STUDY OF CULTIVATION METHODS OF MUSHROOM - Bajud Neupane

This project report, “Study of Cultivation Methods of Mushroom”, explores the science and practice of mushroom farming with a focus on Nepal. It covers different cultivation techniques such as bag, log, tray, compost, and substrate-based methods. The study highlights the economic, nutritional, and environmental benefits of mushroom cultivation, including its role in food security, income generation, and sustainable agriculture. Field research, farmer interviews, and case studies provide practical insights into challenges like contamination, pest control, and market demand.

Whether you are a student, researcher, or aspiring agripreneur, this presentation serves as a comprehensive guide to understanding mushroom farming—from substrate preparation and inoculation to harvesting and post-harvest management.

1. STUDY OF CULTIVATION
METHODS OF MUSHROOM





BAJUD NEUPANE

2. ii

ABSTRACT
Mushroom cultivation is both an art and a science, offering significant benefits with low
investment and a quick turnaround, typically within four weeks. Mushrooms grow on
decaying organic matter and can be cultivated on agricultural waste, making it an eco-
friendly and sustainable practice. They are highly nutritious, rich in protein, vitamins, and
carbohydrates, and have both food and medicinal uses. The process involves stages like
spawn production, sterilization, incubation, irrigation, and harvesting. In Nepal, mushroom
farming is becoming popular as a profitable and sustainable agricultural practice, utilizing
waste and improving rural livelihoods.

3. iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is my great pleasure to acknowledge the contribution made by various people and
mentors in completing the study. The study would have not been possible without their
encouragement, help and valuable comments. I would like to convey my cordial gratitude
to our respected Biology teachers for guiding me throughout the project session and letting
me to research this project. Meticulous hard work has been put into this project work for
ensuring it to be the bunch of best research within the topic. I hope that research and
possible guidelines provided by this project will be greatly brainstorming idea for the next
generation of students and will guide them in every possible way.

Bajud Neupane

4. iv


TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................. iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES................................................................................... v
1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1
1.1 General Background ....................................................................................... 1
1.2 Cultivation Methods........................................................................................ 3
1.3 Mushroom cultivation in Nepal ...................................................................... 7
1.4 Objective ....................................................................................................... 10
1.5 Study Area .................................................................................................... 11
2. METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................... 12
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS .............................................................................. 14
3.1 Variation in Market Price by Mushroom Type ............................................. 14
3.2 Interaction with an Agriculture Student on Mushroom Cultivation in Nepal ............ 16
3.3 Interaction with a Mushroom Farmer on Cultivation Methods .................................. 17
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 19
ANNEXES ........................................................................................................................ 20
ANNEX 1............................................................................................................ 20
ANNEX 2............................................................................................................ 20

5. v


LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Tables

Table 1: Different types, species regarding to mushroom culture .................................... 14
Table 2: List of People Consulted during the Survey ....................................................... 20



Figures
Figure 1: Preparation of Substrate ...................................................................................... 3
Figure 2: Inoculation and Incubation ................................................................................. 4
Figure 3: Fruiting Stage ...................................................................................................... 5
Figure 4: Harvesting ........................................................................................................... 5
Figure 5: Mushroom Cultivation in Nepal .......................................................................... 7
Figure 6: Map of Study Area ............................................................................................ 11
Figure 7: Practical Demonstration of Substrate Preparation and Inoculation in Mushroom
Cultivation......................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 8: Mycelial Colonization of Pasteurized Straw Substrate in Polypropylene Bags 21

