13th May.—This morning Mitis appeared to be ill. He was languid,
did not whine when I took him up, and made no attempt at sucking;
he had an attack of hiccoughs, accompanied by shiverings all over
his body, which made me anxious. It only lasted an hour, however:
there may have been some temporary cause of indisposition; or
perhaps excessive sucking, or a very great need of sleep, had
reduced him to a semi-inert mass.
Riquet’s head is prettier than it was yesterday; the white spot has
increased in size, the grey marks have spread and grown lighter, and
the head and neck are rather larger; but Mitis has still by far the
finest carriage.

69. Twelve o’clock.—The two leeches have been operating for twenty
minutes without desisting. They are now brimful of milk, and settling
themselves down, no matter where—one on the mother’s stomach,
the other on her paws; no sooner have they placed themselves than
they fall asleep.
Two o’clock.—They have no fixed position for sucking; any does that
comes first.
When the mother leaves them alone for a moment they turn in rapid
gyrations round and round, over and under each other, delighting in
the mutual contact of their bodies and the warmth which it
engenders. If the mother remains absent for some minutes, they
end by falling asleep one over the other in the shape of a cross. If I
lift up the top one, the other soon begins to whine: they are not
accustomed to solitude, and it produces a painful impression of cold.
Very young animals are easily chilled, and sometimes die of cold in a
temperature which is not very low. This is owing to the smallness of
their bodies and the feebleness of their respiratory organs.
Between four and five o’clock Riquet seemed to me very lively. He
was searching for a teat which he could not find, and for ten
minutes he crossed backwards and forwards over his brother’s body,
giving him frequent slaps with his paws.
Riquet’s nose is a pink-brown, but tending to red-brown.
This evening (ten o’clock) I showed the mother a saucer full of milk;
she left her kittens to go and drink it, and afterwards she took a turn
at a plate of porridge; her absence lasted barely five minutes. The
kittens, during this time, went through their usual manœuvres:
Riquet turned three times running round his brother; the latter, who
is more indolent, or perhaps has more need of sleep, stretched
himself out full length on his side. Riquet, however, cannot rest till
he has found what he is searching for—viz., the body of his mother.
He is still in a state of agitation when the cat comes back, raises
herself with her front-paws on the edge of the box, and drops

70. quietly down by the side of her little ones without touching them.
Instantly they start up, raising their little waggling heads; they know
that their mother is there—the slight noise she made in getting into
the box, and the movement she imparted to it, are associated in
their memory with the idea of her presence.
The mother’s first care is to see to their toilet, and she proceeds to
turn them over with two or three strokes of her tongue, and then
operates on them with the same natural instrument. Both have their
turn; and at the end of the operation, which seems to worry them,
they whine considerably, though not at all loud. A few minutes after,
the melodious snoring of the mother informs me that the whole
family is at rest. I take a peep at them: the mother is laid on her left
side, describing a large and elegant curve; Mitis, half on his hind-
paws, half on his stomach, is stretched across Riquet, and both are
sleeping, or sucking—perhaps doing both at the same time.
14th May.—My kittens seem to grow as I watch them, especially
Mitis’ head, neck, and back; he is a massive heavy kitten, but his
forehead is broad and high: he will probably be an intelligent cat; his
leonine chin, large and well developed, indicates energy and
goodness. He begins to show more vivacity than during the earlier
days; when he encounters his brother in searching for a teat, or if
the latter disputes with him the one he has got hold of, he deals out
at him rapid strokes with his paw, which remind one of a dog
swimming. His mother has just been performing his toilet in the
manner aforesaid, and has no doubt kept him longer at it than he
liked; he shows his displeasure by striking out his hind paws, one of
which knocks against his ear, and uttering two or three impatient
mis.
These very occasional and but slightly emphasised cries are the only
ones which Riquet—even the brisk and lively Riquet—gives out, even
when I take him in my hand. I have seen other cats that were more
unhappy complain more: one, for instance, which was the only one I
had kept out of a litter, and which died at ten days old, just as it was
beginning to open its eyes; in her grief at having lost all her other

