The method of translation is introduced by Newmark (1998:45). Newmark states, “The important of source language system and culture on the other polar is focusing the importance of target language system and culture”

The method of translation is introduced by Newmark (1998:45). Newmark states, “The important of source language system and culture on the other polar is focusing the importance of target language system and culture”

1. Phonetics & Phonology

2. Phonetics The word “ Phone” means sound and “tics” means scientific or systematic study of something. Phonetics means scientific or systematic study of human speech sounds. Phonetics is general study of all human speech sounds and how they are produced, transmitted and received.

3. Branches of Phonetics The study of phonetics can be divided into three main branches. Articulatory Phonetics(How sounds are produced?) Auditory Phonetics(How sounds are received?) Acoustic Phonetics(How sounds are transmitted?)

4. Articulatory Phonetics It is concerned with the positions and movements of the lips, tongue, and other speech organs in producing speech. It analyses how the various speech sounds are articulated by vocal organs.

5. Articulatory Phonetics Articulatory phonetics examines how speech sounds are produced using different parts of the vocal tract, including the lips, tongue, vocal cords, and airflow Bilabial Sounds Produced by bringing both lips together. Example: /p/ in pat , /b/ in bat , /m/ in mat . Dental Sounds Produced by placing the tongue against the upper teeth. Example: /θ/ in think , /ð/ in this .

6. Alveolar Sounds Produced by placing the tongue against the alveolar ridge (just behind the upper teeth). Example: /t/ in top , /d/ in dog , /s/ in sun , /n/ in nap . Velar Sounds Produced by raising the back of the tongue to the soft palate (velum). Example: /k/ in cat , /g/ in go , /ŋ/ in sing .

7. Glottal Sounds Produced by constricting the vocal cords at the glottis. Example: /h/ in hat , and the glottal stop /ʔ/ in some accents of English like bottle in Cockney English. Each of these examples illustrates how different parts of the mouth and throat contribute to sound production, which is the focus of articulatory phonetics.

8. Auditory Phonetics Auditory Phonetics is the study of hearing and the perception of speech sounds. Auditory phonetics focuses on how speech sounds are perceived and processed by the human ear and brain. It examines how different listeners interpret sounds and how variations in speech affect comprehension

9. Acoustic Phonetics Acoustic phonetics deals with the physical properties of speech sounds, such as frequency, amplitude, and duration. It studies the physical properties of speech sounds as transmitted between the mouth and ear.

10. Acoustic Phonetics Voice Onset Time (VOT) The time difference between the release of a consonant and the start of vocal cord vibration. Example: The English /p/ in pat has a longer VOT (aspirated) than /b/ in bat (short VOT).

11. Pitch and Intonation Pitch variations help in distinguishing statements from questions. Example: In English, a rising pitch at the end of a sentence signals a question (e.g., You're going? ), while a falling pitch signals a statement (e.g., You're going. ).

12. Phonology Phonology is a broader study of major speech sounds and their organization in a particular language. Phonology is the study of the sound system of particulars human languages, include dialects and other language varieties.

13. Key Concepts in Phonology Phonemes – The smallest unit of sound that can change meaning in a language (e.g., /p/ and /b/ in pat vs. bat ). Minimal Pairs – Words that differ by only one sound, demonstrating phonemic contrasts (e.g., ship vs. sheep ). Syllable Structure – The way sounds are organized within syllables (e.g., CVC in cat ). Phonological Rules – The predictable patterns of sound changes, such as assimilation or deletion.

14. Phonemes A phoneme is a unit of sound in speech. A phoneme doesn't have any inherent meaning by itself, but when you put phonemes together, they can make words. Think of when adults try to get a baby to say his or her first word. They often coax him or her to sound out the beginning of a word by repeating that sound, or phoneme, over and over by saying something like, 'M, m, m' for 'Mommy.' The 'm' sound, often written as /m/, is an example of a phoneme.

15. Classification of English Sounds The English Language sounds are classified into two main streams: Consonants Vowels Consonants: A Consonant is a sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the air stream by constriction of speech organs. There are 24 consonants in English.