6. 1

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General Background
Mushroom cultivation is a sustainable agricultural practice with significant economic,
nutritional, and environmental benefits. This project aims to explore the entire process of
growing edible mushrooms, covering species selection, optimal growing conditions,
harvesting techniques, and post-harvest handling. With the increasing demand for healthy
and organic food sources, mushroom farming presents an excellent opportunity for
individuals and businesses alike.
Mushrooms are highly nutritious, providing essential proteins, vitamins, minerals, and
antioxidants. Their consumption has been linked to various health benefits, including
improved immunity, reduced inflammation, and better digestion. As a low-calorie food
with high fiber content, mushrooms are an excellent dietary choice for individuals looking
to maintain a balanced and healthy lifestyle. Furthermore, some mushroom varieties, such
as shiitake and reishi, have been traditionally used in herbal medicine for their potential
immune-boosting and anti-aging properties.
Unlike traditional crops, mushrooms do not require fertile soil to grow; instead, they thrive
on agricultural waste and organic materials such as straw, sawdust, and coffee grounds.
This makes mushroom farming a sustainable and eco-friendly practice that promotes waste
recycling and environmental conservation. By converting organic waste into a valuable
food source, mushroom cultivation contributes to a circular economy, reducing the burden
on landfills and minimizing environmental pollution. Additionally, mushrooms play a
crucial role in natural ecosystems by decomposing organic matter and enriching soil health.
Another advantage of mushroom cultivation is its low space and resource requirements.
Mushrooms can be grown in controlled indoor environments, greenhouses, or outdoor
setups, making them suitable for both urban and rural farming. With relatively short
growing cycles, farmers can harvest multiple crops per year, ensuring a steady supply and
quick returns on investment. This makes mushroom farming an attractive venture for small-
scale entrepreneurs, hobbyists, and large-scale agricultural enterprises alike.

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The versatility of mushrooms extends beyond food consumption. They are used in
pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and even biodegradable packaging materials. Some species,
such as mycelium-based materials, are being developed as sustainable alternatives to
plastics. Furthermore, research on mushrooms for soil remediation and toxin absorption
has opened new avenues for environmental restoration projects.
This project will provide a comprehensive guide to mushroom farming, covering crucial
steps such as substrate preparation, inoculation, incubation, fruiting conditions, pest and
disease management, and post-harvest storage. By understanding these essential aspects,
participants will gain the knowledge and skills needed to start and maintain a successful
mushroom farm, whether for personal consumption or commercial production. Practical
demonstrations and case studies will offer real-world insights into successful mushroom
farming operations, ensuring that participants can apply learned techniques effectively.
By promoting sustainable agricultural practices, this initiative supports alternative income
generation, food security, and ecological balance. Through hands-on learning and practical
applications, this project seeks to empower aspiring mushroom growers with the tools and
knowledge necessary to contribute to a greener and more resilient food system.

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1.2 Cultivation Methods
Mushroom cultivation is a meticulous process that involves several key steps, each
requiring specific attention to environmental factors and biological conditions. Successful
mushroom farming relies on understanding the lifecycle of the mushroom, from spore
germination to fruiting body formation, and ensuring that optimal conditions are met
throughout the process. The following methods outline the different stages of mushroom
cultivation:
1. Selection of Mushroom Species
The first step in mushroom cultivation is the selection of the species. Different species of
mushrooms have distinct requirements for growth, including variations in temperature,
humidity, and substrate type. Common species like Agaricus bisporus (Button
mushrooms), Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster mushrooms), and Lentinula edodes (Shiitake
mushrooms) each have unique environmental preferences. Therefore, choosing the right
species based on climate conditions and available resources is essential for success.
2. Preparation of Substrate
The substrate serves as the nutrient medium
for the mycelium (the vegetative part of the
fungus) to grow and develop into fruiting
bodies (the mushrooms). The must be
properly prepared to provide sufficient
nutrients for the mushrooms. Common
substrates include straw, sawdust, wood
pasteurizing the substrate to eliminate
unwanted microorganisms that could chips,
and agricultural by-products. Preparation
involves sterilizing orcompete with the
mushroom mycelium. Pasteurization typically
Figure 1: Preparation of Substrate