71. kittens, the mother used to carry this one about from place to place,
and even leave it alone for hours at a time; I believe it died from
bad treatment and insufficient feeding; the poor little thing
frequently uttered loud moanings. I cannot feel the slightest doubt
as to the causes of its death when I see the mother so happy with
the two that I have left her this time; she has not once called or
searched for the other three which I drowned. Does this proceed
from a want of arithmetical aptitude? Two, for her, are many as well
as five. However this may be, she is very happy, very repue, very
attentive, and her little ones are habituated to comfort, ease,
satisfied desires, and tranquil sleep and digestion. If they do not
know how to complain I think it is because they have had no reason
to learn to do so.
The colour of Riquet’s hair is changing sensibly: the grey-white now
preponderates on his face. The velvety black of his neck, back, and
sides is silvered with whitish tints, which have spread since the
morning.
Often when they are alone, or even if their mother is with them,
they will mistake no matter what part of their bodies for teats and
begin to suck it, as a child of six months will suck its finger or even
the tip of its foot.
15th May.—To-day I held Riquet on my hand for three minutes. I
was smoking a cigar; the little creature stretched out its neck, poked
its nose up in the air, and sniffed with a persistent little noise. A
sparrow, whose cage was hung up over us, frightened at my
smoking-cap, began to fly round the cage and beat at it with its
wings. At the sound of this noise Riquet was seized with a sudden fit
of trembling, which made him squat down precipitately in my hand.
Movements of this kind are reflex ones, the production of which is
associated in the organism with certain auditory impressions; but the
animal is necessarily more or less conscious of them, or will soon be
so. From five minutes’ observation I have thus learnt that Riquet is
sensible to strong smells, and that he already goes through the
consecutive movements of sentiment and fear.

72. Riquet’s head is visibly changing to silver-grey; the marks on his
back are also assuming this shade.
I took Mitis in my hands, stretched them out and drew them up
again. He does not seem to know quite what to make of it; he
attempts a few steps, feels about uncertainly with his head, and
comes in contact with my coat smelling of the cigar; he appears to
be scenting my coat, but not with so much noise and vivacity as
Riquet does. He waggles his head about, feels about with his paws,
and tries to suck my coat and my hands; he is evidently out of his
element and unhappy. The mother calls to him from the bottom of
the box; this causes him to turn his head quickly in the direction
from which the sound comes (what a number of movements or ideas
associated in the intelligence and organism of a little animal four
days old!); he starts off again, making a step forward, then drawing
back, turning to the right and to the left, with a waddling movement.
I give him back to his mother.
I thought I noticed once again this evening that the light of my
lamp, when held near the kittens’ box, caused rather lively excitation
of their eyelids, although these were closed. The light must pass
through these thin coverings and startle the retinas. The kittens
were agitated during a few seconds; they raised and shook their
heads, then lowered them and hid them in the maternal bosom.
The noise of carriages, the sound of my voice, the twittering of the
sparrow, the movements imparted to the box by my hand—all throw
them into the same kind of agitation. These movements may be
coupled with the movements, unconscious no doubt, but determined
by external causes, which are observed in the young.
16th May.—Mitis’ tail is thickening at the root; the hair of its head
and neck is close and silky; he will no doubt turn out a considerable
fraction of an Angora.
When I place the kittens on the palm of my hand they inhale
strongly and with a certain amount of persistence; this is because

