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The SAGE Handbook of
Emotional and
Behavioral
Difficulties
00_Garner_Prelims.indd 1 07/11/2013 7:38:17 PM

Education at SAGE
SAGE is a leading international publisher of journals,
books, and electronic media for academic, educational,
and professional markets.
Our education publishing includes:
accessible and comprehensive texts for aspiring u
education professionals and practitioners looking to
further their careers through continuing professional
development
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authoritative state of the art reference from the leading u
authors in the ﬁeld
Find out more at:
www.sagepub.co.uk/education
00_Garner_Prelims.indd 2 07/11/2013 7:38:18 PM

The SAGE Handbook of
Emotional and
Behavioral
Difficulties
Edited by
Philip Garner, James Kauffman and
Julian Elliott
Second edition
00_Garner_Prelims.indd 3 07/11/2013 7:38:18 PM

SAGE Publications Ltd
1 Oliver’s Yard
55 City Road
London EC1Y 1SP
SAGE Publications Inc.
2455 Teller Road
Thousand Oaks, California 91320
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Editor: Marianne Lagrange
Production editor: Sushant Nailwal
Copyeditor: Sunrise Setting Limited
Proofreader: Richard Davis
Indexer: Caroline Eley
Marketing manager: Catherine Slinn
Cover design: Wendy Scott
Typeset by: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd, Chennai, India
Printed by: Printed in Great Britain by Henry
Ling Limited at The Dorset Press, Dorchester,
DT1 1HD
Printed on paper from sustainable resources
Editorial Material  Philip Garner, James Kauffman and Julian Elliott 2014
Chapter 1  João A. Lopes 2014
Chapter 2  Gary Thomas 2014
Chapter 3  Nancy A. Mundschenk and Richard Simpson 2014
Chapter 4  Hill M. Walker, Mitchell L. Yell and Christopher Murray 2014
Chapter 5  Timothy J. Landrum, Andrew L. Wiley, Melody Tankersley and
James M. Kauffman 2014
Chapter 6  Maurice Place and Julian Elliott 2014
Chapter 7  Bryan G. Cook and Amy E. Ruhaak 2014
Chapter 8  Paul Cooper 2014
Chapter 9  Elena L. Grigorenko 2014
Chapter 10  Susannah Learoyd-Smith and Harry Daniels 2014
Chapter 11  Lindsey M. O’Brennan, Michael J. Furlong, Meagan D. O’Malley
and Camille N. Jones 2014
Chapter 12  Tom Nicholson 2014
Chapter 13  Paul O’Mahony 2014
Chapter 14  Shanna Eisner Hirsch, John Wills Lloyd and Michael J.
Kennedy 2014
Chapter 15  George Th. Pavlidis and Vasiliki Giannouli 2014
Chapter 16  Lori F. Anderson-DeMello and Jo M. Hendrickson 2014
Chapter 17  Tamara Glen-Soles and Elizabeth Roberts 2014
Chapter 18  Carl R. Smith 2014
Chapter 19  Michael M. Gerber 2014
Chapter 20  Philip Garner 2014
Chapter 21  Helen McGrath 2014
Chapter 22  Bernd Heubeck and Gerhard Lauth 2014
Chapter 23  Garry Hornby and Bill Evans 2014
Chapter 24  John Dwyfor Davies and John Ryan 2014
Chapter 25  Kate Algozzine and Bob Algozzine 2014
Chapter 26  Timothy J. Lewis, Barbara S. Mitchell, Nanci W. Johnson and
Mary Richter 2014
Chapter 27  John J. Wheeler and Michael R. Mayton 2014
Chapter 28  Dawn Behan and Christopher Blake 2014
Chapter 29  Kathleen Lynne Lane, Holly Mariah Menzies, Wendy Peia
Oakes, Kris Zorigian and Kathryn A. Germer 2014
Chapter 30  Robert Conway 2014
Chapter 31  Julian Elliott 2014
Chapter 32  Lauren Reed, Robert A. Gable and Kimberly Yanek 2014
Chapter 33  Maureen A. Conroy, Peter J. Alter and Kevin S. Sutherland 2014
Chapter 34  Égide Royer 2014
Chapter 35  Clayton Keller, Maha Al-Hendawi and Dimitris Anastasiou 2014
Chapter 36  James M. Kauffman 2014
Second edition first published in 2014
First edition published 2005, reprinted in 2006
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study,
or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act, 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or
transmitted in any form, or by any means, only with the prior permission
in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction, in
accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing
Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should
be sent to the publishers.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2013937827
British Library Cataloguing in Publication data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-4462-4722-8
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This book is dedicated to the memory of Patricia L. Pullen, a truly
gifted teacher of students with special educational needs.
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Contents
About the Editors and Contributors xi
Preface xxi
Introduction 1
PART 1 CONTEXTS, DEFINITIONS, AND TERMINOLOGIES 7
1 International Perspectives in EBD: Critical Issues 9
João A.
2 What Do We Mean By ‘EBD’? 21
Gary Thomas
3 Defining Emotional or Behavioral Disorders: The Quest
for Affirmation 43
Nancy
4 Identifying EBD Students in the Context of Schooling
Using the Federal ED Definition: Where We’ve Been,
Where We Are, and Where We Need to Go 55
Hill M. Walker, Mitchell L. Yell and Christopher Murray
5 Is EBD ‘Special’, and is ‘Special Education’ an
Appropriate Response? 69
T
and James M. Kauffman
6 The Importance of the ‘E’ in ‘EBD’ 83
Maurice Place and Julian Elliott
PART 2 ROOTS, CAUSES, AND ALLEGIANCES 95
7 Causality and Emotional or Behavioral Disorders: An
Introduction 97
Bryan G. Cook and Amy E. Ruhaak
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THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DIFFICULTIES viii
8 Biology, Emotion and Behavior: The Value of
a Biopsychosocial Perspective in Understanding SEBD 109
Paul Cooper
9 Genetic Causes and Correlates of EBD: A Snapshot in
Time and Space 131
Elena L. Grigorenko
10 Social Contexts, Cultures and Environments 145
Susannah Learoyd-Smith and Harry Daniels
11 The Influence of School Contexts and Processes on
Violence and Disruption 165
Lindsey M. O’Brennan, Michael J. Furlong,
Meagan D. O’Malley, and Camille N. Jones
12 Academic Achievement and Behavior 177
Tom Nicholson
13 Childhood Emotional and Behavioral Problems and Later
Criminality: Continuities and Discontinuities 189
Paul O’Mahony
14 Improving Behavior through Instructional Practices
for Students with High Incidence Disabilities:
EBD, ADHD, and LD 205
Shanna Eisner Hirsch, John Wills Lloyd and
Michael J. Kennedy
15 Linking ADHD – Dyslexia and Specific
Learning Difficulties 221
George Th. Pavlidis and Vasiliki Giannouli
16 EBD Teachers’ Knowledge, Perceptions, and
Implementation of Empirically Validated Competencies 237
Lori F. Anderson-DeMello and Jo M. Hendrickson
17 Psychologists in the Schools: Perceptions of Their
Role in Working with Children with Emotional
and Behavioral Disorders 251
Tamara Glen-Soles and Elizabeth Roberts
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CONTENTS ix
PART 3 STRATEGIES AND INTERVENTIONS 263
18 Advocacy for Students with Emotional and
Behavioral Disorders 265
Carl R. Smith
19 Developing Intervention and Resilience Strategies 279
Michael M. Gerber
20 Curriculum, Inclusion and EBD 291
Philip Garner
21 Directions in Teaching Social Skills to Students
with Specific EBDs 303
Helen McGrath
22 Parent Training for Behavioral Difficulties During the
Transition to School: Promises and Challenges for
Prevention and Early Intervention 317
Bernd Heubeck and Gerhard Lauth
23 Including Students with Significant Social, Emotional and
Behavioral Difficulties in Mainstream School Settings 335
Garry Hornby and Bill Evans
24 Voices from the Margins: The Perceptions of Pupils with
Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties About Their
Educational Experiences 349
John Dwyfor Davies and John Ryan
25 Schoolwide Prevention and Proactive Behavior
Interventions that Work 363
Kate Algozzine and Bob Algozzine
26 Supporting Children and Youth with Emotional/Behavioral
Disorders Through School-Wide Systems of Positive
Behavior Support 373
Timothy J. Lewis, Barbara S. Mitchell,
Nanci W. Johnson and Mary Richter
27 The Integrity of Interventions in Social Emotional
Skill Development for Students with Emotional
and Behavioral Disorders 385
John J. Wheeler and Michael R. Mayton
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THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DIFFICULTIES x
PART 4 TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL
DEVELOPMENT AND ENHANCEMENT 399
28 Does Teacher Training Prepare Teachers for the Challenge
of Students Experiencing Emotional/Behavioral Disorders? 401
Dawn Behan and Christopher Blake
29 Professional Development in EBD: What is Most Effective
in Supporting Teachers? 415
Kathleen Lynne Lane, Holly Mariah Menzies, Wendy Peia
Oakes, Kris Zorigian and Kathryn A. Germer
30 What is the Value of Award-Bearing Professional
Development for Teachers Working with Students with EBD? 427
Robert Conway
31 Teachers’ Craft Knowledge and EBD 439
Julian Elliott
PART 5 EBD FUTURES: CHALLENGES AND
OPPORTUNITIES 451
32 Hard Times and an Uncertain Future: Issues that
Confront the Field of Emotional Disabilities 453
Lauren Reed, Robert A. Gable and Kimberly Yanek
33 Classroom-Based Intervention Research in the Field
of EBD: Current Practices and Future Directions 465
Maureen A. Conroy, Peter J. Alter and Kevin S. Sutherland
34 What Should We See, Watson?: Developing Effective
Training for Teachers Working with EBD Students 479
Égide Royer
35 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Challenges
and Tensions 491
Clayton Keller, Maha Al-Hendawi and Dimitris Anastasiou
36 How We Prevent the Prevention of EBD in Education 505
James M. Kauffman
Index 517
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About the Editors and
Contributors
EDITORS
Philip Garner is Professor of Education at the University of Northampton,
UK. He has research interests in emotional and behavioural difficulties, teacher
education, and special educational needs.
James M. Kauffman is Professor Emeritus of Education, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, VA, USA. His primary area of specialization and interest is emo-
tional and behavioral disorders of children and youth.
Julian Elliott is Principal of Collingwood College and Professor of Education
at Durham University, UK. His research interests include children’s learning and
behaviour difficulties, comparative education, and dynamic assessment.
CONTRIBUTORS
Bob Algozzine is a Professor in Educational Leadership at the University of
North Carolina at Charlotte, USA. Working collaboratively with Kate Algozzine,
his research interests include school-wide positive behavior support, behavior
instruction, team decision making, and effective teaching.
Kate Algozzine is a Research Associate with the Team-Initiated Problem Solving
and ACCEPT Projects. Working collaboratively with Bob Algozzine, her research
interests include school-wide positive behavior support, team decision making,
and effective teaching in inclusive preschool and elementary classroom settings.
Maha Al-Hendawi is an Assistant Professor of Special Education at Qatar
University, State of Qatar. Her research interests include emotional and behav-
ioral disorders, children at-risk, academic and social behavior interventions for
children with EBD and children at-risk, professional development for special
education teachers, and inclusion practices.
Peter Alter, PhD is Assistant Professor at Saint Mary’s College of California,
USA. His research interests include special education, emotional and behavioral
00_Garner_Prelims.indd 11 07/11/2013 7:38:19 PM

THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DIFFICULTIES xii
disorders, classroom and behavior management, positive behavior support, and
effective instruction.
Dimitris Anastasiou is an Assistant Professor of Special Education at
Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, USA. His research interests include
high-incidence disabilities, academic interventions for children with learning
disabilities, international and cultural issues in special education, and philosoph-
ical approaches to disability.
Lori Anderson-DeMello, PhD is an ABA tutor with More than Words Pediatric
Therapy in Valdosta, GA, USA specializing in applied behavior analysis
(ABA) for students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Her research inter-
ests include using ABA interventions to increase language and communication
skills, and decrease stereotypic behaviors in students with ASD.
Dawn Behan, PhD is Director of Graduate Program in Education and Associate
Professor of Education, Mount Mercy University, USA. She has research
interests in special education, emotional/behavior disorders and learning dis-
abilities, law, transition, co-teaching, assessment, instructional strategies,
classroom management, professional development, action research, and
single-subject design.
Christopher Blake, PhD is President and Professor of Education at Mount
Mercy University, USA. His research interests relate to cultural studies in educa-
tion, qualitative research methods and ethnography, special education, religious
education, higher education administration, and action research.
Hill M. Walker, PhD is a Professor of Special Education and Co-Director
of the Institute on Violence and Destructive Behavior at the University of
Oregon. He has a long-standing interest in behavioral assessment and in the
development of effective intervention procedures for use in school settings
with a range of behavior disorders. He has been engaged in applied research
during his entire career, dating from 1966. His research interests include
social skills assessment, curriculum development and intervention, longi-
tudinal studies of aggression and antisocial behavior, school safety, youth
violence prevention, and the development of early screening procedures for
detecting students who are at-risk for social-behavioral adjustment problems
and/or later school drop-out.
Bryan G. Cook is a Professor of Special Education at the University of Hawaii
in Manoa, USA. His areas of interest include evidence-based practices, meta-
research, and health and fitness of youth with high incidence disabilities.
Maureen A. Conroy, PhD is Professor at the University of Florida, USA. Her
research interests include early intervention and effective instructional and
behavioral practices for students with emotional and behavioral challenges,
00_Garner_Prelims.indd 12 07/11/2013 7:38:19 PM

xiiiABOUT THE EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS
students with autism spectrum disorders, and effective professional development
practices for classroom-based interventions.
Robert Conway is Emeritus Professor at the School of Education at Flinders
University, Australia where he was the Dean (2007–2012). He has taught in both
regular and special education. His research and teaching is in the area of students
with emotional and behaviour problems in both mainstream and specialist settings.
Paul Cooper is Chair Professor of Social-Emotional Development and Education
and Associate Vice-President at the Hong Kong Institute of Education; Visiting
Professor in the European Centre for Educational Resilience, University of
Malta; and Honorary Life-Long Vice-President of the Social, Emotional and
Behavioural Difficulties Association.
Harry Daniels is Professor of Education at the University of Oxford, UK. He
has published widely in the fields of cultural historical theory and various aspects
of special and inclusive education.
John Dwyfor Davies is Emeritus Professor in the Department of Education at
the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. He continues to research
and publish widely in matters relating to inclusion, exclusion, and challenging
behaviour. He also provides consultancy to senior staff on school management
and leadership.
Bill Evans, PhD is a Director of the School of Education at the University of
West Florida, USA. He has been a classroom teacher and written numerous
books and articles related to assessment and classroom management. He consults
with schools and government agencies in numerous countries and is actively
involved in policy development.
Michael Furlong is a Professor in the Department of Counseling/Clinical/
School Psychology at the University of California Santa Barbara, USA and the
Director of the Center for School-Based Youth Development. He is a Fellow of
the American Psychological Association (Division 16, School Psychology). He
co-edited the Handbook of Positive Psychology in the Schools (2009, 2014) and
serves as the Editor of the Journal of School Violence.
Robert A. Gable, PhD is Constance and Colgate Darden Professor of Special
Education at Old Dominion University in Norfolk, VA, USA. He earned his doc-
toral degree at George Peabody College of Vanderbilt University; Nashville TN.
His research interests include functional behavioral assessment, differentiating
instruction, and special education teacher preparation.
Michael M. Gerber is Professor of Education at the Gevirtz Graduate School
of Education of the University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA, and
Director of the UC Center for Research on Special Education, Disabilities,
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THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DIFFICULTIES xiv
and Developmental Risk. His research interests include: instructional and
behavioural interventions for students at high risk for poor school achievement
and developmental outcomes, elements of school change, and learning in tech-
nology enabled environments.
Kathryn Germer is currently studying at Peabody College of Vanderbilt
University, USA. Her research interests include the design, implementation, and
evaluation of functional assessment-based interventions within comprehensive,
integrated, three-tiered (CI3T) models of prevention.
Vasiliki Giannouli is Assistant Professor of School Psychology, University of
Macedonia, Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece. Her research interests include
learning disabilities, dyslexia, ADHD and mental retardation.
George Th. Pavlidis is Professor of Learning Disabilities, University of
Macedonia, Thessaloniki, Macedonia, Greece. His research interests include the
use of ophthalmokinesis for the objective-biological prognosis and early diag-
nosis of dyslexia and ADHD. He also is involved in the treatment of learning
disabilities, dyslexia and gifted and develops software and hardware for the diag-
nosis and effective treatment of the aforementioned conditions.
Tamara Glen-Soles, PhD is a Psychologist, Director of The Secure Child Centre
for Families and Children, Lecturer at McGill University, and Researcher at the
Jewish General Hospital in Montreal, Canada. She specializes in child and ado-
lescent mental health. Clinical and research interests include early childhood,
attachment, relationship-based interventions, learning disabilities, ADHD, and
autism/developmental disorders.
Elena L. Grigorenko is Emily Fraser Beede Professor of Developmental
Disabilities, Child Studies, Epidemiology and Public Health, and Psychology at
Yale University, USA. Her research interests are in developmental disabilities,
neuropsychiatric genetics, and cognitive development.
Jo Hendrickson, Professor of Special Education and Director of REACH
(Realizing Educational and Career Hopes) Program at The University of Iowa,
USA. Her research currently targets college-age students with intellectual, behav-
ioural, and learning challenges. UI REACH is a 2-year certificate program for
students with intellectual disabilities who live on-campus.
Bernd G. Heubeck, PhD is a Consultant and Clinical Psychologist who has
worked in private practice and in community child & family mental health. For
20 years, some of it as Director of Clinical Psychology, he taught at the Australian
National University, where he is still a Visiting Fellow. His research interests
include evaluation, ADHD, families, schools and parent training.
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xvABOUT THE EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS
Shanna Eisner Hirsch is a doctoral student in the Department of Curriculum,
Instruction, and Special Education, Curry School of Education, University of
Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA. Her research focuses on the judicious appli-
cation of evidence-based practices for solving behaviour and learning problems.
Garry Hornby, PhD is Professor of Education at the University of Canterbury,
New Zealand. He has worked in schools as a mainstream and special class
teacher and educational psychologist. His research is in the areas of educational
psychology, special and inclusive education, emotional and behavioural difficul-
ties, and parental involvement in education.
Nanci Johnson is the Missouri School-Wide Positive Behavior Support Web and
Data Coordinator and a research faculty member within the Center for School-
Wide Positive Behavior Support at the University of Missouri, USA.
Camille Jones, PhD is a school psychologist in Bonita Unified School District
(California). She coordinates the Educationally-Related Mental Health Services
provided to a diverse student population and conducts mental health assessments
throughout the district.
Clayton Keller is an Associate Professor and Coordinator of the Master of
Education in Special Education at Qatar University, State of Qatar. His schol-
arship has been in the areas of inclusion, the construct of learning disabilities,
educators who have disabilities, and international special education.
Michael J. Kennedy is Assistant Professor of Education in the Department of
Curriculum, Instruction, and Special Education, Curry School of Education,
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA. In addition to studying teacher
education, he has expertise in teaching students with high-incidence disabilities,
including learning disabilities and emotional and behavioral disorders.
Timothy J. Landrum is Chair of the Department of Special Education at the
University of Louisville, Kentucky, USA. His work has focused on emotional and
behavioral disorders in children and youth, classroom and behavior management, the
identification of evidence-based practice, and the translation of research into practice.
Gerhard Lauth is Professor for Psychology and Psychotherapy in Special
Education at the University of Cologne. He has also worked in private prac-
tice and conducts training workshops. His research interests include ADHD,
families, schools and parent training. He is author of the KES parent training
(together with Bernd Heubeck).
Kathleen Lynne Lane, PhD, BCBA-D is a Professor in the Department of
Special Education at the University of Kansas, USA. Her research interests
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THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DIFFICULTIES xvi
include systematic screenings and evidence-based practices within comprehen-
sive, integrated, three-tiered (CI3T) models to support all students, including
those with and at risk of emotional and behavioral disorders.
Holly M. Menzies is a Professor in the Division of Special Education and
Counseling at California State University, Los Angeles. She earned her master’s
degree and doctorate in education from the University of California, Riverside. Dr.
Menzies has participated in research that uses behavioral screening instruments to
examine risk status of students with and without disabilities. Her areas of interest
include student learning outcomes assessment at the university level and she is
active in institution-wide assessment of student achievement.
Susannah Learoyd-Smith, PhD is Research Officer at the University of Oxford,
UK. Her interests are in understanding the influence of different school modali-
ties on teachers, students, and parents at a number of levels.
John Wills Lloyd is Professor of Education in the Department of Curriculum,
Instruction, and Special Education, Curry School of Education, University of
Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA. His research has focused on applying
behavioural pricinciples to the solution of both academic and social problems
experienced by students and teachers.
João A. Lopes, PhD is Associate Professor, Department of Applied Psychology,
University of Minho, Portugal. His research interests include learning, behav-
ioral and emotional problems. Issues related to classroom discipline and special
education systems around the world are also main research areas of interest.
Tim Lewis, PhD is Professor, Special Education at the University of Missouri,
USA, Director of the University of Missouri Center for School-wide Positive
Behavior Supports and Co-Director, Office of Special Education Program Center
on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports.
Michael R. Mayton, PhD, BCBA-D is an Assistant Professor of Special
Education at West Virginia University, USA where he teaches courses in applied
behavior analysis for students with disabilities and instructional methods for stu-
dents with autism spectrum disorders.
Helen McGrath, PhD is an Adjunct Professor in the School of Education at
Deakin University, Australia. Her research interests include classroom-based
programs for teaching social skills and resilience. She has been involved in the
development of national educational frameworks for the promotion of student
well-being and safe and supportive schools.
Barbara S. Mitchell, PhD is Tier 2/3 Consultant for the Missouri School-Wide
Positive Behavior Support Initiative at the University of Missouri, USA. Her
00_Garner_Prelims.indd 16 07/11/2013 7:38:19 PM