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occurs at temperatures between 60-80°C, while sterilization requires higher temperatures
of 120-130°C.
Once prepared, the substrate is cooled and mixed with mushroom spawn, which contains
mycelium of the chosen mushroom species. The spawn inoculates the substrate, and the
mycelium begins to colonize the material, breaking down the organic matter to absorb
nutrients.
3. Inoculation and Incubation
Inoculation is the process of adding
mushroom spawn to the prepared
substrate. This is done in a sterile
environment to avoid
contamination. The substrate and
spawn are mixed thoroughly to
ensure even distribution of the
mycelium.
Figure 2: Inoculation and Incubation
After inoculation, the substrate is placed in incubation conditions. This phase generally
takes place in a dark, warm environment with temperatures typically ranging from 22-
27°C, depending on the species. During this period, the mycelium colonizes the substrate,
gradually turning it white as it consumes the nutrients within the material. The incubation
phase can last from 2 to 6 weeks, depending on the substrate and environmental conditions.
Proper humidity levels must also be maintained to support the growth of the mycelium.
4. Fruiting Stage (Induction)
Once the substrate is fully colonized, the mycelium enters the fruiting phase. This stage is
triggered by environmental changes, such as a drop in temperature, increased humidity,

10. 5

and exposure to light. These conditions simulate the natural environment where
mushrooms would typically fruit.
For the fruiting stage, the temperature is lowered to
between 15-18°C, and the substrate is exposed to light for
several hours per day. Humidity levels should be increased
to 80-90%, and proper ventilation is necessary to prevent
the buildup of excess carbon dioxide, which can inhibit
mushroom growth.
Figure 3: Fruiting Stage
5. Harvesting
After the fruiting bodies mature, they are ready for harvest. The timing of harvesting is
crucial for maximizing yield and quality. Mushrooms should be harvested when the caps
are fully open but before the spores are released.
Depending on the species and growing
conditions, mushrooms can be harvested in
multiple flushes. Each flush involves the harvest
of a group of mushrooms, typically occurring in
intervals of 7-14 days, until the mycelium has
exhausted the nutrients in the substrate.
Figure 4: Harvesting
Mushrooms should be carefully harvested by twisting or cutting at the base to avoid
damaging the mycelium, allowing for subsequent flushes.
6. Post-Harvest Processing
Once harvested, mushrooms may be sold fresh, dried, or processed into other products such
as mushroom powders, soups, or extracts. Fresh mushrooms should be stored in cool

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conditions and consumed or sold quickly, as they have a short shelf life. Dried mushrooms
can be stored for much longer and are ideal for long-distance shipping or for use in various
culinary applications.
7. Sustainability Considerations
Mushroom cultivation has several sustainability benefits. Mushrooms can be grown on
agricultural waste such as straw, sawdust, and coffee grounds, turning these materials into
valuable food products. Additionally, mushrooms themselves are highly nutritious,
providing essential vitamins, minerals, and protein with minimal environmental impact
compared to traditional animal-based protein sources.
Another aspect of sustainability is the ability of mushrooms to act as natural decomposers,
helping to break down organic matter. This process can contribute to soil regeneration and
reduce the need for chemical fertilizers. Mushrooms also require relatively little space,
making them ideal for urban farming or small-scale production.
8. Challenges and Considerations
While mushroom cultivation can be rewarding, it is not without challenges. Common
issues include contamination, improper humidity or temperature conditions, and poor
substrate preparation. Managing these variables effectively is key to ensuring successful
yields. Contamination by mold, bacteria, or other fungi can devastate a crop, so maintaining
a sterile environment during inoculation and incubation is crucial.
Furthermore, certain species of mushrooms may be more susceptible to pests, which can
affect the quality and quantity of the harvest. Regular monitoring and maintenance of the
cultivation environment are necessary to prevent these problems.

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1.3 Mushroom cultivation in Nepal
Mushroom cultivation in Nepal has seen considerable development in recent years,
emerging as a promising agricultural sector that contributes to food security, economic
growth, and sustainability. Over the past decade, the production of mushrooms has
experienced substantial growth, with the country producing approximately 8,500 metric
tons of mushrooms in 2019/2020, marking a significant increase from previous years. This
growth can be attributed to several factors, including the country's favorable climate
conditions, the availability of abundant agricultural waste, and growing consumer demand
for nutritious food. The
most commonly
cultivated species in
Nepal are oyster
mushrooms (Pleurotus
ostreatus), which thrive
in the local climate,
followed by button
mushrooms (Agaricus
bisporus), shiitake
mushrooms (Lentinula
edodes), and milky mushrooms
(Calocybe indica).
Despite the growth in mushroom production, the industry faces several challenges that
hinder its full potential. One of the primary issues is the lack of scientific research and the
limited adoption of advanced cultivation techniques, which results in suboptimal yields
and inconsistent quality of mushrooms. Farmers often rely on traditional cultivation
methods, which may not be as efficient or productive as modern practices. Additionally,
there is a shortage of high-quality mushroom spawn, which is critical for successful
cultivation, and the availability of substrates like rice straw can be inconsistent, particularly
during peak demand periods. Rising input costs, such as the price of raw materials and
cultivation equipment, add further strain on farmers' profitability. Furthermore, pest and
Figure 5: Mushroom Cultivation in Nepal

