The concept of language

Approaches and methods in language teaching

1. The Concept of Language

Language
Language, like any other concept, has several definitions. This is, of course, due to the fact that people seem to view things from
different perspectives. However, most definitions of language seem to have some similarities. This can be seen in some of the
definitions of the concept:

"Language is the expression of ideas by means of speech-sounds combined into words. Words are combined into sentences, this
combination answering to that of ideas into thoughts." Henry Sweet

Bernard Bloch and George L. Trager, on the other hand, had this to say, "A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by
means of which a social group cooperates."

"Language refers to the cognitive faculty that enables humans to learn and use systems of complex communication."

All the above definitions tell us that language is a system of signs that we use in communicating with ourselves and with one
another. The signs are speech-sounds, as illustrated by the first definition. However, language also has written signs which are the
alphabets that we use in writing. Therefore, communication, in any language, is only possibe because of the linguistic symbols that
function according to some rules and conventions.

It is these rules that give us the underlying conventions on how to form Phonemes into morphemes. These rules also tell us how to
derive words from morphemes. It is the same rules that govern every aspect of a language such as its grammar, syntax,
phonology, etc.

The definitions also, especially the last one, illustrate that language is connected with the mental process of understanding. This is
easily discernable when one looks at how language is acquired, especially, in children. However, it goes beyond how we learn a
language. Communication is only possible because of the mental process of encoding and decoding information. Of course, this is
quite complex. The complexity could be seen in our inability to decode information in a language whose system we have not
acquired. However, our mental faculty would, at the same time, be open to learning the symbols of any language should one
decide to learn it.

Finally, the definitions simply tell us that language is what enables us to utter distinct sounds, join them into words, and into
meaningful sentences for the purpose of communicating our ideas and thoughts.

Characteristics of Language
Language has several characteristics which make it possible for it to be useful to us as a means of communication. The
characteristics are many. However, we would start by looking at those that seem to be unique to human language.
1. Displacement
2. Arbitrariness
3. Productivity
4. Cultural transmission
5. Discreteness
6. Duality
7. It is a human entity
8. Language is living
The following characteristics, on the other hand, are also shared by some species:
1. Use of the vocal-auditory channel 2. Reciprocity 3. Specialization
4. Non-directionality 5. Rapid fade

2. The Four Language Skills
Speaking, listening, writing and reading are the four language skills. The first two skills seem to be the most basic skills in every
language. Speaking and listening are the first two linguistic skills that humans acquire in learning a language. The remaining two
skills, reading and writing, usually, require some formal instruction. Additionally, reading and writing, especially the latter, would
require a familiarization with some written symbols. Consequently, reading and writing are referred to as skills of literacy while
listening and speaking are referred to as skills of oracy. Listening and reading are also classified as receptive skills while speaking
and writing are seen as expressive skills.

The Listening Skill
Listening is the first language skill that is acquired in learning a language. We only get on to speak a language after gaining some
exposure to the speech-sounds of the language as they are used in expressing ideas and thoughts. Therefore, listening involves
understanding the speech-sounds of a language as well as the ability to decode the sounds in an utterance. It has to do with
reception and interpretation of the sounds. Therefore, listening also requires an ability to assign meaning to the various sound
combinations in a language.

Listening is, therefore, "an active process which involves the immediate and unconscious recognition of the significant elements of
speech." It involves recognition, selection and interpretation. Consequently, attention, reception, response, retention and critical
judgment are necessary in listening. (Adaji and Agamah)

Listening is important because how one listens conveys meaning to the other person in a communication process. Therefore, it
helps to make the communication successful.

It helps one to understand spoken English without much difficulty. Additionally, it enables one to easily differentiate between similar
but different sounds in a language.

Listening enables us to identify the main or important ideas in an utterance. Thus, enabling the listener to properly interprete a
message.

Types of Listening Skills
1. Conversational
Conversational listening simply involves comprehension and participation in conversation. It takes place usually in discussions and
debates.
2. Empathizing
This involves drawing out the speaker and sourcing out information in a supportive and helpful way. This is achieved by imagining
yourself in the other person's position. You try to understand what the speaker is thinking, and trying to let them feel comfortable.
You try to relate to their emotional experiences.
3. Recreational listening
This is simply listening for pleasure or recreational purposes. The purpose, according to Adaji and Ugwuanyi, "is to relate what you
heard to other relevant issues."
4. Exploratory listening
This type of listening skill has to do with listening for new information. It deals with exposing yourself to unfamiliar stories or items.
5. Critical listening
Critical listening is when you listen to determine facts from falsehood or any other inconsistence.
6. Synthesizing
This involves proactively guiding a conversation towards an objective. You listen and respond in a way that suggests which ideas
can be used and how they might be implemented. You may also suggest new ideas that may be considered.
7. Analyzing
This is when you listen to seek out concrete information and try to disentangle fact from emotion. You rely on analytical questions
to understand the ideas behind the speakers presentation.

