Submerged soil chemistry and management

Submerged soil chemistry

1. Welcome
Good afternoon

2. ՙ No grain is ever produced without water, but
too much water tends to spoil the grain and
inundation is as injurious to growth as
dearth of water ՚
- Narada Smriti XI,19; circa 3000BC

3. 0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
80s 90s Current
Population Growth Rate
Foodgrain Production
Growth Rate
%

4. Abhijit Sarkar
Roll No. 20346
Management of
waterlogged soils and
their impact in
agriculture
Division of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry
Indian Agricultural Research Institute

5. Introduction
Characterization
Distribution
Impacts on agriculture
Management strategies
Conclusions
Path ahead
CONTENTS

6. What is waterlogged soil ?








Waterlogged soils are soils that are saturated with
water for a sufficiently long time annually to give
the soil the distinctive gley horizons resulting from
oxidation-reduction processes:
(a) a partially oxidized A horizon high in organic
matter,
(b) a mottled zone in which oxidation and reduction
alternate, and
(c) a permanently reduced zone which is bluish
green .
- Robinson (1949)

7. Plough sole
sub soil
Submerged profile
Das (2002)
Permanently reduced
and mottled layer
Eh < 400 mV
Partially
oxidized layer
Eh > 400 mV
Free surface
water

8. Types of waterlogged soils
Agropedia (2010)
Riverine flood waterlogged soil
Oceanic flood waterlogged soil
Seasonal waterlogged soil
Perennial waterlogged soil
 Sub-soil waterlogging

9. Factors affecting formation of waterlogged soil
Climatological : Rainfall and Flood water
Irrigation : Uncontrolled, Unwanted
Drainage : Poor drainage
Topography : Depressed land
Land shape : Saucer shaped land
become waterlogged
Height of ground water table:
Higher ground water table


Agropedia (2010)

10. Characteristics exhibits in waterlogged soil
Greater amount of soil solution
Reduced oxygen level
Reduced aerobic microbial activity
An altered chemical status of soil
Das (2002)

11. Distribution of waterlogged soil
USDA

12. oNorth America and Russia (34%of total area),
oTropical swamps,(14%)
oTropical floodplains(10%);
oTemperate and tropical rice fields (4% & 12%).
Guy Kirk (2004)
Submerged soils covers 5% to 7% of earth land
surface.
The total global waterlogged soil is approx.
700 to 1000 Mha .

13. Present scenario in India
States Waterlogged soil (ha)
Andhra Pradesh 10654
Arunachal Pradesh 0
Assam 46021
Bihar 188070
Chhattisgarh 521
Goa 0
Gujarat 0
Haryana and Delhi 0
Himachal Pradesh 0
Jammu and
Kashmir
0
Jharkhand 3321
Karnataka 0
Kerala 0
Madhya Pradesh 333
States Waterlogged soil (ha)
Maharashtra 0
Manipur 8517
Meghalaya 1606
Mizoram 0
Nagaland 0
Orissa 242838
Punjab 0
Sikkim 0
Rajasthan 4108
Tamil Nadu 0
Tripura 14721
Uttar Pradesh 131428
Uttaranchal 0
West Bengal 240480
Total = 0.99 Mha ICAR (2011)

14. INDIA
WATERLOGGED SOIL
MAJOR
WATERLOGGED SOIL

15. Properties of waterlogged soil
Physical
i.Oxygen depletion
ii.CO2 accumulation
iii.Compaction
iv.Increasing BD
v.Massive structure
vi.Lowering diffusion
coefficient of gases


Electro-chemical
i.Soil-pH
ii.Increase specific
conductance
iii.Decrease redox
potential (Eh)
Biological
i.Reduced aerobic
microbial activity
ii.Mineralization
iii.Immobilization


Chemical
i.Soil reduction
ii.Micronutrient
toxicity (cationic)
Waterlogged
soil
Das (2002)

16. Normal soil
structure
Increased bulk
density, compaction,
lesser porosity
Physical properties
Nishiuchi (2012)
Depletion of oxygen

17. mmhos
cm
-
1

m
eq
liter
-
1

Weeks of submergence
The specific conductance of the solution of most soils increase after submergence,
attain a maximum, and decline to a fairly stable value, which is varies with the nature
and properties of soils
Ponnamperuma (1972)
Specific conductance in
waterlogged soil
Total alkalinity
Ca
2+
+Mg
2+
+NH
4
+
+Na
+
+K
+
Fe
2+
+Mn
2+