13. 8

disease management remains a significant challenge, as mushrooms are highly susceptible
to contamination from molds, bacteria, and other pathogens that can destroy entire crops if
not properly controlled.
The market for mushrooms in Nepal continues to grow, driven by their nutritional benefits,
versatility in cooking, and increasing consumer awareness of healthier food choices.
However, local production still struggles to meet domestic demand, leading to imports,
particularly canned mushrooms, from other countries. This gap in supply presents a unique
opportunity for Nepal’s mushroom industry, as expanding local production could not only
satisfy domestic needs but also create opportunities for export to international markets,
especially as global demand for fresh and organic mushrooms rises.
In response to these challenges, the Nepalese government and various non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) have implemented programs aimed at promoting mushroom
cultivation. These initiatives include training and capacity-building programs for farmers,
providing access to quality inputs such as mushroom spawn and substrate materials, and
facilitating research and development to improve cultivation techniques. For example, in
the Gandaki Province, a Peace Corps volunteer worked with local farmers to enhance their
knowledge of mushroom cultivation, resulting in increased yields and better income for
participating farmers. These efforts have had a positive impact, helping farmers improve
their production and making mushroom cultivation a viable and profitable venture.
However, despite these efforts, the mushroom industry in Nepal is still in its nascent stages
compared to more established mushroom-producing countries. Addressing the challenges
related to cultivation techniques, pest control, input quality, and market access is crucial
for the sector's continued growth. If these issues are resolved, Nepal could become a
leading producer of mushrooms in South Asia, with the potential to expand its export
market and improve the livelihoods of thousands of farmers.
To unlock the full potential of mushroom cultivation in Nepal, it is essential to continue
focusing on research, technology adoption, and capacity building. Providing farmers with
the tools and knowledge to improve their farming practices, expanding market access, and

14. 9

ensuring a steady supply of high-quality inputs will be key to boosting production and
meeting the growing demand for mushrooms. With the right support and investment,
mushroom cultivation in Nepal has the potential to play a significant role in the country’s
agricultural and economic development, while also contributing to healthier and more
sustainable food systems.

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1.4 Objective
1.4.1 Main Objective:
• To study and analyze different methods of mushroom cultivation in order to fulfill the
requirements of the practical component in the Class 11.
1.4.2 General Objectives:
1. To compare various mushroom cultivation techniques based on species, area of
cultivation, market price, and labor involvement.
2. To understand the economic and nutritional benefits of mushroom farming and explore
its potential as a sustainable agricultural practice in Nepal.

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1.5 Study Area
The study was conducted in the Chitwan region of Nepal, located at approximately
27.5333° N latitude and 84.5000° E longitude. Chitwan, situated in the Terai region, has a
subtropical climate, with warm summers averaging 32°C and mild winters around 12°C,
accompanied by high humidity, especially during the monsoon season. This climate makes
the region ideal for mushroom farming. The area is bordered by the Narayani River to the
south and Chitwan National Park to the north. The study involved field visits to local
mushroom farms, interviews with experienced farmers, and discussions with agricultural
students from nearby colleges. The farmers shared their practical insights on cultivation
techniques, pest management, and the economic challenges of mushroom farming.
Agricultural students contributed their knowledge of modern farming practices, new
technologies, and the potential for innovation in the industry. Together, the perspectives of
both farmers and students helped form a comprehensive understanding of the opportunities
and challenges in mushroom farming in Chitwan.