The Speaking Skill

3. Speaking involves the articulation of meaningful sounds from the individual sound elements of a language. Therefore, it requires
knowledge of the oral forms in a language and the rules guiding their usage to produce meaning.

The Reading Skill
According to Oyetunde (1999), "Reading is a process of obtaining information from print. It is a complex process that involves
interaction between the reader and the author." This is partly because a reader is usually exposed to some elements from the
experiences of the writer.

Reading is both a perceptual and cognitive process because it demands understanding and interpretation of meaning. This is why
the essence of reading is understanding.

Reading is important because it is needed in order to read books; and books are the "store house of knowledge."
Reading also enables individuals to further their education. After all, we are only able to further our education through reading from
one stage to another.

Techniques of Reading
The following techniques of reading have been given by some scholars:
1. SQ3R by Robinson (1961):
Survey:- You read the most significant elements of the chapter such as the title, the introductory statement and the main headings.
You then examine any illustrations and read the summary, where there is one. The aim is to get a basic idea of the chapter.
Question:- Formulate questions from the survey. The questions should be formulated around the main headings in the chapter.
Read:- This involves reading to find out answers to your questions.
Recite:- Recite answers to the questions that you raised earlier.

2. The Evoker by Pauk (1963):
This applies mostly to the reading of literature such as prose, poetry and drama. It has the following meaning:
Explore:- Read the whole work to have a basic understanding of its message.
Vocabulary:- Take note of the main words and the unfamiliar ones. Do the same for places, people and events. Then try to
understand or get their meanings.
Oral Reading:- Read the work orally.
Key ideas:- This involves finding out the main ideas or themes behind the material. This is very important because the message of
any literary work cannot be separated from its theme.
Evaluation:- You should evaluate the contribution of the key words and sentences towards formulating the main ideas or themes of
the material.
Recapitulate:- You reread the work.

3. REAP by Eanet and Manzo (1976):
Read:- Read the work.
Encode:- This involves translating the read material into the student's language.
Annotate:- The student writes the message of the work.
Ponder:- This involves the student pondering or thinking over the message of the author.

4. SCQP by Oyetunde (1997):
Summarize:- This involves stopping at some points in reading the work to summarize what has been read.
Clarify:- The student should clarify anything that is not clear. This could be achieved by re-reading or simply discussing with others
the parts that are not clear.
Question:- This involves trying to predict what sort of questions the teacher might ask in a test. The student should write out the
questions and try to answer them.
Predict:- Try to predict what will occur next in the text. Read further to confirm your predictions.

The Writing Skill

4. Writing, according to Oyetunde (1999), is "The act of making graphic symbols from oral symbols." Therefore, it involves making
meaningful symbols from speech-symbols based on some rules and conventions such as that of phonology, grammar and syntax,
etc. Writing is said to be the most complex of all the language skills. It requires organisation, expression and selection of content
appropriate to a particular context (Adaji and Ugwuanyi 2005:67). One needs accuracy and coherence in other to write
appropriately. This is because it has to do with meaning both on paper and in the mind.

Skills Required To Write Well
According to Oyetunde (1991:49), the following skills are needed in order to write effectively and efficiently:
1. Oral language background and experience.
2. The concept of print. This means understanding the graphic symbols needed to communicate.
3. The concept of letters.
4. Letter-sound relationships.
5. The concept of "wordiness".
6. The concept of sentence.
7. The concept of left to right.
8. Paragraphing.

The Functions of Language
Few things in life have as many different uses as language. Consequently, an attempt at identifying the functions of language is an
oversimplification. However, we would attempt to identify some of these functions, with the hope, that they would broaden our
understanding of the complexity of language. Of course, the functions would give us insight into nothing but the purpose of
language, what it does, and its uses. Definitely, this would be familiar ground to any reader because language is a part of who we
are- as humans. The following are some of the functions:

1. Means of Communication
Language, of course, is the major means by which humans communicate. We use it in passing messages from one party to
another. This is possible through both speech and writing.

2. Transmission of Culture
Language is the major vehicle for the transmission of culture from one generation to another. It is through language that we learn
the values and norms of our society. It is through language that all the elements of culture are passed on to younger members of a
society.

3. It is a means of thought
Basically all human thought is done within the scope of language. We do not seem to have the ability to formulate our thought
outside the scope of language. Therefore, it is a vehicle of human thought.

4. Diffusion of Knowledge
Knowledge is passed on through language. It is used for instruction both in formal and informal educational situations. It is used in
both schools and homes to spread knowledge.

5. A Cohesive Political Force
Language has always been used or relied upon as a cohesive political tool. This is why some languages are sometimes promoted
while some are discouraged. An example of this was the prohibition of Basque during the Spanish civil war in the 1930's.

6. It Unites people
Language enable people to unite based on linguistic affiliations. We tend to naturally associate with people who share a language
with us.