18. Normal soil
Waterlogged soil
Soil pH
Ponnamperuma (1972)
Soil pH

Waterlogged week
Soil pH tends to
neutral

19. Redox potential (mV)

Waterlogging time (days)
Redox potential

Eh=E0+RT/nF*ln(Ox)/(Red)
-Nernst equation
E0=Standard redox potential
F=Faraday const.(96500
coulombs/equivalent)
R=Gas constant(8.314
J/deg/mole)
T=Absolute temp.
n= Number of electron
Eh decrease
Yaduvanshi et al. (2012)
Eh(mV) = -59 pH

20. Reduction Redox potential (mV)
O
2 H
2O +380 to +320
NO
-
3 N
2
Mn
4+
Mn
2+
+280 to +220
+280 to +220
Fe
3+
Fe
2+ +180 to +150
SO

4
2-
S
2- -120 to -180
CO
2 CH
4
-200 to -280
H2 O H2
-200 to -420
Das (2009)
Critical redox potential values of some
important oxidized components in
waterlogged soil

21. Time (days)
Concentration (not in scale)

Nutrients behavior during
waterlogging
Das (2002)

22. Change in N
concentration
as a result of
waterlogging
in a clay loam
soil
Hocking et al. (1985)

23. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Nitrogen
(ppm)
1000


800


600


400


200


0.00
Waterlogging days


Nitrogen loss

Nitrate nitrogen

Nitrite nitrogen

Ammonium nitrogen

N unaccounted


Patric and Mahapatra (1968)
Nitrogen transformation after waterlogging

24. Nitrogen movement in waterlogged soil

25. Weeks of submergence
P (ppm)

420

360

300

240

180

120

60

0
P
-
ppm

Al-P Fe-P Ca-P RS Fe-P
Waterlogged soil

Air dry soil
Mahapatra (1966)
Transformation of inorganic
P in waterlogged soil
Ponnamperuma (1972)

26. Critical limit 4.5 mg/ kg
Waterlogging caused a 6 fold increase in DTPA Fe conc. In both soils
at 21 days after waterlogging compared with drained condition
Yaduvanshi et al. (2012)
Iron toxicity with waterlogging

27. 0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
40.0
45.0
50.0
55.0
60.0
65.0
0 d WL 7 d WL 14 d WL 21 d WL
Days
DTPA Mn (mg/kg)
pH 8.5 - HD2009
pH 8.5 - KRL3-4
pH 9.2 - HD2009
pH 9.2 - KRL 3-4 Critical limit 1.0 mg/kg
Waterlogging caused a 12-15 fold increase in DTPA-Mn in both
the soils at 21 days after waterlogging
Yaduvanshi et al. (2012)
Manganese toxicity with waterlogging

28. Period
of
flooding



N



P



K



Ca



Mg



Na



Fe



Mn



Zn
Drained 14.8 1.8 14.6 2.7 1.6 3.3 257 244 145
2 14.0 1.1 7.5 2.6 1.3 5.7 415 325 108
4 12.5 0.9 5.9 2.3 1.2 6.0 480 396 85
6 12.0 0.8 5.6 2.0 1.1 6.3 538 480 63
LSD
(P=0.05)
0.9 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.3 45 41 11
Mineral composition
Deficiency
Toxicity
mg/g dry matter mg/ kg dry matter
Sharma and Swarup (1987)
Effects of short-term flooding on mineral
composition of wheat roots

29. Grain yield with waterlogging
Yaduvanshi et al. (2012)

30. Gupta et al. (2009)
Reduced grains yield due to
waterlogging

31. Crop Yield (t ha
-1
)
Normal lands Salt affected lands Waterlogged lands
Paddy 39.9 21.8 (45) 23.0 (42)
Wheat 26.0 15.8 (40) 18.6 (38)
Cotton 16.3 6.1 (63) 3.7 (77)
Sugarcane 636.8 330.2 (48) 247.5 (61)
Crop yield (t ha
-1
) and losses (%) under water
logging and soil salinity
Joshi (1994)

32. Wilting of
sunflower
during summer
waterlogging
Spring waterlogging of poorly
drained field of peas and
injury sustained by leaves of a
pea plant after several days
waterlogging
Affected crop
growth
Jackson (2003)

33. Jackson (2003)

34. Waterlogged
soil

35. Impacts of Climate Change
Reduction in
snow cover
Rise in sea level
Increase in frequency of
extreme events
Change in biodiversity
Decline in crop yield
Increase in global
hunger