73. their sense of smell operates no doubt with tolerable completeness,
in view of the species, and in the absence of visual perception, and
by reason of the imperfect operation of their touch.
This evening Mitis, having escaped from the constraint in which his
mother holds him to perform his toilet, half plantigrade half
gastéropode, dragged himself slowly, though as fast as he was able,
along his mother’s paws, and at last nestled down in the soft fur of
her stomach. While in this position his head, rolling like that of a
drunken man, knocked against the head of Riquet, who was in the
act of sucking. Instantly Mitis lifts a paw and brings it down on his
brother’s head. The latter holds on, as he is very comfortably spread
out on the bottom of the box, and is sucking a teat placed low
down. A second attempt of Mitis’ fails equally. He then performs
rapid movements with his head, searching vigorously for his cup, but
not finding it. The mother then places a paw on his back, and his
centre of gravity being thus better established, he at last
accomplishes his object. Here we have several actions which are no
doubt in some degree conscious, but which come chiefly under the
head of automatism: the scent which helps in the search for the
teat, the instinct to dispute the ground with another who is
discovered to be sucking, the movements of intentional repulsion, of
struggle, of combativeness. What an admirable machine for
sensation, sentiment, volition, activity, and consciousness, is a young
animal only just born!
17th May.—I have observed—or think I have observed—in Mitis, the
more indolent of the two brothers, the first symptoms of playfulness:
lying on his back with his mouth half open, he twiddles his four paws
with an air of satisfaction, and as if seeking to touch some one or
something. It is eight o’clock in the evening, the window is open, the
sparrow is singing with all its might in its cage, we are talking and
laughing close to the cat’s box. Do all these noises in some way
excite the sensoriums of the two repus kittens? The fact is, that they
have been in a state of agitation for more than a quarter of an hour,
travelling one over the other and walking over their mother’s

74. stomach, paws, and head. Mitis, the heavier of the two and soonest
tired out, was the first to return to the teat. Riquet’s return to the
maternal breast has been a long and roundabout journey from one
corner of the box to the other, and round and round his mother.
At nine o’clock I went to look at them with the light. This threw
them into dreadful consternation. I observe in them both something
like intentions to bite, while rolling each other over, they keep their
mouths open, and snap instead of sucking when they come in
contact with any part of each other’s bodies; but it is all mechanical.
Here we have an increase of activity produced by an accession of
powers and temporary over-excitement.
18th May.—They are lying asleep on their sides, facing each other,
with their fore-paws half stretched out against the hind ones.
Riquet’s sleep is much disturbed; his mouth touches one of his
brother’s paws, which he instantly begins to suck. Is this a
mechanical or unconscious action? Is he not possibly dreaming?
After four or five attempts at sucking he lets go the paw, and sleeps
on tranquilly for four minutes; but the noise of a carriage passing in
the street, and perhaps the consequent vibration of the floor and the
bottom of the box, cause violent trembling in his lips, paws, and tail.
The mother gets back in the box; and the kittens, instantly awake
and erect, utter three or four mis to welcome the joyful return.
In settling herself down the mother leans rather heavily on Riquet;
the latter, who used formerly to extricate himself mechanically, and
who already knows from experience the inconvenience of such a
position, moves off brusquely, goes further away than he would have
done formerly, and Mitis, on the lookout for a teat, hears close to
him the noise of his brother’s sucking. He pommels his head with his
hind-paws, rolls up against him, striking out with his fore-paws, and
knocks him over with the weight of his body; he is now in
possession of the teat which his brother had first tried, and, finding
it as good as the one he was sucking before, he sticks to it.

75. 18th May.—Mitis was trying to worry Riquet who was busy sucking. I
hold out my hand to make a barrier between the two; Mitis pushes it
back with his paw, but soon perceives the difference between the
two bodies which he is pushing against, gives over his excitement,
and looks out for another teat. No doubt in this case there was no
comparative perception of difference, but different sensations
producing different muscular actions; that is all, I imagine, but this is
nevertheless the germ of veritable comparison.
19th May.—Both the eyes of both kittens are about to open; the
eyelids seem slightly slit, and are covered with an oozy film. At the
external corner of Mitis’ right eye there is a little round opening
disclosing a pale blue speck of eyeball, the size of a pin’s head. At
the internal commissure of the left eye there is also a round
opening, but much smaller, and showing no eye-ball through it.
Riquet’s right eye is also opening slightly; the edges of the left
eyelids are stopped up by a yellowish discharge.
I fancied that Mitis was playing in the box; I tumbled him over on his
back, tickled his stomach, and stroked his head; he struck out his
paws without attempting to pick himself up; this was evidently a
more or less conscious attempt at play. His mother came to lick him
in this attitude, and he performed with his fore-paws as previously.
Riquet, too, shows a tendency to play, but not of such a pronounced
nature.
21st May.—Riquet’s left eye is beginning to open at the inside corner.
I took them both up on my hand, and waved my fingers in front of
their partially opened eyes; but I did not observe any movement
from which I could infer the power of distinguishing objects.
Mitis, placed close to his mother’s head, nibbles at it and plays with
his paws on her nose; the mother does not approve of this
amusement; she lays a paw on her son’s neck and teaches him
respect; soon he escapes from her grasp, and begins searching for a
teat.