Figure 6: Map of Study Area

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2. METHODOLOGY
The project was conducted through a combination of theoretical learning, hands-on
training, and field experimentation. The methodology will include:
1. Field Visits: The study included multiple visits to mushroom farms in Chitwan to
observe cultivation techniques, environmental control methods, and farm
management practices. These visits allowed for a firsthand understanding of the
challenges faced by local farmers in maintaining the optimal conditions for
mushroom growth.
2. Interviews with Farmers: In-depth interviews were conducted with local mushroom
farmers to gather insights on their cultivation methods, substrate preparation, pest
management strategies, and the economic aspects of mushroom farming. Farmers
shared valuable knowledge on traditional techniques, as well as the difficulties they
encounter, such as pest control and market fluctuations.
3. Discussions with Agricultural Students: Agricultural students from local
universities and colleges were engaged in discussions to understand the theoretical
and modern practices they are learning, including new technologies and
innovations that could benefit the mushroom farming industry in Chitwan. Their
perspectives helped highlight potential areas for improvement and integration of
advanced practices.
4. Surveys and Questionnaires: Surveys were distributed to a larger group of farmers
and agricultural students to collect quantitative data on the economic feasibility of
mushroom farming, including input costs, labor, and market demand. The surveys
also explored knowledge of modern farming techniques and climate control
methods.
5. Data Analysis: Data collected from interviews, surveys, and field visits were
analyzed to identify trends in cultivation practices, challenges faced by farmers,
and the economic viability of mushroom farming. The results were used to suggest
improvements and assess the potential for sustainable growth in Chitwan’s
mushroom farming sector.

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By combining field observations, interviews, and discussions with both farmers and
agricultural students, the research provided a comprehensive view of the state of mushroom
farming in Chitwan, with a focus on environmental, economic, and technological aspects.

19. 14

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
3.1 Variation in Market Price by Mushroom Type
Mushroom farming is a vital and growing industry in Nepal. Production of mushroom has
increased about 8.23 times over a decade until 2023. From the above example of good
mushroom farmer (farmer name) as he is earning good economy and nutritional benefit
through mushroom farming. We can conclude that mushroom farming is relatively easy
and low cost investment farming from which we can produce large product although the
investment is low. Here is a survey table that includes key information related to types of
mushroom cultivation, stages of cultivation, area, market price per 1 kg, market area,
species of cultivation, and persons involved:
Table 1: Different types, species regarding to mushroom culture
No.
Type of
Mushroom
Cultivation
Stage of
Cultivation
Area of
Cultivation
(sq. meters)
Market
Price per
1 kg
(NPR)
Market
Area
Species of
Cultivation
Persons
Involved
1
Indoor (Bag
Cultivation)
Inoculation,
Fruiting
50 250 NPR
Local,
National
Agaricus
bisporus
(Button)
2-3
2
Outdoor (Log
Cultivation)
Mycelium
Growth,
Fruiting
100 300 NPR Local
Pleurotus
ostreatus
(Oyster)
3-5
3
Indoor (Tray
Cultivation)
Inoculation,
Fruiting
30 280 NPR
Local,
National
Pleurotus
pulmonarius
(Oyster)
1-2
4
Indoor
(Compost
Cultivation)
Spawning,
Fruiting
40 270 NPR Local
Lentinula
edodes
(Shiitake)
2-3

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No.
Type of
Mushroom
Cultivation
Stage of
Cultivation
Area of
Cultivation
(sq. meters)
Market
Price per
1 kg
(NPR)
Market
Area
Species of
Cultivation
Persons
Involved
5
Indoor
(Sawdust
Substrate)
Inoculation,
Fruiting
60 320 NPR National
Auricularia
auricula-judae
(Wood Ear)
3-4
6
Outdoor
(Mixed
Substrate)
Mycelium
Growth,
Fruiting
120 240 NPR
Local,
Regional
Flammulina
velutipes
(Enoki)
4-6
7
Indoor (Bag
Cultivation)
Inoculation,
Fruiting
80 350 NPR National
Ganoderma
lucidum
(Reishi)
2-3