16. Consonants Symbol Chart Plosive p b t d k ɡ Fricative f v s z θ ð ʃ ʒ h Nasal m n ŋ Affricates tʃ dʒ Lateral l Approximant w r j

17. Plosives There are six plosive consonants in English. These are the sounds formed by means of a complete closure of the air passage, which is afterwards released suddenly. These are given as followed: /p/ /b/ /t/ /d/ /k/ /g/ p en b et t ea d ress k ind g ood

18. Aspiration Aspiration is a period during which air escapes through vocal cords, making a sound like “h”. There are three plosives in English Phonology which are aspirated when they are pronounced as initial sounds in a word. They are symbolized as: /p h / /t h / /k h / e.g. Pet / p h et/ Tailor / t h e ɪ l ə/ Cool / k h u:l/

19. Fricatives In production of Fricatives, articulators move towards each other to make stricture or obstruction in flow of air but air cannot be stopped completely and it escapes through narrow passage with friction or hissing sound. Fricatives are 9 in number. / f / / v / / s / / z / / θ / / ð / / ʃ / / ʒ / / h / F ine v ery s ong z eal th rough th ese sh eet trea su re h ay

20. Nasal There are three nasal sounds in English. These sounds are pronounced or uttered by escaping the air (partially or completely) through nasal cavity. These are given as followed: / m / / n / / ŋ / M iss n ine s ing M elancholy N aïve F inger

21. Affricates There are two affricate sounds in English. These are the sounds formed by means of a complete closure of the air passage which is afterwards released slowly with friction. / tʃ / / dʒ / Ch air g erm

22. Lateral There is only one sound in English. While uttering this sound air escapes along the both sides of the tongue. /l/ L ike, l ife, si ll y

23. Approximants/Semi-Vowels There are three semi-vowels. These sounds are phonetically vowels and phonologically consonants. Phonetically means their mechanism of producing the sound is same as vowels because there is no obstruction in flow of air. But phonologically, they give sounds like consonants. /w/ /r/ /j/ W ine r ead y oung

24. THE ENGLISH VOWELS Vowels are sounds which are produced with the vibration of air in the oral cavity All vowel sounds are voiced oral sounds

25. VOWEL SOUND PRODUCTION TONGUE POSITION OR ADVANCEMENT – refers to the part of the tongue that is most active in the production of vowels. Vowels are described in relation to the highest point of the hump formed. TONGUE AND JAW HEIGHT – refers to the degree of closeness of the lower jaw to the upper or the tongue to the palate

26. 3. LIP POSITION – refers to the amount of rounding or spreading of the lips. a. rounded – when the corners are brought forward b. unrounded (spread) – when the corners are pulled back 4. TENSION – refers to the degree to which the muscles of the speech tract are tense or lax during sound production 5. LENGTH – refers to the duration (long or short) the vowel is held in a certain position

27. When a speaker enunciates a vowel, his or her air flow remains unblocked. This table, containing American English vowels, explains that the degree of elevation of a speaker’s tongue determines the sound of the spoken vowel.

28. VOWEL SOUNDS: 1. / iy / - beat, me, key, seed, chief 2. / i / - sit, give, rid, pick, live 3. / ey / - ate, ray, face, weigh, great 4. /e/ - met, let, head, less, tell 5. / ae / - cat, am, bag, land, class

29. 6. /a/ - pot, block, got, cop, lost 7. / / - ball, talk, saw, draw, dawn 8. / ow / - hope, go, wrote, home, soak 9. /u/ - look, good, would, sure, bush 10. / uw / - moon, blue, rule, chew, suit 11. /∂ / - luck, must, touch, gone, cup

30. Aspect Phonetics Phonology Focus Physical properties of speech sounds Patterns and functions of sounds in a language Scope Universal (applies to all languages) Language-specific Nature Concrete (measurable sounds) Abstract (mental representation of sounds) Example The aspirated [ pʰ ] in English pin vs. spin The phonemic contrast between /p/ and /b/ in pat vs. bat Differences Between Phonetics and Phonology

31. Reflection Questions Why is it important to distinguish between phonetics and phonology? Can you identify minimal pairs in your native language? How does phonological knowledge help in learning a foreign language?