xviiABOUT THE EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS
areas of research interest include prevention and early intervention for students
with social, emotional and behavioral challenges, school-based treatments for
students with internalizing concerns, and positive behavioral interventions and
supports.
Nancy A. Mundschenk, PhD is an Associate Professor in the Department of
Educational Psychology and Special Education at Southern Illinois University,
Carbondale, USA. Her research interests include behavioral interventions,
development of social competence, parent/family engagement, professional
development in higher education, functional behavioral assessment, and multi-
tiered systems of support.
Christopher Murray, PhD is a faculty member in special education at the
University of Oregon. His research interests include developing further under-
standing about social relationships and social contexts in the lives of children
and youth with disabilities.
Tom Nicholson is a Professor of Literacy Education, Institute of Education, College
of Humanities and Social Sciences, Massey University, New Zealand. Research
interests are in literacy acquisition. His teaching includes human development,
language, literacy and cognitive development, literacy and social justice, teaching
writing in the classroom, applied behaviour analysis, and research methods.
Wendy Peia Oakes, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Arizona State University,
Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College, USA. Her research focuses on school- and
classroom-level practices within multi-tiered systems of support for improving
educational outcomes of young children with emotional and behavioral disorders.
Lindsey M. O’Brennan, PhD is a Postdoctoral Fellow at Johns Hopkins University,
Bloomberg School of Public Health, USA. Her research focuses on school-based
youth violence prevention and intervention programming that aims to improve the
overall school climate and connectedness among students and school staff.
Paul O’Mahony, PhD was formerly Associate Professor of Psychology in the
School of Medicine, Trinity College, Dublin, Republic of Ireland and, previ-
ously, Research Psychologist with the Irish Prison Service. He is author of
several books on the Irish criminal justice system and has research interests in
the social psychology of crime and punishment.
Meagan O’Malley is a Research Associate in the Health and Human Development
Program, WestEd, USA. Her research interests are school climate and safety,
social and emotional learning, and social support in school settings. She coor-
dinates technical support for state and national initiatives aimed at improving
interpersonal and social-emotional supports provided in school environments.
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THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DIFFICULTIES xviii
Maurice Place is Visiting Professor of Child and Family Psychiatry at
Northumbria University, UK. His research interests are in ADHD, attachment
difficulties, and epigenetic influences.
Lauren C. Reed is a doctoral student at Old Dominion University in Norfolk,
VA, USA. Her primary research interests include evidence-based academic and
behavioral interventions for students with autism and emotional disabilities, the
research to practice gap in special education, and special education teacher preparation.
Mary Richter is Director of the Missouri School-wide Positive Behavior
Support initive and a research faculty member within the Center for School-
Wide Positive Behavior Support at the University of Missouri, USA.
Elizabeth Roberts, PhD is a Psychologist at Lester B. Pearson School Board
and Lecturer at McGill University, Canada. Her areas of research interest
include multi-disciplinary assessment and emotional/academic support of
students with diverse needs, particularly learning disabilities, attention defi-
cit hyperactivity disorder and emotional/behavioural difficulties.
Égide Royer, PhD is Professor of Special Education at the Faculty of Education
at University Laval, Québec, Canada. He is currently teaching on the topic of
behavioural problems in schools and, as a researcher, interested by teachers’ pre-
and in-service training and school achievement of EBD students.
Amy E. Ruhaak is an instructor of special education at the University of
Hawaii in Manoa, USA. Her areas of interest include evidence-based behav-
ioral interventions for students with emotional and behavioral disorders, teacher
preparation, and education policy.
John Ryan PhD is Associate Head of Department of Education at the University
of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research and evaluation work covers
a diverse range of educational topics with recent reports and publications on
inclusion, Islam and citizenship education, technology-enhanced learning and
leadership, and management.
Richard Simpson is Professor of Special Education at the University of Kansas,
USA. He has directed numerous demonstration programs for students with dis-
abilities and coordinated a variety of federal grant programs related to students
with disabilities. He has worked as a special education teacher, school psycholo-
gist, and coordinator of a community mental health outreach program.
Carl R. Smith, PhD is Professor in the School of Education, Iowa State
University, USA. His primary research interests are issues related to policy
implications in serving youth with emotional or behavioral disorders.
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xixABOUT THE EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS
Kevin S. Sutherland, PhD is Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University,
USA. His research focuses upon methods to increase effective instructional prac-
tices in classrooms and schools for students with/at-risk of EBD, intervention
fidelity measurement, and intervention development.
Melody Tankersley is Professor of Special Education at Kent State University,
Ohio, USA. Her interests include the development and treatment of emotional
and behavioral disorders of children and youth, and identifying and implement-
ing evidence-based practices in schools and homes to prevent and respond to
children’s unsuccessful social behavior.
Gary Thomas is Professor of Inclusion and Diversity, School of Education,
University of Birmingham, UK. His research interests are in inclusive education
and social science methodology.
John J. Wheeler, PhD is Director and Professor at the Center of Excellence in
Early Childhood Learning and Development, East Tennessee State University,
USA. His area of specialization is children with autism spectrum disorders, and
those children who experience behavioral challenges as a result of developmen-
tal and/or emotional/behavioral disabilities.
Andrew L. Wiley is Assistant Professor of Special Education at Kent State
University, Ohio, USA. His interests include the moral, political, and socioeco-
nomic context of special education for students with emotional and behavioral
disorders, and the implementation of evidence-based practices in schools.
Kimberly Yanek is a doctoral student at Old Dominion University in Norfolk,
VA, USA. She currently serves as the Training Coordinator for the Virginia
Department of Education Training and Technical Assistance Center’s SWPBS
Initiative. Her research interests include using SWPBS to support positive student
outcomes and teacher use of evidence-based practices.
Mitchell L. Yell, PhD is Fred and Francis Lester Palmetto Chair of Teacher
Education at the University of South Carolina, USA. His primary areas of
research and writing is on IEP development, legal issues in special education,
classroom management, emotional and behavioral disorders in children and
youth, and evidence-based practices in special education.
Kris Zorigian is a Doctoral Candidate in the School of Education, University of
North Carolina at Chapel Hill, USA. He researches high incidence disabilities,
motivation, and human development.
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Preface
The behavior of children in schools, regardless of the age group the school
serves, has long been a consistent source of interest and controversy. Indeed,
more than 2000 years ago, Socrates spoke of young people who tyrannize their
teachers. Greater problems emerged with the development of mass education
in many industrialized countries at the end of the 19th century, when teachers
were confronted by children with a variety of needs and difficulties that hitherto
had been rarely encountered. Education systems have always struggled to adjust
to changing social and economic conditions, and in the more economically
developed nations of the world many students appear unable or unwilling to
conform to typical academic and behavioral expectations. In many traditional
societies, social commentators are increasingly expressing concerns about
globalizing (Western) influences that often emphasize the instrumental value
of education, place the importance of individual autonomy and needs above
duty and responsibility to others, and undermine the authority of parents and
teachers.
In the economically developed world, those whose primary difficulty is in
meeting behavioral expectations are typically identified as having EBD –
emotional and/or behavioral difficulties or disorders. In some nations, these
students may be officially identified in government language as emotionally
disturbed (ED) or behaviorally disordered (BD) – or even as having social,
emotional, and behavioral difficulties (SEBD), or other variants of the term.
Whether the official language refers to emotions or behavior or both, or to a
difficulty or disorder, makes little substantive difference. The point is simply
that emotionally or behaviorally (typically both), they are unable to meet the
demands of the typical educational setting.
This handbook provides a systematic, comprehensive overview of the problems
students with emotional and behavioral difficulties present to themselves, the
schools they attend, their families, and to wider society. It addresses problems
of definition, identification, measurement, causes, intervention, and teacher
training. It includes an international approach to these issues, although some
authors discuss primarily the problems and prospects that operate in their own
country. In those cases, we encourage readers to draw parallels and contrasts
with the national contexts with which they are most familiar.
To really understand ourselves as social beings, we need a sense of perspective,
which can often be provided by looking at relationships and practices in other
societies and cultures. For this reason, we are likely to profit greatly from more
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THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DIFFICULTIES xxii
international comparisons of what constitutes and what causes the condition we
call EBD, and how school personnel can best intervene and be trained in the
required interventions. At the same time, we know that EBD can be judged and
dealt with appropriately only by taking into consideration the social contexts of
the schools, families, and other institutions that operate in any particular nation.
Diversity in national cultures often reflects differences of perspective. That is,
behavior that is considered highly problematic in one place will not necessarily
be considered as troubling in another, and what ‘works’ in one social context
will not necessarily work in another. Still, it is very likely we can find some
general principles that apply to students, schools, and families universally. These
can be discovered only through research, not through ideological obsession or
philosophical speculation. We are confident that as we find them, these ‘universal’
principles will point to our common humanity, regardless of our national culture.
In this book we have collected a range of chapters that are designed to be useful
to aspiring teachers currently training in colleges and universities, teachers,
counselors, therapists, psychologists already working in the school system, and
to academics with responsibility for leading in research and professional training.
We welcome feedback on the value of this book and hope that readers, whatever
their backgrounds and specialisms, will find its content to be both accessible and
meaningful.
We thank the contributors to this volume for their diligent work in writing
chapters that represent the difficulty and complexity of identifying and serving
students with EBD. Also due our thanks are the editors and publishers of our
work. We are particularly grateful to Kathryn Bromwich at Sage Publications,
who has overseen the project and shepherded us skillfully and gently through the
task of putting this volume together.
P. G.
J. K.
J. E.
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Introduction
Themes and Dimensions of
EBD: A Conceptual Overview
Philip Garner, James M. Kauffman,
and Julian Elliott
The contributors to this book, a second edition, probably have always known
that emotional and behavioral difficulties (EBD) are important in their national
system of education. Yet, regardless of their ideological persuasion, all have also
been troubled by what the term EBD and the policies and practices associated
with that label or category mean for the lives of students. In some ways, ‘EBD’
is a metaphor for the doubts, prejudices, realities, frustrations, inconsistencies,
and paradoxes involved in special education or ‘special educational needs’
(SEN). Of all special education or special needs categories, EBD is most likely
to cause the most soul-searching and debate.
Readers of this second edition will find that instruction, inclusion, labeling,
stigma, research and research-to-practice, personnel training, rights and litiga-
tion, early identification and prevention, and other issues are recurring themes in
its chapters. In introducing a book on EBD, we realize the substantial pitfalls.
The nature of the category and the differences among governments in the way
they conceptualize and respond to troubling behavior make anyone’s mistakes,
or at least misunderstanding, particularly difficult to avoid. Differences in
resources, traditions, professional power, and social institutions make the task of
any author or editor especially problematic.
In soliciting chapters, we tried to pay particular attention to issues of social
justice and empowerment of teachers and students. Students with EBD are
among the most marginalized of those receiving special education. We have
therefore attempted to encourage contributors to bring theory and practice
together in the service of students with EBD. We have tried to search out those
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THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DIFFICULTIES 2
who not only have been directly involved with these students but retain affilia-
tion with them.
As editors, we have also attempted to be aware of, and explicitly acknowledge,
the inter-disciplinary nature of the work with students who have EBD and also to
realize that intra-disciplinary communication is critical. Although we have tried
to maintain a focus on education, we realize that effective instruction cannot be
achieved in splendid isolation but must consider the complex interaction of bio-
logical, social, and psychological factors involved in the etiology of EBD. There
are no easy answers to important questions in this field of study and practice.
Most of our attention has focused on the most economically advantaged,
highly developed nations of the world and their educational systems. This is not
to deny the importance of poverty, violence, and abuse on what is seen as ‘chal-
lenging’ or ‘at-risk’ behavior. As an educational system matures and the
education of all children becomes mandatory, including the education of more
students seen as problematic, the issues we discuss come into sharper focus.
We have organized this second edition of the handbook into five sections. The
way we have ordered the chapters will give readers some sense of our perspective
on how the field of EBD might be conceptualized. The sections and chapters
therein provide readers a perspective on the contentious nature of the field.
Readers may select certain chapters and issues to apply to their particular social
context. However, many issues and controversies are recurring across chapters,
so readers are advised that an issue about which they are particularly concerned
is not necessarily confined to a particular section or chapter.
The structure and content of this handbook can, in a sense, be considered meta-
phoric – like EBD itself, characterized by redundancies, confusions, and
complexities (see Kauffman & Landrum, 2013). We realize that others may have
come up with a different organizational scheme or a different set of chapters. The
language and terminology are not entirely consistent, and we offer an international
perspective, which may not only be helpful but conceivably could add to confusion
and misunderstanding. Nevertheless, we hope readers will perceive common
threads that bring clarity out of seeming chaos and make issues and suggestions for
practice particularly piquant.
Our first section (Part 1) deals primarily with the social contexts in which defi-
nitions and terminologies evolve. Definition and measurement are important in
any social project, and they are particularly problematic in the field of EBD. In
Part 1, we asked our contributors to write about how definitions and terminologies
have come to be and how these are handled in various nations and social contexts.
In particular, Lopes provides an international perspective, and Thomas writes
about what the term ‘EBD’ typically means. Mundshenck and Simpson and
Walker et al. discuss how EBD is defined, particularly in the United States.
Landrum and his associates then consider how EBD is a special, disabling condi-
tion and why special education is or is not an appropriate response to it. Place and
Elliott reminds us why the emotional aspect of EBD is often forgotten in our pre-
occupation with problematic behavior.
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INTRODUCTION 3
In Part 2, we turn attention to the various reasons that children and youth have
EBD. Cook and Ruhaak provide an overview of causal factors, and both Cooper
and Grigorenko hone in on various aspects of the biology of behavior. Learoyd-
Smith and Daniels provide discussion of the many social contexts, including
cultures and environments, that can give rise to problematic behavior and
responses to it. O’Brennan and colleagues discuss school contexts, in particular
the contexts of violent, disruptive behavior. Nicholson gives attention to some-
thing often neglected in our preoccupation with problem behavior – academic
achievement – bringing up the too often ignored matter of better instruction.
O’Mahony then takes up the topic of juvenile delinquency and Hirsch, Wills
Lloyd, and Kennedy consider instructional practices in EBD, ADHD, and LD.
Anderson-deMello and Hendrickson address teacher knowledge and Glen-Soles
and Roberts discuss the perceptions of those who work with students who have
EBD. Pavlidis and Giannouli discuss the relationships among co-existing condi-
tions, specifically ADHD, dyslexia, other specific learning disabilities and
behavioral difficulties in school.
Part 3 moves on to consider the topic, ‘what are we going to do about it?’ Smith
wrestles with the important question of advocacy for students who have EBD.
Gerber discusses how interventions are developed and how resilience can be
encouraged. Garner considers the critical topic of curriculum in general, and
McGrath focuses on the specific issues of social learning and teaching social
skills. Heubeck and Lauth give attention to how supporting parents can be critical
in the support of students. Hornby and Evans discuss how students with EBD can
be included in general education, and Davies and Ryan addresse the marginaliza-
tion of students with EBD. The Algozzines and Lewis et al. describe the critical
nature of school-wide systems of support for students. Wheeler and Mayton dis-
cuss how the integrity of interventions is critical; sloppy execution of interventions
is not acceptable because poorly executed interventions will fail regardless of their
effectiveness when done well.
The topic of Part 4 is personnel training, including not only initial training, but
also in-service training. Behan and Blake take up the topic of training new teach-
ers, and Lane and colleagues discuss how best to support teachers by using
in-service resources. Conway continues with further discussion of professional
development, and Elliott concludes with discussion of the critical craft knowledge
that teachers of students with EBD must have.
Chapters in our final section – Part 5 – address the future. This includes both the
opportunities and the difficulties or challenges that lie ahead. Reed and co-workers
begin by addressing the hard times we have had, are having, and are likely to have,
as well as the uncertainty of our future as a field. Conroy and colleagues suggest
future research directions for the field, and Royer discusses the research-to-practice
gap. Keller, Al-Hendawi, and Anastasiou note the tensions and challenges pre-
sented by ADHD, both now and in the future. Kauffman ends by noting that
although we have always talked a good game of prevention, we actually have been
unwilling or unable to prevent very little but prevention itself.
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THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DIFFICULTIES 4
Our intention in this volume is to bring science to bear on the topic of EBD.
Although a scientific perspective on the topic (or a logico–mathematical approach)
is neither perfect nor the only tool we need, it is simply the best we have for many
purposes, but not all purposes (see Anastasiou & Kauffman, 2011; Sasso, 2001,
2007; Kauffman, 2011). We need diversity and competition of thought in special
education for students with EBD, but we need neither thoughtlessness nor illogic.
We must be careful to discriminate between legitimate diversity and unhelpful
ideas, just as we must be aware of the unhelpful divergence of perspectives, emo-
tions, and thoughts of students with EBD. If we fail to recognize students’
unhelpful ideas and feelings that put them at risk, then we allow them to wallow
needlessly in their disability. We must be careful that we ourselves do not flounder
needlessly.
We also note that nearly any idea or perspective can become an unhelpful obses-
sion or ideological preoccupation. Perhaps, in recent years, the notion of inclusion – a
very important and valuable idea – has become such for some (Kauffman & Bandar,
in press; Martin, 2013; Warnock, 2005; Wiley, in press; Zigmond & Kloo, 2012;
Zigmond, Kloo, & Volonino, 2009). In fact, many popular ideas are found, eventu-
ally, to have very little support in research (see Kauffman, Bruce, & Lloyd, 2012).
This does not necessarily mean that the ideas are bad or unhelpful, simply that they
have not received support from research. An idea’s difference from our own does not
mean it is worthless. As Wiley (in press) concludes, it is important not to demonize
people or points of view that are different to our own, or to assume that those who
hold assumptions different to our own are worthless, even if we discriminate what is
worthless from what is not.
Importantly, this handbook only suggests starting points – an introduction to
the little we actually know about EBD. There are many cultural differences
among the nations of the world, and many of these are important in addressing
the characteristics and needs of exceptional learners and schools’ responses to
them in the 21st century, including those with EBD (Anastasiou & Keller, 2011;
Cronis & Ellis, 2000). Recognizing and honoring cultural differences, as well as
philosophical differences, are critical for our progress, even as we try to figure
out what science has to offer and attempt to discriminate between the helpful and
the unhelpful aspects of what we think and how we approach the task of working
with EBD.
We believe multiple perspectives on the problem of EBD can be very helpful.
Among these are the perspectives of students with EBD, who have important things
to tell us about what it is like to have the condition about which we are writing (see
Garner, 1993, 1995; Habel, Bloom, Ray & Bacon, 1999). Interviews with students
and the writings of those who experience emotional problems (e.g., Jamison, 1995)
have much to tell us about the experience itself that we cannot otherwise obtain.
In short, we hope this edition of the handbook will help anyone who reads it, in
part or in total, to understand EBD better and the most important issues this condi-
tion presents. We also hope it prompts research that will help us work more
effectively with all students.
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INTRODUCTION 5
REFERENCES
Anastasiou, D., & Kauffman, J. M. (2011). A social constructionist approach to disability: Implications for
special education. Exceptional Children, 77, 367–84.
Anastasiou, D., & Keller, C. (2011). International differences in provision for exceptional learners. In J.
M. Kauffman & D. P. Hallahan (Eds.), Handbook of special education (pp. 773–87). New York, NY:
Routledge.
Cronis, T., & Ellis, D. (2000). Issues facing special educators in the new millennium. Education, 120(4),
639–48.
Garner, P. (1993). What disruptive students say about the school curriculum and the way it is taught.
Therapeutic Care and Education, 2, 404–15.
Garner, P. (1995). Schools by scoundrels: The views of ‘disruptive’ pupils in mainstream schools in
England and the United States. In M. Lloyd-Smith & J. D. Davies (Eds.), On the margins: The educa-
tional experience of ‘problem’ pupils (pp. 17–30). Stoke-on-Trent, UK: Trentham.
Habel, J., Bloom, L. A., Ray, M. S., & Bacon, E. (1999). Consumer reports: What students with behavior
disorders say about school. Remedial and Special Education, 20, 93–105.
Jamison, K. R. (1995). An unquiet mind. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf.
Kauffman, J. M. (2011). Toward a science of education: The battle between rogue and real science.
Verona, WI: Attainment.
Kauffman, J. M., & Bandar, J. (in press). Instruction, not inclusion, should be the central issue in special
education: An alternative perspective from the USA. Journal of International Special Needs Education.
Kauffman, J. M., Bruce, A., & Lloyd, J. W. (2012). Response to intervention (RtI) and students with EBD.
In J. P. Bakken, F. E. Obiakor, & A. Rotatori (Eds.), Advances in special education, Vol. 23 – behavioral
disorders: Current perspectives and issues (pp. 107–27). Bingley, UK: Emerald.
Kauffman, J. M., & Landrum, T. J. (2013). Characteristics of emotional and behavioral disorders of chil-
dren and youth (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Martin Jr., E. W., (2013). Breakthrough: Federal special education legislation 1965–1981. Sarasota, FL:
Bardolf.
Sasso, G. M. (2001). The retreat from inquiry and knowledge in special education. The Journal of Special
Education, 34, 178–93.
Sasso, G. M. (2007). Science and reason in special education: The legacy of Derrida and Foucault. In J. B.
Crockett, M. M., Gerber, & T. J., & Landrum (Eds.), Achieving the radical reform of special education:
Essays in honor of James M. Kauffman (pp. 143–67). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Warnock, M. (2005). Special educational needs: A new look. Impact No. 11. London: Philosophy of
Education Society of Great Britain.
Wiley, A. L. (in press). Place values: What moral psychology can tell us about the full inclusion debate in
special education. In B. Bateman, M. Tankersley, & J. Lloyd (Eds.), Understanding special education
issues: Who, where, what, when, how and why. New York, NY: Routledge.
Zigmond, N., & Kloo, A. (2012). General and special education are (and should be) different. In J.
M. Kauffman & D. P. Hallahan (Eds.), Handbook of special education (pp. 160–72). New York, NY:
Routledge.
Zigmond, N., Kloo, A., & Volonino, V. (2009). What, where, and how? Special education in the climate
of full inclusion. Exceptionality, 17, 189–204.
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PART 1
Contexts, Definitions, and
Terminologies
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1
International Perspectives in
EBD: Critical Issues
João A. Lopes
The field of emotional and behavioural difficulties (EBD) is challenging and con-
troversial. When we try to make sense of the field in an international perspective,
it becomes almost puzzling. Cross-national developmental, economical, educa-
tional, political and scientific conditions underlie conceptualizations of EBD as
well as estimated prevalence levels, evaluation/diagnosis and intervention.
Moreover, as Winzer mentions in the last edition of this Handbook, ‘…compara-
tive study in special education is not an active domain of study‘ (2005: 22).
Fortunately, in the last decade the Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD, an organization that produced a large number of studies over
a significant number of countries e.g. OECD, 2005, 2008, 2009, 2010) providing
researchers, practitioners and politicians invaluable cross-national information
about EBD categories or their corresponding labels (whenever they exist). Still, an
in-depth understanding of this complex information must take into account a num-
ber of critical issues that underlie scientific and political decisions about EBD
conditions (how many conditions, which conditions, etc.). The developmental level
of the country, the role of culture, compulsory schooling and school inclusion are
some of these important issues that must be taken into account.
EBD AND THE DEVELOPMENTAL LEVEL OF COUNTRIES
When we take a close look at countries with well-designed taxonomies and
categorizations of EBD, it becomes apparent that these countries show some of the
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THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DIFFICULTIES10
best developmental indexes in the world. The relation is not perfect, however.
The United States, for instance, despite being the country where most research on
EBD is produced and where most discussion over taxonomies and categoriza-
tions is being conducted, is listed fourth in the human developmental index
(HDI = 0.910) (Klugman, 2011). Norway, ranked first (HDI = 0.943), holds a
more classical categorization system and adopts more restrictive solutions for
students with emotional, behavioural, or developmental problems. Also, the num-
ber of students identified with disabilities in Norway (around 6 per cent) is much
lower than in the United States (around 20 per cent) (Cameron et al., 2011).
When we compare countries across developmental levels, other and more
important differences and tendencies become apparent. One of the differences
has to do with the availability of information about EBD students. While coun-
tries with very high human development indexes (Cameron et al., 2011) usually
provide international agencies with extensive information about identification
procedures, categories, support systems, funding, etc., countries with medium or
with low human development indexes typically show difficulties in gathering, or
cannot even get, the information required by those agencies (OECD, 2005).
Most likely, the information is not available because some countries do not have
a clearly established special education system (or an implemented system to sup-
port EBD and other problematic children) and/or do not have an effective informa-
tion gathering system. This is, of course, a general effect of poverty. Some of these
countries struggle to provide basic items like food and water; therefore, they are
not in a position to make choices about educational issues. Others that are in a
development process allocate their limited resources to basic education and cannot
provide enough support to special students, namely EBD. As Donald (1994)
states: ‘the irony in this is that the incidence of disability, and therefore of special
education needs, in such contexts is estimated to be considerably higher than in
more developed contexts’ (1994: 5).
Another difference between countries with different levels of development
has to do with the acceptance of the concept of EBD itself. Even if it is true that
only some countries with very high levels of human development adopt the
concept of EBD, it is also clear that countries above those levels of development
rarely identify categories of problems other than the most evident: deafness,
blindness, mental retardation, autism, etc. (OECD, 2005). The concept of EBD
is therefore not internationally recognized – quite the contrary. The fact that
some of the countries where the concept is well-established and where most of
the research on EBD, special education, special education needs, etc., is con-
ducted, gave the concept of EBD a visibility that doesn’t have a corresponding
recognition in most other countries.
Mazurek and Winzer (1994) compared the special education systems of 26
countries and grouped them into countries with ‘limited special education’,
countries with ‘emerging special education’, countries with ‘segregated special
education’, countries with ‘approaching integration’ and countries with ‘inte-
grated special education’.
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INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES IN EBD: CRITICAL ISSUES 11
Countries with limited special education are those in which ‘special educa-
tion, training and rehabilitation remain an elusive dream‘(Mazurek and Winzer,
1994: 3). The second group integrates populous countries that are extremely
diverse in geographical and ethnic terms. These countries differ mainly from the
former group in that they also are fighting for universal access to school but are
planning already to provide educational services for disabled, disordered, or
disadvantaged persons (which, for the former, are still a ‘dream’). It is estimated
that 80 per cent of disabled people in the world live in countries in this second
group. These countries, influenced by international guidelines, have developed
national legislation for special people. Countries with ‘segregated special educa-
tion’, ‘approaching integration’, or with ‘integrated special education’ usually
share fairly or highly well-established special education systems.
Overall, we can say that only a small, but rather influential, number of coun-
tries have developed and implemented taxonomic systems that include the EBD
category. As leaders of published research and organizational developments,
their models of EBD and special education seem to be inspiring other countries’
developments in the field (Donald, 1994; Lorenzo, 1994; Agrawal, 1994). This
does not mean, however, that in the long run all countries will inevitably follow
the same path. In fact, even countries with very high developmental indexes do
not share the same concepts about EDB and special education. Eventually, coun-
tries will share a number of foundation concepts and statements about EBD and
special education, but organizational variability will remain.
TERMINOLOGY(IES)
It is quite clear that the field of EBD and of problems or disorders that may be
included under the umbrella of EBD suffer from widespread cross-country vari-
ability. Related concepts, such as ‘special education’, ‘special education needs’,
‘deficits’, ‘disorders’, ‘disabilities’, etc., make international comparisons even
more difficult.
Special education is usually considered a subsystem of the general educational
system, integrating students that show some kind of adaptation problem to the
regular education system; however, there is a considerable cross-national variation
in the scope of special education. One of the main reasons for this variation may be
that special education is an organizational system that results from national political
decisions and means different things in different countries. For instance, some
countries, such as United Kingdom, Spain and Netherlands, readily adopted the
recommendations from both the Warnock Report (1978) and the International
Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) (UNESCO, 1997) and replaced the
concept of ‘special education’ by the concept of ‘special needs education’. Other
countries, such as Kirghizia and Kazakhstan, still use the former terminology of the
defectological/medical tradition and do not hold an educational perspective of the
field.
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THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DIFFICULTIES12
According to the ISCED, the term ‘special education’ refers to the education
of children with disabilities in special schools or institutions distinct from the
regular system, something that does not happen in some countries (OECD, 2005).
Many countries, however, still have special schools and institutions (and some do
not even have those). Not surprisingly, terminologies about EBD and special
education are quite varied in these countries.
The Salamanca Statement (UNESCO, 1994), signed by 92 governments and 25
international organizations, strongly advocated the full inclusion of students with
deficits or disabilities whenever possible. Theoretically, this could mean that in the
medium or long term, the special education subsystem could be integrated into the
regular education system, and thus eventually discontinued. The same might be
said for The United Nations’ Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
(CRPD) in 2012, which also recommended that the special education subsystem be
integrated into the regular education system.
One of the explicit goals and consequences of the developments in the field
of special education was to replace descriptive categories derived from medical
classifications, which were considered of limited value for regular schools edu-
cational programming, with statements about the educational needs of a particu-
lar child (Ainscow & Haile-Giorgis, 1998). However, at least two important
problems remain unsolved: (1) the term ‘special needs education’ still means
different things in different countries. In some countries, it applies only to tradi-
tionally disabled children (e.g. mentally handicapped), while in others it applies
to a wide range of problems, including EBD, learning difficulties, social disad-
vantage, etc. (2) Because of the wide variation in definitions, it is hard to make
cross-national prevalence estimates for any category (OECD, 2005). Moreover,
some countries, such as Portugal, who once used the term ‘special education
needs’ to feature a broad spectrum of problems (EBD, for instance) reversed
their policies and reapplied it only to traditional disabilities.
The Warnock Report anticipated problems at the terminological and identifi-
cation levels. ‘The extent of special educational need is very difficult to
assess’(1978: 37), the report said, and there is ‘…no agreed cut and dried dis-
tinction between the concept of handicap and other related concepts such as
disability, incapacity and disadvantage’. Almost 30 years later, the Baroness
Mary Warnock contended that ‘one of the major disasters of the original report
was that we introduced the concept of special educational needs to try and show
that disabled children were not a race apart and many of them should be edu-
cated in the mainstream… But the unforeseen consequence is that SEN has
come to be the name of a single category, and the government uses it as if it is
the same problem to include a child in a wheelchair and a child with Asperger’s,
and that is conspicuously untrue’ (The House of Commons Education and Skills
Committee, 2006: 36; see also Warnock, 2005). That is, the attempt to unlabel
seemed to result in one more label.
In an effort to make terminology and prevalence estimates internationally
comparable, experts from 34 OECD countries agreed in reclassifying their
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INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES IN EBD: CRITICAL ISSUES 13
categories, both national and resource-based, according to three cross-national
categories: ‘A/Disabilities’: students with organic disorders whose educational
needs arise primarily from problems attributable to those disabilities; ‘B/Diffi-
culties‘: students with behavioural or emotional disorders or specific difficulties
in learning whose problems arise primarily from the interaction between the
student and his learning context; and ‘C/Disadvantages’: students with disad-
vantages arising primarily from socio-economic, cultural and/or linguistic fac-
tors (OECD, 2005, 2008, 2009, 2010).
Clearly, this is the most important and most accomplished ongoing attempt to
unify terminologies in a cross-national perspective. Although there are only 34
countries represented on OECD, these countries cover the five continents and
produce most of the research in the field of special education in general, and in
the field of EBD in particular. The experts determined that it would be almost
impossible to share information based on specific national categories (e.g. atten-
tion deficit hyperactivity disorder [ADHD], oppositional defiant disorder)
because there are at least 22 categories across countries, and a significant num-
ber of them do not overlap. The three clusters resulting from these 22 categories
seem to fit specificities of most categories, including EBD, which integrates
Category B (problems of the student with his learning context). However, there
are still a number of countries, such as France and Greece that do not share some
of the categories usually considered as EBD, and others, such as Norway and
Denmark that essentially share noncategorical systems.
Terminology will certainly be a major cross-national issue in the field of EBD
for years. The commitment of international agencies in the development of a
common language about categories/dimensions, prevalence rates, organizational
systems, etc., will therefore be invaluable for research and cross-countries com-
parative studies.
THE ROLE OF CULTURE
It is important to acknowledge that implicit to the notion of emotional or behav-
ioural disturbance/disorder/difficulty is the idea of a deviance against a norm or
social pattern (Mesquita and Walker, 2003). These norms, of course, vary widely
from culture to culture and with time. This is quite relevant for the diagnosis of
emotional disturbance, which must take into account the ‘normal amount of
emotion‘ and the amount of deviance from the norm (Jenkins, 1994). Mesquita
(2007) contends that most definitions of emotion reflect Western emotional
models but do not stand for Eastern cultures. For instance, Kitayama et al.
(2000) and Idzelis et al. (2002) found that in committing a social offense,
American subjects’ appraisal and action readiness were directed to the restora-
tion of self-esteem and regaining self-control, while Japanese subjects tried to
restore the relationship with the offender, to understand his point of view and
minimize the situation. Also, the physical expression of emotions seemed to be
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THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DIFFICULTIES14
much lower in these Japanese subjects. The main point here is that emotions as
well as emotional disturbance are ‘not separate from culture but rather are con-
stituted by it’ (Mesquita, 2007: 414). Such a model situates and describes emo-
tions and emotional disturbance in the context of a culture, not exclusively as an
internal state that takes place within a single person (Barrett, 2006; Shweder,
1991). In this perspective, the transactional aspects of emotions and behaviours,
and their public expression, should be carefully considered if we are willing to
understand why the field of EBD will hardly be cross-national and cross-culturally
unified (Frijda et al., 1991). Indeed, EBD are outputs that deviate from norma-
tive or cultural standards and are perceived, if not by the subject himself, at least
by society, as disruptive (Hofstede, 2001; Mesquita and Walker, 2003; Timimi,
2004a).
In countries devastated by wars or where poverty is the rule, fighting aggres-
sively for life, lying, stealing, etc., are obviously not indicative of a mental
disorder. Actually, these are rather expected behaviours in highly adverse environ-
ments. This is not to deny the existence of mental disorders, as some authors
claimed (e.g. Szasz, 1960), but to stress the need to consider both mind and con-
text before labelling people as disordered (Timimi, 2004a, 2004b). Richters and
Cicchetti (1993) contended that the assumption that a subject who is diagnosed
with a conduct disorder (CD) necessarily suffers from a mental disorder is not
supported by research findings and is not innocuous because (a) the mental disor-
der attribution is a ‘strong epistemological claim’ that is self-perpetuating; (b) it
has long-term negative social consequences for those that are labelled as having a
mental disorder; (c) it tends to focus attention solely on the individual without
consideration for pathological conditions of his/her environment; and (d) it con-
strains the questions that are asked about the problem and those that should have
been asked. In sum, ‘To attribute their behaviour to an underlying mental disorder
is to draw attention away from the criminogenic and pathological conditions that
characterize their environments’ (1993: 24). Or, as Meehl said, some CD subjects
may be ‘...psychiatrically normal person[s] who learned the wrong cultural values
from [their] neighborhood[s] and environment[s]’ (Meehl, 1959: 93).
Overall, the field of EBD is understandably a product of the so-called Western
culture. Most research is conducted in Western countries, taxonomies of EBD
are produced in Western countries, and a number of researchers from other cul-
tures graduated in Western countries. No wonder cultural variations are found in
the definitions of EBD, in the prevalence rates of EBD conditions, and even in
the acceptance of the existence of some EBD conditions! However, the way
cultures influence these features is not straightforward. It is also important to
stress that important intra-cultural variation can be found through time. One way
or another, the role of context, whether we call it culture or some other thing,
models our perspectives about the whole field of EBD. This cautions us against
the spurious reification of some concepts and against the presumption that Western
perspectives of EBD and international perspectives on EBD are one and the
same thing.
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INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES IN EBD: CRITICAL ISSUES 15
COMPULSORY SCHOOLING
The inclusion of students with disabilities in regular classrooms is often presented
as a major challenge to classroom organization, management and instruction
(Baker and Zigmond, 1996; Kauffman and Hallahan, 1995; Winzer, 2005; Mas-
tropieri and Scruggs, 2006; Zigmond and Kloo, 2011); however, the problem
would be better conceptualized in the wider context of compulsory education.
The topic of compulsory education is scarcely considered in literature. It is not a
new subject, however. More than 150 years ago, Philosopher Herbert Spencer
wrote: ‘For what is meant by saying that a government ought to educate the people?
Why should they be educated? What is the education for? … This system of disci-
pline it is bound to enforce to the uttermost‘ (2010: 297). Today, such a statement
may seem provocative, yet it addresses a key element of compulsory education: the
fact that students are forced to be in classrooms for a long time. Of course, 19th
century students spent much less time in classrooms than they do today. Moreover,
only a very small minority attended school at all. Indeed, for most countries, com-
pulsory education is a 20th century achievement (and for some it is still a mirage).
The most industrialized countries have now compulsory school for about 9
to 12 years, but this is also true for some countries with low or very low HDI.
Currently, only a small number of countries have less than 6 years of compul-
sory school, and there are not many countries in the world with more than 12
years of compulsory school (NationMaster, 2012). Looking at these numbers,
it becomes obvious that compulsory school is an achievement and a sign of
modernity.
Nevertheless, it seems that the problem of students’ curriculum alienation is
far from being effectively addressed in most countries. Indeed, most school
interventions for EBD students and normal students who misbehave are directed
to behaviour control, without enough consideration for what is causing such
behaviour(s). Yet trying to control misbehaviour without carefully considering
the student’s academic achievement can only result in increased levels of stress
and frustration (Brophy, 1996).
Students’ externalized behaviours are particularly problematic for teachers
because they are in direct conflict with teaching goals and openly challenge
teachers’ authority (Brantlinger et al., 2000; Buzzelli and Johnston, 2001). The
older the student, the more defiant behaviours are likely to be. Not surprisingly,
a significant number of disordered behaviours are mistakenly perceived by
school professionals as perpetrated by disordered people. Yet a significant num-
ber of these behaviours are quite logical for students who are off-task most of the
time because they are unable to follow the school curriculum. Moreover, for
some students, curriculum alienation begins early in their school path and the gap
usually widens with time (Frick et al., 1991; Seidman, 2005; Stanovich, 1986).
Once again, compulsory schooling is a step forward for human societies, but
it is increasingly apparent that, as it stands, it may be detrimental for older stu-
dents who cannot find much personal fulfilment in school.
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THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DIFFICULTIES16
EBD: CROSS-NATIONAL TRENDS AND SPECIFICITIES
As we previously stated, OECD is currently the most important single source of
information about students with disabilities, learning difficulties, emotional and
behaviour disorders and disadvantages around the world.
The available data show that there are widely diverse international perspec-
tives about EBD. We must acknowledge that OECD works with experts from the
different countries in an effort to reformat or to regroup national categories/
conditions in the three cross-national categories defined by the OECD experts’
committee (Category ‘A/Disabilities’; Category ‘B/Difficulties’; Category ‘C/
Disadvantages’). This may suggest some homogeneity that actually does not
exist. Most countries do not even use the term EBD, although a significant num-
ber of countries refer to categories that are usually under the umbrella of EBD,
and include them in OECD Category B.
There are two other important cross-national trends: (1) most countries (not all)
use specific categories (not dimensions) to identify EBD conditions; and (2) in
most countries, there is a trend or a will to include EBD children and youth in
regular classrooms. These are uneven trends, however. For instance, with the
exception of the United States and Canada, OAS (Organization of American
States) countries tend to use special schools for EBD students. But even in the
United States, a significant number of EBD students are not in regular classrooms.
Disparities in prevalence rates will hardly be explained by major differences
in cross-national definitions of EDB. In Brazil for instance, EBD are defined as
‘tipical manifestations of syndrome behaviours and neurological, psychological
or psychiatric conduct which cause delays and damages in the development of
social relationships at a degree that requires specialized educational assistance’
(OECD, 2008: 42). In Canada, EBD applies to ‘students with severe behavioral
challenges that are primarily a result of social, psychological and environmental
factors’ (OECD, 2008: 43). In Uruguay, it applies to ‘students with specific or
general disorders relating to behavioural problems which affect diverse aspects
of development and learning’ (OECD, 2008: 53). In the United States, a long
(yet more precise), but not too different definition is in use. The condition
includes schizophrenia but excludes socially maladjusted children, which seems
contradictory with the category itself and has received some criticism (e.g. Cul-
linan, 2004; Kauffman and Landrum, 2013). Discrepancies in prevalence rates
suggest that more broad definitions of EBD induce the random inclusion (or
exclusion) of a significant number of behaviours, depending more on the evalu-
ator than on the actual behaviours. It is also highly likely that countries with
more resources tend to identify more subjects as EBD.
In spite of the problems with definitions and prevalence rates, continued data
gathering by international agencies will likely close the gap between cross-
countries’ perspectives on EBD, not to the point that every country will eventu-
ally recognize the same EBD conditions and use the same identification system
(e.g. ICF-CY (World Health Organization, 2007)), but to the point that most
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INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES IN EBD: CRITICAL ISSUES 17
countries will eventually be able to routinely provide internationally standard-
ized information about EBD students.
CONCLUSION
Trying to make sense of international perspectives on EBD is a challenging but
stimulating task. Cultural, developmental, economic, educational, etc., issues
underlie cross-national differences in the field of EBD. Nevertheless, we cur-
rently have more data than we ever did about EBD, and this allows us to be
reasonably aware of what is happening in the field worldwide.
First, most countries in the world that provide data about EBD are developing,
or are willing to develop, support systems for EBD children that resemble those
of the most experienced countries in the field. This means, for instance, develop-
ing a more balanced perspective (medical/educational) about EBD’s aetiology,
definition, identification and intervention. It also means including EBD students
in regular classrooms. Inclusion, however, seems more controversial and clearly
some experienced countries are not adopting it in a generalized way.
Second, problems with terminologies in the field of EBD and special educa-
tion create some internationally hard-to-manage misunderstandings. Fortunately
international agencies and researchers worldwide are working in the develop-
ment of a common language that makes the field recognizable for those who
work with EBD children and youth.
Third, culture is one of the most important mediators in cross-country per-
spectives on EBD. This holds for the construct of EBD itself, which is far from
having a general acceptance, and for specific EBD conditions (e.g. ADHD).
Fourth, inclusion is much more an issue in the international agenda of EBD
than compulsory schooling. Nevertheless, the overdiagnosis of EBD conditions
and the alarming increase in school-aged children and youth medication should
make the EBD field seriously reflect on this neglected issue.
Finally, it must be stressed that developments on the field of EBD are being
pushed by a very small but influential number of countries (e.g. Australia, Neth-
erlands, United Kingdom, United States, New Zealand). The quality and amount
of published research about EBD and the development of advanced laws war-
rants the leading role of those countries in the field. Still, wide cross-national
differences about EBD persist even between countries with very high develop-
ment levels, and they will likely persist in the future.
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2
What Do We Mean By ‘EBD’?
1
Gary Thomas
Elsewhere, I have asserted that arguments for special education rest in particular
ways of thinking and understanding (Thomas and Loxley, 2007). Those argu-
ments, I suggested, have set on a pedestal certain kinds of theoretical and
empirical ‘knowledge’ and favored particular methodological avenues as routes
to such knowledge. The putative character of this knowledge – stable, objective,
reliable – has created a false legitimacy for the growth of special education and
the activities of special educators. This chapter takes that theme forward, focus-
ing on children who don’t behave at school. It makes the point that the meta-
phors and constructs that are used to generate understanding about such difficult
behavior are often misleading, evoking, as they do, all kinds of quasi-scientific
explanation – explanation that has popularly come to be known as ‘psychobab-
ble’. While ‘psychobabble’ is hardly a scholarly term to employ in a volume
such as this, it is nevertheless an apt one. For the mélange of disparate metaphor
and theory around which the understanding of people’s behavior is popularly
constructed – in both lay and professional circles – rests in the reification of
what is little more than tentative psychological theory. Perhaps more scholarly
than psychobabble would be Crews’s characterization of this knowledge, par-
ticularly that which rests in Freudian theory, as an ‘ontological maze peopled by
absurd homunculi’ (1997: 298).
Whatever the register in which one chooses to discuss it, there have been, I
argue in this chapter, some unfortunate consequences of this kind of discourse for
schoolchildren. Further, in the more recent school-orientated approaches to
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THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DIFFICULTIES 22
helping avoid troublesome behavior at school – approaches that put the emphasis
on change by the school rather than the change in the child – are found merely a
replication of the exclusionary phenomena of the past. Those phenomena are cre-
ated by certain kinds of mindsets and professional systems that accentuate rather
than attenuate difference – and these mindsets and professional systems them-
selves rest in the thinking about difference, of deficit and disadvantage.
I contend that a relatively recent concept, that of ‘need’, has come to reinforce
these concepts of deficit and disadvantage. Intended to be helpful, to place
emphasis on a child’s difficulties rather than simply naming a supposed category
of problems, the notion of need has instead come to point as emphatically as
before at the child. It has allowed many of the exclusionary practices associated
with special education to remain in place.
THE NOTION OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DIFFICULTIES:
THE ROOT OF THE PROBLEM
The terms ‘EBD’ (emotional and behavioral difficulties) or ‘SEBD’ (social, emo-
tional and behavioral difficulties) are widely and unquestioningly used in England
(and other countries have their own equivalents) as an administrative and quasi-
clinical category. Uniquely, it proffers a category that is specific to children, and
which combines legal, medical and educational connotations and meanings.
Although EBD is not an official category in England, it exists as one in every-
thing but name. Categories officially ceased to exist following the report of the
Warnock Committee (DES, 1978) and the 1981 Education Act. Yet it would be
clear to a Martian after five minutes’ study of the English education system that
for all practical purposes EBD is indeed a category and that it forms in the minds
of practitioners, professionals and administrators one of the principal groups of
special needs. It has been used as a category in the local statementing procedures
that have followed from Section 5 of the 1981 Education Act and the Education
Acts that have succeeded it. It appears unquestioningly in papers in reputable
academic journals (for example, Smith and Thomas, 1992), and it appears as a
descriptor in official documents and papers (for example, DES, 1989a, 1989b;
DfEE, 1995; Mortimore, 1997).
The term ‘EBD’, then, reveals no frailty; indeed it displays a peculiar resil-
ience and this makes it particularly interesting and useful as an example of a
special education concept. The resilience it shows is demonstrated in its ability
to survive and prosper over the past few years when attention has moved from
the child to the institution, with, for example, the Elton Committee’s emphasis
on whole-school approaches to discipline (DES, 1989c). Over the last few years,
academics and policy-makers have proposed that in tackling the question of dif-
ficult behavior at school, attention should be paid not only to analysis and treat-
ment of the child’s behavior, but also to the operations and systems in the school
that may cause or aggravate such behavior.
02_Garner_Ch-02.indd 22 08/11/2013 3:20:33 PM