76. Some streaks of fawn-colour have mixed with the zebra-like black
and grey on Riquet’s neck: he is now quadri-coloured.
Mitis is seated on my hand. I kiss him on the head, three times
running, making a slight noise with my lips; he shakes his head
twice. This is an habitual movement of the mother cat when one
kisses her or strokes her head and it displeases, or if she is occupied
with something else.
When I pass my hand in front of their heads, at about four
centimètres’ distance, they make a movement with the head and
wink their eyes; I am not sure whether this means that they see,
though their eyes have been more or less open since yesterday
evening.
They have not yet begun to purr.
22nd May.—I went up to the box towards twelve o’clock. Riquet’s left
eye, the light blue colour of which I can see, seems to perceive me,
but it must be very indistinctly. I wave my hand at ten centimètres
from his eyes, and it is only the noise I make and the disturbance of
the air that cause him to make any movement.
Both Mitis’ eyes are almost entirely open; I hold my finger near his
nose without touching it, I wave it from right to left and left to right,
and I fancy I perceive in the eyes—in the eyes more than in the
head—a slight tendency to move in the direction of my movements.
23rd May, 7 é.m.—Their movements are less trembling, quicker, and
fierce not only because of increased strength and exercise, but
because intention, directed by eyesight, is beginning to operate.
The more I observe young animals, the more it seems to me that
the external circumstances of their development—alimentation,
exercise (more or less stimulated and controlled), ventilation, light,
attention to their health and their affective sensibilities, care in
breeding and training,—are perhaps only secondary factors in their
development. Actual sensations, it seems to me, serve only to bring

77. to the service one set of virtualities rather than another; a sentient,
intelligent, active being is a tangled skein of innumerable threads,
some of which, and not others, will be drawn out by the events of
life. This it is that marks out the precise work, limits the power, but
at the same time encourages all the pretensions of educators. If all
is not present in all, as Jacolot asserted, who can say what is and
what is not present in a young animal or a young child?
I placed Mitis on a foot-warmer, the contact with which produced
two or three nervous tremblings, somewhat similar to slight
shiverings; he seemed pleased, however, and stretched himself out
on the warm surface, with his eyes half-closed, as if going to sleep.
Afterwards I placed Riquet there; he went through the same
trembling movements, but then proceeded with an inspection with
his muzzle—scenting or feeling, I do not know which, the article on
which he had been deposited. He then gently stretched out a paw
and laid himself down flat, the contact with the warm surface
inducing sleep, by reason of the familiar associations between the
like sensation of warmth experienced on his mother’s breast and the
instinctive need of sleep.
When they trot about in their box, some of their movements appear
to be directed by sight.
Their ears have lengthened perceptibly during the last two days, and
so have their tails.
When any one walks about the room, if they are not asleep or
sucking, they begin frisking about immediately.
The mother, whom I sent to take a little exercise in the courtyard,
has been absent for half an hour. Mitis is asleep; Riquet, lying with
his head on his brother’s neck, was awakened by the sound of my
footsteps, all the more easily roused no doubt because he was
hungry, and because his mother had been absent so long. I stroke
his head with my finger, and he puts on a smiling look. I make a