37. Management of waterlogged soil
 Leveling of land
 Mechanical drainage
 Controlled irrigation
 Flood control measures
 Plantation of trees having
high transpiration rate
Check the seepage in the
canals and irrigation channels
Selection of crops and their
proper varieties
Sowing on bunds or ridges
Nutrient management


Leveling of land
Controlled irrigation
Proper varieties
Nutrient management
Biodrainage

38. Sowing on raised bed in waterlogged soil
GRDC (2005)
Raised bed

39. Depth (cm)

Bulk density (g cm
-1
)
Hydraulic conductivity (mm h
-
1
)

Geometric mean
hydraulic conductivity
GRDC (2005)
Bulk density and Hydraulic conductivity increase as a
result of raised bed farming system

40. Crop type and area
Yield (t ha
-
1
)

GRDC (2005)
Raised bed production of different crops

41. Leveling of land
Laser Land Leveler
Terra-Track 24
Furrow Grader and leveler
Ezigrader

43. Pumping of excess soil water
by deep-rooted plants using
their
bio-energy
•Fast growing
• Luxurious water consumption

CSSRI Tech. Bull. (2008)
CSSRI Tech. Bull. (2008)
What is bio-drainage?
Criteria of bio-drainage
plants :

44. Different Bio-drainage plants
Syzygium cuminii Pongamia pinnata
Terminalia arjuna
Casuriana glauca
Eucalyptus tereticornis
CSSRI Tech. Bull. (2008)

45. With bio-drainage
Without bio-drainage
Grain Straw
Yield (t ha
-
1
)

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0



Wheat yield obtained
with and without
Eucalyptus tereticornis
plantation


The strip plantation
sequestered 15.5 t ha
-1
carbon during the first
rotation 5 years 4 months

Wheat yield increase 3 - 4 times
from adjacent waterlogged
soil without Eucalyptus sp.
Ram (2011)

46. Arrangement
Area
Species Location
Factor balancing
recharge and
discharge of
groundwater


For minimizing
waterlogged soil

Reducing GW
recharge
Increasing GW
discharge
Anonymous (1997)

48. Installation of pipes
Corrugated
pipes with filter
Sump (for collection of
drainage water)

49. Increase in rice yield and cropping intensity as a result of
waterlogging control through sub-surface drainage
Location Before drainage After drainage
EC
(dS m
-1
)
Yield
(t ha
-1
)
Cropping
intensity
(%)
EC
(dS m
-1
)

Yield
(t ha
-1
)

Cropping
intensity
(%)
Konakki 5.7 3.7 70 2.8 5.6 130
Uppugun
duru
4.8 4.3 77 2.9 5.6 165
Islampur 12 1.9 58.2 6.0 3.0 59.4
Sindhan
ur
8.4 2.2 141 2.6 3.7 191
Gorebal 6.5 2.3 - 0.9 7.2 -
Gupta et al. (2004)

50. Year
Ec
e
(dS m
-
1
) and Grain yield (t ha
-
1
)

Grain yield
ECe
Management with closed sub-surface drainage
Subba Rao et al. (2009)

51. Wheat crop without and with
drainage respectively
without
drainage
drainage
CSSRI Tech. Bull. (2008)

52. Crops Tolerant varieties Adaptability
pH Ec
e (dS m
-1
)
Rice CSR 10, 11, 12, 13 9.8 – 10.2 6 – 11
CSR 19, 23, 27, 30, 36 9.4 – 9.8 6 – 11
CSR 1, 2, 3, 4, SR 26 B, Sumati - 6 – 9
Wheat KRL 1-4, 3-4, 210, 213,
WH 157
< 9.3 6 – 10
Raj 3077, KRL 19 <9.3 6 – 10
Barley DL 200, Ratna, BH 97, DL 348 8.8 – 9.3 -
Indian
musterd
(Raya)
Pusa Bold, Varuna 8.8 – 9.2 6 – 8
Kranti, CS 52, CS 330 -1 8.8 – 9.3 6 – 9
CST 609B 10, CS 54 8.8 – 9.3 6 – 9
Gram Karnal chana < 9.0 < 6
Sugarbeet Ramonskaaya 06, Maribo
Resistapoly
9.5 – 10 < 6.5
Sugarcane Co 453, Co 1341 < 9.0 < 10
CSSRI (2006)

53. Yadav (2006)
Minimal amendment requirement

Stagnation of water

Dilution of root zone salinity

Extensive root system

Why should we go for rice ?