WHAT DO WE MEAN BY ‘EBD’? 23
But behind this sensible development in thinking, there resolutely continues a
powerful sub-text that the real causes of difficult behavior lie in deficit and devi-
ance in the child. As recently as 1994, respected academics framed their book
around section headings such as ‘Identification of EBDs’ (Chazan et al., 1994:
27) and ‘Factors associated with EBDs in middle childhood’ (1994: 36). Another
entitled their book Treating Problem Children (Hoghughi, 1988). Recent dis-
course stresses attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (see Graham,
2012 for a critical discussion of recent developments). The agenda is of deficit,
deviance and disadvantage in the child, and while school systems are usually
mentioned in discourse such as this, they seem to appear almost as an after-
thought. It is clear that the real problem is considered to be dispositional –
that of the child – and the emphasis is thus on individual treatment. The term
‘EBD’ induces a clinical mindset from which it is difficult to escape.
This mindset operates within more all-encompassing ideas about need. The
notion of need is seldom questioned. It is seemingly so benign, so beneficial to
the child that it has become a shibboleth of special education thinking and pol-
icy. But I contend in this chapter that ‘need’ is less than helpful, and that it is a
chimera when difficult behavior is being considered. The notion of need here is
based on a belief that a child’s problems are being identified and addressed.
‘Need’ in this context, however, is more usefully seen as the school’s need – a
need for calm and order. The language of the clinic, though, invariably steers the
response of professionals toward a child-based action plan.
This focus on emotional need substitutes a set of supposedly therapeutic prac-
tices and procedures for more down-to-earth and simple-to-understand sanc-
tions. It also diverts attention from the nature of the environment which children
are expected to inhabit. The ambit of the ‘helping’, therapeutic response invoked
by the idea of EBD is unjustifiably wide, being called on neither at the request
of the young person involved (or at least very rarely so), nor because of some
long-standing pattern of behavior which has demonstrated that the young person
has a clinically identifiable problem, but rather because the behavior is unac-
ceptable for a particular institution. But because these therapeutic practices and
procedures notionally constitute ‘help’, they are peculiarly difficult to refuse.
Likewise, it is difficult to refute the kindly, child-centred, humanitarian tenets
on which they supposedly rest. The tenets on which therapeutic practice rest may
be all these good things (kind, humanitarian, child-centred), but they have devel-
oped during an era when the intellectual climate eschewed – or, rather, failed
even to consider as meaningful concepts – ideas about the rationality and rights
of the child. In such a climate, it was considered appropriate and necessary for
decisions to be made about and for children by concerned professionals.
Whereas systems for rule-breaking adults have come to incorporate strict proce-
dures to protect rights, systems could develop in schools to deal with rule infrac-
tion that would incorporate no such protection because the protection was con-
sidered to be automatically inherent in the beneficial action of the professionals
acting on the child’s behalf.
02_Garner_Ch-02.indd 23 08/11/2013 3:20:33 PM

THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DIFFICULTIES 24
But those actors and advocates would often be the very same people who were
offended by the child’s behavior. In the adult world, political and legal systems
are particularly sensitive to the boundary between wrongdoing and mental ill-
ness, and it is commonplace that in certain circumstances in certain political
regimes, it is only too convenient to brand wrongdoers and rebels ‘mad’. In more
favorable political circumstances, by contrast, fastidious care is taken to differ-
entiate between law breaking, rebellion and mental illness. Alongside this fas-
tidiousness, there is a range of protections for both the wrongdoer and for the
person who is depressed or schizophrenic – sophisticated protections against
unfair conviction or the too-convenient attribution of mental illness to unwel-
come behavior.
But for children and young people at school, because of assumptions about
their vulnerability and their irrationality, and presuppositions about the benefi-
cial actions of professionals acting on their behalf, those protections do not exist.
Their absence has allowed a label like ‘EBD’ in education to be compiled out of
a range of disparate ideas about order and disturbance. Those ideas are elided,
yet their elision is rarely acknowledged or addressed.
The elision of ideas represented in the notion of EBD has done little, I contend,
for the individual child, yet it also exercises an influence, even on supposedly
whole-school approaches to behavior management at school. The notion of EBD
distorts the way that management or organizational issues at school are defined
and handled. A whole-school approach to behavior difficulties existing in the
same universe as a thriving notion of EBD means that behavior difficulties are
invariably seen through a child-centred, clinical lens. This clinical lens is more
convenient for everyone: it offers immediate response (often the removal of the
child) rather than the promise of an improvement in a term or a year; it offers
ready-made routes into existing professional systems that distract attention from
possible shortcomings of the school; and it avoids the large-scale upheaval and
expense of whole-school reform. Following episodes of difficult behavior, tradi-
tional child-focused professional responses therefore tend to follow.
The language of need, out of which we build ideas about problem behavior,
therefore induces procedural responses whose main function is the appearance
of doing something constructive. The mantra of need mechanically induces a set
of reflexes from the school, but these are often little more than rituals – bureau-
cratic shows of willing. They constitute what Skrtic (1991) calls ‘symbols and
ceremonies’.
A different view about how to respond to difficult behavior at school can
emerge out of current thinking on inclusion. The inclusive school should best be
seen as a humane environment rather than a set of pre-existing structures and
systems for dealing with misbehavior. These traditional structures and systems
inevitably invoke already-existing professional responses. But my contention is
that schools contain such an odd collection of rules and practices that unless
these are themselves addressed and altered, misbehavior from children is an
almost inevitable consequence.
02_Garner_Ch-02.indd 24 08/11/2013 3:20:33 PM