7. It is a means of cultural identity

5. This is closely related to how it unites people. Human cultural affiliations and identity has always been inseperable from the use of
a shared language or some linguistic characteristics between members of a group. This is why people in sub-cultures such as
"Area Boys" could be found using language in a peculiar form from that of the larger society.

8. Existense of society through cooperation
Human society basically exists because its members have language to facilitate their cooperation. We use it in almost every type of
relationship. We use it in the family, at work, in the streets, etc. We use it to move the society forward.

9. Therapeutic Function
Language is used to ease anxiety, tension, fear, worries and pain. A soothing word goes a long way in making one feel better
despite the intensity of a situation.

10. Means of socialization

11. We use it in expressing our ideas:- Language enables us to express our ideas, feelings and desires in such a way that is easily
understood by others. The characteristics of human language make it possible for it to serve this purpose for whatever feelings,
desires or ideas that are to be communicated from one party to another.

13. The cooperation that enables human society to exist and make progress is only possible because of language. After all, our
societies would fail without a shared means of communication to enable us cooperate towards sustaining these societies. This is
why even the most multilingual societies in the world tend to have some lingua franca by which the speakers of the various
languages could cooperate towards the sustainance and advancement of that society.

Functions of English Language in Nigeria
1. Major medium of inter-ethnic communication
English is today the main medium by which the over 520 tribes in Nigeria communicate. It is the most used language in Nigeria
when it comes to communication between people who belong to different tribes. The Yoruba man from the South-West would
readily rely upon it to speak to the Fulani from Adamawa in the North-East- if both understand some English; and, they would, in
most cases- even though it might be pidgin English.

2. It is the country's official language
The English language is Nigeria's official language. It is language in which the constitution of Nigeria is written. Similarly, all other
official statutes of the country are written in the English language. It is also the language in which most of our arms of government
operate despite the fact that there is some provision for the use of the major indigenous languages in places like the National and
State Assemblies.

3. The Lingua Franca for students of tertiary institutions
Tertiary institutions in Nigeria tend to have a cosmopolitan mix of students from various parts of the country. These students mostly
rely on the English language as a means to communicate among themselves. It therefore breaks any communication barrier that
exists due to the multilingualism in such institutions of higher learning. Additionally, this function is noticeable even at some
secondary and primary schools.

4. The major language for creative writing
It is the main language used by creative writers in Nigeria. Most of our literary pieces by accomplished Nigerian authors such as
Wole Soyinka, Chinua Achebe, Abubakar Gimba, etc. are written in English.

5. The major language used by the media
The English language is the most used language in Nigeria by both the electronic and print media. It is used for disseminating
news, soaps, talk shows, etc. In fact, virtually all the daily newspapers having a national coverage are published in the language. It
is also the language mostly relied upon by the Nigerian movie industry known as Nollywood.

6. 6. It is used for religious purposes
It is a major language of worship in Nigeria. However, this usage mostly applies only to Christianity. Most sermons in Nigerian
churches are conducted in English. This also mostly applies to pentecostal churches that began to emerge in the country from the
1970s.

The language does not play this role in Islamic worship due to the fact that Islamic religious practices are performed in Arabic, the
language of the Holy Qur'an. However, the pervasive nature of the English language has seen it been relied upon by some Imams
in translating their Friday (Juma'ah) sermons to worshippers before delivering the same in Arabic.

Additionally, indigenous religious worship has also been able to keep the English language at bay. Therefore, adherents of
traditional religions such as Ifa worshippers rely on indigenous languages such as Yoruba in performing their religious practices.

7. It plays a role in politics
Most political activities in Nigeria are done in English. Political campaigns, especially at the national level, are mostly carried out in
English. It is the main language used in political campaign advertisements. It is also the language in which political activities are
carried out in all the arms of government.

8. It is the major medium for transacting business
The English language is the main language of business in the country. It is the language of the banking and economic sector. Most
business transactions between people, especially from different parts of the country, are carried out in the language. This is clearly
seen in our markets where pidgin English tends to be spoken almost more than even our indigenous languages.

9. Knowledge and Instruction
It is the main language of instruction in most Nigerian institutions of learning. There is no way that one could go acquire formal
education in Nigeria without coming in contact with English.

10. It is a means of social identity
The level of proficiency in the language due to mainly educational exposure tends to make it a marker of social identity in Nigeria.
Varying proficiency levels in the language makes it possible for individuals to be stratified accordingly. Consequently, those with a
high proficiency level in the language are seen as the elites in our society while others who speak only pidgin are seen as
belonging to the lower rungs of society.

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 6th Edition by American Psychological Association
Call Number: Ref BF76.7 .P83 2010 Lesley/Sherrill Stacks

Cunningham, G., MacDonald, P. C., Gant, N. F., Leveno, K. J., Gilstrap, L. C., Hankins, G. D., . . . Clark, S. L. (1996). Language
Rules and Concepts. Stamford, CT: Appleton & Lange.