54. Soil properties as affected by rice culture
Original soil After experiment
Without rice

With rice

pH EC
(dS m
-1
)
pH EC
(dS m
-1
)
pH EC
(dS m
-1
)
10.3 93.6 9.6 68.6 8.9 28.6
9.5 46.0 8.9 26.3 8.3 1.2
9.0 29.9 8.4 9.5 8.2 0.6
8.4 10.5 8.1 1.8 7.2 0.2
Chhabra and Abrol (1977)

55. Aerenchyma formation , but HOW?
Nishiuchi (2012)

56. Orange precipitation and black dots on rice roots due to (iron oxide) MnO
2
during waterlogging condition in India
When rice is grown in these soils they escape Fe toxicity by Fe precipitation
due to oxygen diffusion from roots due to extensive aerenchyma.
Growing rice in WL soils could be a cheap way to evaluate potential Fe toxicity in these soils.
DTPA-Fe increased 6x; DTPA - Mn increased 15x in these WL soils after 21d (Yaduvanshi et al.).
Orange Fe (iron oxide) precipitation on rice roots

57. Aerenchyma
formation
of Maize
Hypertrophic
lenticels at the
stem base of
young Apple
plants
Formation of
adventitious
roots at the soil
surface by plants
Jackson (2003)
Survival of plants
Sunflower
Maize
Mangrove

58. Nutrient management

59. Treatment Ammonia loss(%) Soil pH(water)
T0 0 5.40
T1 42.87 7.21
T2 26.39 6.95
T3 19.85 7.03
T4 25.28 7.09
T0
T1
T2
T3
T4
Soil alone
Urea without additives
Urea+175 ml sago waste water+0.75g zeolite
Urea+175 ml sago waste water+1.00g zeolite
Urea+175 ml sago waste water
Omar et al. (2010)
Nutrient management in waterlogged soil

60. Treatment NH4-N (ppm) NO3-N (ppm)
T0 12.07 1.55
T1 78.09 22.80
T2 177.87 34.00
T3 166.50 38.76
T4 126.78 24.76
Nutrient management in waterlogged soil
T0
T1
T2
T3
T4
Soil alone
Urea without additives
Urea+175 ml sago waste water+0.75g zeolite
Urea+175 ml sago waste water+1.00g zeolite
Urea+175 ml sago waste water
Omar et al. (2010)

61. Daily ammonia loss

(% of applied nitrogen)

Days of volatilization (days)
Treatments
Omar et al. (2010)
Minimizing ammonia volatilization in waterlogged soils through
mixing of urea with zeolite and sago waste water

62. Application of sulphate containing fertilizers control CH
4 release
from waterlogged soil
Ammonium sulphate Urea
Cai et al. (1997)
Decrease in methane emission from waterlogged soils
resulted nutrient management by sulphur containing
nitrogenous fertilizers

63. Agro-ecological interactions in “Rice-Fish” culture
Improve fertility of the ecosystem by increasing nutrient cycling
and availability

Organic matter, N, K were all higher in the fields of rice-fish
culture

Increases of N concentration in rice grain by 5% and N uptake
by 10%

It was demonstrated that reduction of N loss to some extent from
rice-fish cultured field by lowering pH significantly (0.3-0.6 units)

Application of triple superphosphate (100 kg ha
-1
) cause 1.3 t ha
-1
higher yield in rice -fish ecosystem than control

IRRI report (1996)

64. Waterlogging causes lowering of redox potential,
neutralized soil pH, N P K deficiency and
micronutrient toxicity.

Except rice, yield of other crops severely affected by
waterlogging and submergence.

Waterlogging can be efficiently control by forming
different land configuration, mechanical as well as
bio-drainage, controlling irrigation and different
flood control measures.

Tolerant or resistant varieties and proper nutrient
management would be much more effective during
management of waterlogged soil.
Conclusions

65. Detailed study about the interaction mechanisms of
microbes and different soil constituents in
waterlogged soil is needed in order to have a better
understanding of microbial activity in waterlogged
soils.
Different new methods should be innovate to control
the ground water recharge from different water
resources.
Further study should be required to estimate the
release characteristics of different micronutrients.
Different new methods should be introduced for
running cultivation practices during waterlogged
situation.



Path ahead …

66. Thank you....