WHAT DO WE MEAN BY ‘EBD’? 25
WHOSE NEEDS?
The blanket ascription of ‘need’ when behavior is found difficult at school
requires some examining. Whose needs are being identified and unravelled
here? The route taken is nearly always to assume that the child needs something,
and the assumptions about need proceed to imputations of intent, weakness and
problem in the wrongdoer.
Foucault (1991) analysed this process as it has taken place in juridical practice
over two centuries. According to his analysis, modern times have seen a trans-
formation in society’s response to wrongdoing. Because, historically, responses
to wrongdoing were often so shockingly cruel, new ‘kinder’ techniques of con-
trol have supplanted them. Foucault’s Discipline and Punish (1991) begins with
an example. It begins with a picture of a savage punishment in pre-revolution
France where a prisoner, Damiens, has his limbs carved from his body. But it is
not principally condemnation of this cruelty that follows from Foucault. Rather,
he has drawn the picture to contrast it with the kinds of punishment that have
come to succeed it. Because of the conspicuous savagery of punishment regimes
in Europe until the mid-19th century, Foucault says, a backlash forced attempts
to be more gentle, to have ‘more respect, more “humanity”’ (1991: 16). It is
these successors to the punishment of Damiens for which Foucault reserves his
sharpest critique. For these systems – this ‘gentle way in punishment’ (1991:
104) – are quieter, more insidious. These new techniques, relying on the con-
structs and knowledge of the new social sciences, constructed various forms of
understanding of the wrongdoer that made imputations of intent and assump-
tions about motive. This would not be so bad were it not for the fact that the
understandings provided by the new sciences depended on tentative, fallible
theories, which were treated as though they were scientific fact.
3
In fact, they
were merely making new kinds of judgement about misbehavior, but judgements
that were given added credence and respectability by their association with sup-
posedly scientific thinking and understanding – understanding that had been so
successful in the natural sciences. In short, what has occurred, the analysis of
Foucault suggests, has been a movement from simple judgement and punish-
ment of someone’s disapproved-of act to complex and unjustified judgements
about his or her ‘soul’.
EBD provides an excellent case study of this elision from punishment to
judgement. It provides a clear example of a category created from an intermin-
gling of certain systems of knowledge (like psychology and medicine) on one
side and of a need for institutional order on the other.
To make this proposition, represents perhaps not too sparkling an insight
because a critical recognition of the place of the medical model in special educa-
tion is hardly new. My specific focus here though, is on the almost explicit
conflation of administrative need with quasi-medical category, of the transition
from naughty-therefore-impose-sanctions to disturbed-therefore-meet-needs. It
is the nature of the transition that I wish especially to examine: the gradient from
02_Garner_Ch-02.indd 25 08/11/2013 3:20:33 PM

THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DIFFICULTIES 26
punishment to ‘help’, down which the child tends to descend once ‘need’ has
been established.
There are taken-for-granted assumptions of ‘help’ in the ‘meeting need’
mantra of contemporary special education protocols, and these ‘needs’ have
been silently transmuted with the assistance of the constructs of academic and
professional psychology from the school’s needs for order, calm, routine and
predictability to the child’s needs – supposedly for stability, nurture, security,
one-to-one help or whatever.
In the unspoken assumptions behind special education procedures, there is no
acknowledgement of the manoeuvre that has occurred here – no recognition of
the frailty of the idea of an ‘emotional need’ – and no willingness to entertain
the possibility that emotional needs may be a fiction constructed to escape the
school’s insecurities about failing to keep order.
Table 2.1 distinguishes between two kinds of need: that of the school and that
of the child. My intention is to point to the conflation of ideas and knowledge
used in the notion of need and to suggest that the umbrella-use of the construct
disguises different kinds of problems that school staff confront. But unaccept-
able behavior is rarely a problem of the child. While this behavior is a problem
for the school, it rarely constitutes a clinical problem. Neither does it point to
some abnormality or deficit.
An elevation in the status of psychological knowledge has meant that simple
understandings about what is right or wrong have, in themselves, become insuf-
ficient to explain difficult behavior. A new epistemology has emerged wherein a
lexicon of dispositionally orientated words and phrases govern and mould the
way unacceptable behavior is considered. Thus, if children misbehave at school,
education professionals are encouraged to examine the background, motivations
and supposed traumas of the students, rather than the simple humanity of the
school’s operation – its simple day-to-day processes and routines.
Foucault (1991) warns against the assumption that the knowledge of disci-
plines like psychology and sociology can inform the working practices of staff
Table 2.1 What is meant by ‘need’?
School’s needs Children’s needs
‘Juridical’ needs (but
expressed as children’s
psychological needs)
Educational needs (but ‘identified’
using psychological constructs and
instruments)
Physical needs (which may
sometimes result in educational
needs)
Category: Category: Category:
EBD Moderate learning difficulty (MLD)Physical disability hearing
impairment visual impairment
Characterized by: Characterized by: Characterized by:
Questions of order for the
school
Questions of how best to help children
who are having serious problems with
their work at school
Questions of how best to help
children who have physical or
sensory impairments
02_Garner_Ch-02.indd 26 08/11/2013 3:20:33 PM

WHAT DO WE MEAN BY ‘EBD’? 27
in schools and hospitals. It is not disinterested knowledge; in the context of
prisons he says that it has acquired the status of an ‘“epistemological-juridical”
formation’ (1991: 23). It is the same, perhaps, as what Bourdieu calls ‘doxa’: a
kind of taken-for-granted knowledge, naturalized knowledge, ‘things people
accept without knowing’ (Bourdieu and Eagleton, 1994). In other words, the
knowledge of psychology and psychiatry have infiltrated our everyday under-
standing of disorder and deviance so that they are now almost as one: disorder
has somehow become melded with disturbance in such a way that thought about
behavior, which is out-of-order at school, can hardly be entertained without the
collateral assumption of emotional disturbance and special need. This symbiosis
of order and understanding is nowhere clearer than in the contemporary term
‘EBD’.
MEETING NEED
In education, this last reconceptualization occurs under the cloak of meeting
individual need. The ‘meeting need’ notion satisfies two conditions for the edu-
cationist. First, it enables the labelling of madness (a Bad Thing) to be trans-
formed into the identification of a need in the child (a Good Thing). Thus, the
educator, with a stroke of a wand, is changed from labeller (this child is malad-
justed) to benefactor and helper (this child has special needs and I will meet
them). Second, an institutional need for order is transformed to a child’s emo-
tional need. The child who misbehaves has special needs that are rooted in
emotional disturbance, the vocabulary at once invoking psychological, psycho-
analytic and psychiatric knowledge. Once need is established, the psychological
genie has been released.
4
It is strange that psychologists and educationists should have managed to pull
off such a feat of alchemy because a moment’s thought discloses the fact that the
things which children habitually do wrong at school rarely have any manifest (or
indeed covert) association with their emotional makeup. They concern the
school’s need to regulate time (punishing tardiness and truancy), activity (pun-
ishing lack of effort or overactivity), speech (punishing chatter or insolence),
and the body (punishing hairstyles, clothes, the use of makeup or the tidiness of
the individual).
5
As Cicourel and Kitsuse put it, ‘the adolescent’s posture, walk,
cut of hair, clothes, use of slang, manner of speech … may be the basis for the
typing of the student as a “conduct problem”’ (1968: 130).
But being unpunctual, lazy, rude or untidy were never, even by early 20th-
century standards, qualifications for madness, or even emotional difficulty. They
concern, as Hargreaves et al. (1975) point out, rule-infractions. They have little
or nothing to do with an individual’s emotional need, but everything to do with
the school’s need to keep order. Maintaining order through the upholding of
these codes is necessary, school managers would argue, for the efficient running
and indeed for the survival of the school.
02_Garner_Ch-02.indd 27 08/11/2013 3:20:33 PM

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Academy of Fine Arts.
QUÉLEN, Mgr. de,* (1778-1839). Coadjutor to the Cardinal de
Talleyrand Périgord, whom he succeeded as Archbishop
of Paris in 1821.
R
RACHEL, Mlle. (1820-1858). A great tragic actress. She was
the daughter of a poor Jewish pedlar called Felix. After a
youth spent in poverty she entered the Conservatoire,
made her first appearance at the Gymnase, and was
admitted in 1838 to the Théâtre Français, where she
gave an admirable exposition of the finest parts of
Corneille and Racine. In 1856 she undertook a tour in
America and contracted a pulmonary disease, of which
she soon died.
RACZYNSKI, Count Athanasius (1788-1874). A diplomatist in
the Prussian service. For several years he was Minister at
Lisbon and Madrid, showing the utmost unselfishness and
never drawing his salary. The money thus accumulated is

now in the hands of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and is
of the greatest service to diplomatists in distress. Count
Raczynski was a very wealthy man, and made a fine
collection of pictures, which he bequeathed to the Crown.
He wrote several books upon art; his political
correspondence has also been published. In 1816 he
married Princess Anna Radziwill. He was a member of the
House of Lords and a Privy Councillor.
RADZIWILL, Princess Louise (1770-1836). Daughter of Prince
Ferdinand of Prussia, youngest brother of Frederick the
Great. She married Prince Antoine Radziwill in 1796.
RADZIWILL, Prince William (1797-1870). An infantry general
in the service of Prussia, he commanded in succession
several army corps, and was a member of the House of
Lords. His first wife, whom he married in 1825, was his
cousin Helene Radziwill, who died in 1827. In 1832 he
married the Countess Matilda Clary. He was the eldest
son of Prince Antoine Radziwill and of Princess Louise of
Prussia.
RADZIWILL, Princess William (1806-1896). Matilda, daughter
of Prince Charles Clary-Aldringen and of the Countess
Louisa Chotek, married Prince William Radziwill in 1832.
RADZIWILL, Princess Boguslaw (1811-1890). Léontine, third
daughter of Prince Charles Clary, married, in 1832, Prince
Boguslaw Radziwill, youngest son of Prince Antoine
Radziwill.
RANTZAU, the Comte Josias de (1609-1650). He entered the
French service in 1635 under King Louis XIII., having
previously served the Prince of Orange, Christian IV., King
of Denmark, Gustavus Adolphus, and the Emperor
Ferdinand II. He was Marshal of France.
RANTZAU, Count Antony of (1793-1849). Chamberlain and
captain in the service of the Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-