78. little noise with my lips to rouse the sparrow, and this noise pleases
Riquet, who listens with the same smiling countenance.
They now attempt to climb higher; they do not knock their noses so
frequently against the partitions of the box, they certainly direct
their paws at certain points determined by their vision; eyes, noses,
and paws now operate in concert on the teats or any other objects
that come across their way; for they do not go much in search of
objects as yet. Their field of vision does not stretch very far; what
they see is matter of chance and accident rather than of real
intention. If I wish to attract their attention by waving my hand, I
must not hold it further than fifteen centimètres from their eyes. I
must go very close to them before they appear to distinguish my
person. I am not sure that they see the whole of it; I rather think
that only certain portions are visible to them,—amongst others my
nose, because it stands out in relief, and my eyes, because they
reflect the light vividly.
24th May, 9 é.m.—The orbits of their eyes seem to me rather more
expanded than this morning, possibly because the light makes their
pupils contract. I placed a candle on a chair by the side of their box;
the light evidently annoyed them, but it stimulated them to exercise
their limbs. Mitis, after having promenaded and struggled about in a
corner of the box, and grown accustomed to the lively sensations on
his retina, directs his steps towards the most brightly-lighted point of
the box. A band of light falls full on the upper part of the partition on
the side facing me. Mitis, and Riquet after him,—more from imitation
than personal excitement,—tries to climb up this luminous board; he
does not succeed, but the attraction continues undiminished. I
thought involuntarily of the plants which struggle up walls to reach
the light.
Mitis, still somewhat disconcerted—though much less so than at first
—when he looks directly at light, retires into a corner, and tired, no
doubt, with the exercise he has just been taking, places himself, or
rather falls back, on his mother’s tail. I take him up gently, and set
him in front of his mother’s stomach, and by the side of Riquet, who

79. had just finished his gambols also, and was sucking. Then began a
scuffle, the front paws working away perceptibly like the battoirs of
a washerwoman. I come to the rescue, placing my hand between
them, and this calms them down; they favour me, however, with a
few ridiculous little taps. Mitis, meanwhile, has taken possession of
the contested teat, and celebrates his victory by the first purr that to
my knowledge he has produced.
Riquet is now in a great state of agitation; he is lying in the dark,
behind his mother’s back, and close to the side of the box facing me.
I hold my finger to him; he lifts himself up and leans his head slowly
forward to touch or scent my finger. He can now distinguish people,
but more by touch, scent, or hearing than by sight, the latter sense
being very imperfectly developed and little exercised. When I make a
slight noise with my lips the little creature starts and jumps about,
but does not lift up his eyes to my face, which he has seen close to
him, has looked at with attention, but which he is very imperfectly
acquainted with, and does not accurately localise with respect to my
hand and my body.
Riquet is close to his mother’s head. He has stretched a paw over
her neck, and is looking at some part or other of her head, I don’t
know which, while playing gently with his little paw. Here we see an
intelligent development of affection; he now loves his mother in a
more conscious way; his visual and tactile perceptions are becoming
co-ordinated, are amplifying his knowledge, and giving strength and
precision to his sentiments.
I stretch out my finger to Mitis, who is still lying on the spot where I
found him at first. In return, either from curiosity, or from instinctive
impulse and movement, he holds out his little paw, which seems to
enjoy the grasp of my finger, and sticks to it.
25th May.—I place my kittens, one after the other, in the hollow of
my hand. Mitis squealed when I lifted him out of the box, and during
the three minutes that I kept them in my hand they both seemed
almost indifferent. The instant, however, that I put them back in the

80. box they seemed quite delighted to get back again, or else they
were stimulated to play by the various sensations—muscular, visual,
tactile, and thermal—which I had occasioned them. Standing and
walking about on my hand had stimulated Mitis to an extraordinary
display of strength. In his desire for prolonged exercise, and no
doubt also wishing to renew the vivid sensations of light he had just
experienced, he set to work to climb up the perpendicular wall of his
dwelling, making all the time a great noise of scratching. All
movement produces sensations; and all sensations produce
movements.
26th May.—They both play with their paws and their muzzles, but
frequently, as if by chance, only without very marked intention, and
with very uncertain movements.
I seem already to distinguish in them two different characters. If one
can go by appearances, Mitis will be gentle, patient, rather indolent
and lazy, prudent and good-natured; Riquet, on the contrary, lively,
petulant, irritable, playful, and audacious. Noise and contact seem to
excite him more than his brother. But both of them are very
affectionate towards their mother, or perhaps I should say very
appreciative of the pleasure of being with her, of seeing, hearing,
and touching her, and not only of sucking from her.
I hold Mitis up to the edge of the box; he evinces a desire to get
back to his mother, but does not know how to manage it. His
muscles have not yet acquired the habit of responding to this
particular psycho-motive stimulus; he crawls up to where my hand
ends, advances first one paw, then another, and finds only empty
space; he then stretches out his neck, and two or three times
running makes an attempt with his paws at the movements which
are the precursors of the act of jumping. He would like to jump
down, but cannot do so; instinctive intention is here in advance of
the adaptiveness or the strength of the muscular apparatus fitted to
execute it. He retreats frightened and discouraged, and whines for
help.