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3.2 Interaction with an Agriculture Student on Mushroom
Cultivation in Nepal
As part of our research on the current state of mushroom cultivation in Nepal, we had the
opportunity to interview Deepika Neupane, an agriculture student from the Agriculture and
Forestry University (AFU), Chitwan. Deepika is in her third year of the Bachelor's program
and has a keen interest in sustainable agricultural practices, particularly mushroom
farming.
Key Insights from the Interaction:
1. Awareness and Challenges: Deepika emphasized that while awareness of the
nutritional and economic benefits of mushroom farming is growing in Nepal, many
farmers still face significant challenges. These include a lack of technical
knowledge, limited access to quality spawn, and reliance on traditional cultivation
methods that do not always yield optimal results.
2. Potential and Opportunities: Despite these challenges, Deepika believes there is
immense potential for mushroom farming to meet the growing domestic demand
for mushrooms and even open up export opportunities. She noted that mushroom
farming could serve as a sustainable alternative to traditional agriculture, especially
given its ability to utilize agricultural waste.
3. Recommendations: Deepika recommended increased investment in research, better
training programs for farmers, and government support in the form of subsidies for
mushroom spawn and materials. She also highlighted the importance of creating
cooperative networks to help farmers market their produce effectively.
4. Personal Experience: Deepika shared her personal experience of cultivating oyster
mushrooms as part of her academic research. Despite facing initial difficulties, her
successful second attempt underscored the importance of practical learning and
knowledge-sharing in overcoming challenges in mushroom farming.

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3.3 Interaction with a Mushroom Farmer on Cultivation
Methods
As part of our research into mushroom cultivation methods, we had the opportunity to
interact with Tankanath Pokhrel, a mushroom farmer from the Chitwan district in Nepal.
Tankanath has been cultivating mushrooms for over seven years and shared valuable
insights into the practical aspects of mushroom farming.
Key Insights from the Interaction:
1. Mushroom Cultivation Practices: He primarily cultivates oyster mushrooms using
the bag cultivation method. He explained that this method involves sterilizing
organic materials such as rice straw, inoculating it with mushroom spawn, and
packing the mixture into plastic bags. Once the bags are filled, they are incubated
in a controlled environment to promote growth. He emphasized that this method is
space-efficient and suitable for small-scale farming, especially for farmers in rural
areas like his own.
2. Challenges Faced: Tankanath discussed several challenges he faces in his daily
mushroom farming operations. One of the major issues is maintaining the right
temperature and humidity levels. “During the monsoon season, it’s hard to control
the humidity, and if it’s too high, mushrooms can get contaminated,” he said.
Additionally, Tankanath mentioned that pests, especially flies, pose a threat to the
crops. He emphasized the need for proper sterilization of substrates to prevent
contamination and ensure good yields.
3. Market and Income: When asked about market demand, Tankanath shared that
while there is a growing demand for mushrooms in urban areas, particularly among
health-conscious consumers, local markets still struggle to meet the demand.
“There is a lot of competition, and sometimes, the prices fluctuate, which makes it
hard to predict income,” he explained. However, he also noted that with proper
marketing and the right quality, mushrooms can be a profitable venture, and many
farmers, including himself, are seeing increased income.

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Training and Support: Tankanath highlighted that the support he received through local
agricultural extension services and NGO training programs played a key role

24. 19

REFERENCES
• Keshari, A. K. (2081). A Textbook of Biology: Class XI. Vidhyarthi Pustak
Bhandar.
• Aggrawal, S. (2003). A Textbook of Biology Part I. New Delhi. Vikas Publishing
House.
• Manandhar, K. L. (2015). Hand Book of Mushroom Cultivation in Nepal. Centre
for Agricultural Technology and Training (CATT).
• https://mushroomnepal.com/blog/

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ANNEXES
ANNEX 1
Table 2: List of People Consulted during the Survey




ANNEX 2
PHOTOGRAPHS








Figure 7: Practical Demonstration of Substrate Preparation and Inoculation in Mushroom
Cultivation

SN Name Age Sex Address
1 Deepika Neupane 21 Female
Bharatpur-7, Chitwan,
Nepal

2
Tankanath
Pokhrel
62 Male Madi, Chitwan, Nepal

26. 21








Figure 8: Mycelial Colonization of Pasteurized Straw Substrate in Polypropylene Bags