81. Riquet placed in the same position, goes through almost the same
movements, but he is able to do more; he has managed to seize
hold (chance perhaps assisting him) of the edge of the box, he sticks
to it, leans over without letting go, and would have got down, or
rather tumbled down, into the box, if I had let him.
27th May. Every day they get to know me better. Now, after I have
taken them in my hands, or stroked their head, neck, or lips, they go
back to their box quite excited; they walk about in it faster than
before, snap at each other and strike out their paws with much more
spirit. Play has now become a matter of experience with them, and
grows day by day a little more complicated; they seem to be aware
of their growth in strength and skill, and to derive pleasure from it.
To-day, for the first time, Riquet scratched the piece of stuff on the
bottom of the box, and he did it with playful gestures and an
expression of delight; first he stretched out one paw, then the other,
with his claws turned out, and, being pleased with the noise
produced by drawing back his claws, he renewed the operation
twice, but no more. It will be necessary to go through the same
experience two or three times more, in order to fix the idea of this
game in his little head.
They have already tried several times running (either by accident or
with a vague idea of ascending) to hold on to, or climb up, the sides
of the box; if they were not slippery, or were covered with a cloth, I
think they would have strength enough to lift themselves up to the
edge.
They lift their head and paws as high as they can, in order to see
better. All the inside of the box seems to be sufficiently well known
to them, but all the same they are constantly making experiments in
it, either by touch, sight, hearing, scent, and even taste; for they
frequently lick the board, and try to suck the cloth at the bottom.
They would no doubt gladly extend the area of their experiences,
but I shall leave them habitually in the box until they are able to get
out of it by themselves; they can get quite enough exercise in it, and
they have enough air and light, and I think the prolongation of this

82. calm, happy, retired existence makes them more gentle. The mother
prefers their being in the box, and I am of the same opinion, though
not perhaps for the same reasons. They would become too
independent if allowed to follow their caprices, and exposed to the
dangers of adventure, instead of being accustomed to the restraint
of the hand which they love and which humanises[4] them. I want
them to become so thoroughly accustomed to my hand, that, when
they receive their freedom, they will still recognise it from a distance,
and come to it at my will. My hand is a very precious instrument of
preservation and education for them.
28th May. When, standing close to the box, I take Mitis in my hands,
he looks at the box, bends his head, stretches out his paws, and
shows a considerable desire to get down, but without making any
effort towards this end. I hold him a little lower down, at a few
centimètres from his mother, and he no longer hesitates but lets
himself glide down to her, his movements, however, only turning out
a success thanks to my assistance. Can it be that he had (what
Tiedemann does not even allow his fourteen-months-old child to
have possessed) a vague perception of distance, of empty and
inhabited space, anterior to personal experience? “He had not yet
any idea of the falling of bodies from a height, or of the difference
between empty and inhabited space. On the 14th October he still
wanted to precipitate himself from heights, and several times he let
his biscuit fall to the ground when intending to dip it in his cup.”
The kittens endeavour to climb along the sides of the box, but their
idea of height (perhaps an instinctive idea) is not sufficiently
determined; they seem quite astounded at not reaching the goal
with the first stroke. At the same time I may be mistaken in my
observations; perhaps they went up these four or five centimètres
mechanically, because in walking along horizontally they found under
their paws the surface of the partition which may have seemed a
natural continuation of their road. Perhaps they have no wish to get
up to the edge of the box.

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