Schwerin.
RAQUENA, the Count of (1821-1878). Son of the Duke of
Rocca, he bore this title after his father's death. He was a
Spanish artillery officer, and afterwards served in the
Royal Halberdier Corps and died with the rank of general.
He was a great lord, a great gambler, and led a most
adventurous life.
RATISBONNE, the Abbé Marie Théodore (1802-1884). Son of
a Jewish banker of Strasburg, he had just concluded his
study of the law when he was converted to Catholicism
and took Orders. He was known as a writer and a
preacher, and founded the congregation of Notre Dame
of Sion.
RATISBONNE, Alphonse (1812-1884). Brother of Théodore
Ratisbonne. He was also converted to Catholicism and
entered the congregation of Notre Dame of Sion,
founded by his brother.
RAUCH, Christian Daniel (1777-1857). A famous Prussian
sculptor. He went to Rome in 1804 for study, returned to
Berlin in 1811, where he was greatly patronised by the
Court.
RAULLIN, M. French Councillor of State.
RAVIGNAN, the Abbé de (1795-1858). Born at Bayonne, he
began his career in the magistracy. In obedience to a call
he then left the world, entered the Jesuit seminary, and
afterwards the Jesuit Order. He was distinguished for his
lofty morality and his power as a preacher. He delivered
the funeral oration of Monseigneur de Quélen,
Archbishop of Paris.
RAYNEVAL, Maximilian de (1778-1836). A French diplomatist
who received the title of Comte and the peerage for his
services.

RAZUMOWSKI, the Countess. She was born Princess
Wiasemski.
RÉCAMIER, Madame* (1777-1849). Famous for her beauty
and for the deep friendship which united her with the
greatest literary personalities of her time, in particular
with Chateaubriand.
RECKE, the Baroness of (1754-1833). Elizabeth Charlotte,
Countess of Medem, sister of the Duchess of Courlande,
married, in 1774, the Baron of Recke. She was divorced
from him in 1776 and lost her only daughter in the
following year. She travelled a great deal in Italy and
Germany, and was in connection with all the literary men
of her age. She was herself the author of several works.
REDERN, the Countess of (1772-1842). Wilhelmina of
Otterstaedt married Count Wilhelm Jacob of Redern and
had two sons, William and Henry.
REDERN, Count William of (1802-1880). A great Prussian
landowner, a member of the House of Lords, and
afterwards High Chamberlain at the Court of the Emperor
William I.
REDERN, the Countess of (1811-1875). Bertha Ienisz,
daughter of a Senator of Hamburg, married, in 1834,
Count William of Redern. She had only one daughter,
who died when a minor.
REEDE, the Countess of (1769-1847); née Krusemacht,
daughter and sister of two Prussian generals of that
name. In 1823, when the Crown Prince of Prussia was
married, she was appointed chief lady at the Court of the
Crown Princess.
REINHARD, Count Charles Frederick (1761-1837). Born at
Würtemberg, he studied at the University of Tübingen
and knew Goethe. He entered the French diplomatic
service in 1792 and was Plenipotentiary Minister at

Florence in 1797, and in 1799 replaced the Prince de
Talleyrand at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. He was made
a Peer of France in 1832, after having been made Count
in 1814. He was a Member of the Academy of
Inscriptions and Literature and of the Academy of Moral
and Political Science.
REUILLY, M. A lawyer, Mayor of Versailles, and Knight of the
Legion of Honour. In 1840 he was Deputy for Seine-et-
Oise, and was member of the Constituent Assembly in
1848.
RÉMUSAT, Comte Charles de* (1797-1875). French writer and
politician.
RETZ, the Cardinal de* (1614-1679). He played a great part
during the Fronde and left some remarkable memoirs.
REUSS-SCHLEITZ-KOESTRITZ, Prince Henry LXIV. (1787-
1856). General and Field Marshal in the service of Austria
and divisional commander at Prague. He led the 7th
regiment of Hussars.
RUESS-SCHLEITZ, Princess Sophie Adelaide. Born in 1800;
daughter of Prince Henri LI. of Reuss-Ebersdorff.
RIBEAUPIERRE, Count Alexandre de (1785-1865). Born of a
family of French Switzerland. His grandfather went to
Russia in the suite of the Princess Sophie of Zerbst,
afterwards Catherine II. His father had married the sister
of General Bibikoff; he was Major-General when he died
at the siege of Ismail. Alexandre de Ribeaupierre devoted
himself to diplomacy, and became Russian Minister at
Constantinople and Berlin. He was made a Count in 1856
and married Mlle. Potemkin.
RICHELIEU, the Duc de (1696-1788). Marshal of France and a
brilliant figure at the Court of Louis XIV. and XV. In 1720
he entered the French Academy and became a friend of
Voltaire. On the female side he was a great-great-

nephew of the Cardinal, godson of Louis XIV. and of the
Duchesse de Bourgogne. He first saw service under
Villars. While Ambassador at Vienna he showed dexterity
in arranging an agreement between France and Austria.
After some military exploits in Germany during the Seven
Years War, he spent the remainder of his life in intrigue
and pleasures.
RIGNY, Comte Henri-Gauthier de* (1783-1835). French
admiral. Several times Minister and Ambassador at
Naples.
RIGNY, Vicomte Alexandre de (1790-1873). Son of a cavalry
officer and of the sister of the Abbé Louis, he left the
military school at Fontainebleau in 1807, and took part in
the campaigns of Prussia, Poland, Austria, and Spain. As
field-marshal in 1830, he joined the first expedition to
Constantinople in 1836, and though he displayed
incontestable bravery during the retreat, the gravest
charges were brought against him by General Clausel.
The Council of War unanimously acquitted him in 1837,
but he was relegated to the command of the subdivision
of the Indre until 1848 and placed on the retired list in
1849.
RIGNY, Mlle. Auguste de. She was the daughter of General de
Rigny and heiress of her uncle, Baron Louis.
RIVERS, Lady, died in 1866. Susan Georgiana Leveson Gower,
daughter of Lord Granville. She married in 1833 George
Pitt, Lord Rivers.
ROHAN, the Duc de (1789-1869). Fernand de Rohan Chabot
followed his father into exile while a child. He then
returned to France and entered the army at the age of
twenty with the rank of sub-lieutenant of Hussars. At that
time bearing the title of Prince de Léon, he was present
at the battle of Wagram and became aide-de-camp to the

Emperor. In 1814 he was made a prisoner but was
exchanged soon afterwards. Under the Restoration he
became aide-de-camp to the Duc de Berry, then first
equerry to the Duc de Bordeaux, and finally Field Marshal
in 1824. After 1830 he retired.
ROOTHE, Madame de. Famous for her beauty. She married
the Duc de Richelieu who was then more than eighty
years of age and whose third wife she was.
ROOTHE, M. de. Son of the first marriage of the Duchesse de
Richelieu.
ROSAMEL, M. de (1774-1848). Claude Charles Marie du Camp
de Rosamel. A French sailor; Captain in 1814 and Rear-
Admiral in 1823. He went through the Algerian campaign
in 1830; in 1836 he became Naval Minister in the Molé
Ministry, and in 1839 entered the Chamber of Peers.
ROSSE, Lawrence, Lord (1758-1841). In 1797 he married Miss
Alice Lloyd. He was distinguished in the Irish Parliament
for his popularity and his eloquence. On his father's
death he succeeded to his seat in the House of Lords in
1807. He was the father of the learned astronomer
William Rosse.
ROSSI, the Countess (1803-1854). Henriette Sontag, of
Swedish origin, was a famous singer. In 1830 she
abandoned the theatre on her marriage with Count Rossi
and was then a leading figure in aristocratic salons by
reason of her intellectual grace and her dignified conduct.
In 1848 pecuniary losses reduced her to reappear upon
the stage in Paris and London. Afterwards she went to
America and died of cholera in Mexico.
ROTHSCHILD, Madame Salomon de* (1774-1855). She had
married the second son of Mayer Anselme Rothschild,
who founded the branches of the banking house in
Vienna and Paris.

ROTHSCHILD, James de (1792-1868). Fourth son of Mayer
Anselme Rothschild, settled at Paris.
ROUGÉ, Marquis Alexis de (1778-1838). Peer of France in
1815, he married in 1804 Mlle. de Crussol d'Uzès.
ROUSSEAU, J. J. (1712-1778). Famous writer and philosopher.
Son of a watchmaker at Geneva, his education was
greatly neglected. With Voltaire he was an important
revolutionary influence in the eighteenth century.
ROUSSIN, Admiral* (1781-1854). Peer of France, Ambassador
at Constantinople from 1832 to 1834 and Naval Minister
in 1840.
ROVIGO, the Duc de (1774-1833). Anne Jean Marie René
Savary. Aide-de-camp to General Bonaparte in Egypt, and
afterwards commander of the picked bodyguard of the
First Council. He was ordered to carry out the death
sentence pronounced upon the Duc d'Enghien in 1804,
and was then appointed General. After the battle of
Friedland, he was made Duc de Rovigo; in 1810 he
succeeded Fouché as Minister of Police. After 1815, the
English refused to send him to St. Helena with Napoleon
and the Restoration condemned him to death, but he
escaped and was afterwards acquitted. In 1831 he
commanded the army of Algeria, terrorised the natives by
his severity, and constructed fine strategical roads.
ROY, the Comte Antoine (1764-1847). A lawyer and
afterwards deputy he became Finance Minister in 1818,
and introduced valuable reforms into this department. He
was a Member of the Chamber of Peers under the
Restoration and under the July Monarchy.
ROYER COLLARD, Pierre Paul* (1763-1845). French
philosopher statesman and Member of the Academy.
RUBINI, J. B.* (1795-1854). Famous Italian tenor.

RUMFORD, Madame de (1766-1836). Mlle. de Paulze married
the scientist, Lavoisier, as her first husband. He died upon
the scaffold of the Revolution, and in 1804 she married
Rumford, a German physician and philosopher. In 1814
she was left a widow. Her drawing-room at Paris was
famous.
RUMIGNY, Comte Marie Théodore de (1789-1860). He took
part in the wars of the First Empire and was aide-de-
camp to General Gérard in 1812. In 1830 Louis-Philippe
appointed him Field Marshal; after 1848 he accompanied
the King to England and then lived in retirement.
RUSSELL, Lord William* (1799-1846). English diplomatist and
Ambassador at Berlin.
RUSSELL, Lord John.* English statesman, member of several
Ministries and twice Prime Minister.
RUSSIA, Empress Marie of (1759-1828). Marie Feodorovna,
formerly Sophie, daughter of Duke Frederick of
Würtemberg, second wife of the Emperor Paul, mother of
Alexander I. and of Nicholas I. She was left a widow in
1801.
RUSSIA, the Grand Duchess Constantine of (1781-1831).
Julienne, Princess of Saxe Coburg Gotha married in 1796
the Grand Duke Constantine of Russia and was baptized
under the name of Anna Feodorovna.
RUSSIA, the Emperor of (1796-1855). Nicholas I.*
RUSSIA, the Empress of (1798-1860). Charlotte, daughter of
Frederick William III. of Prussia, married in 1817 the
Grand Duke Nicholas of Russia, who ascended the throne
in 1825.
RUSSIA, Grand Duchess Helena of (1807-1873). Daughter of
Prince Paul of Würtemberg and of his first wife, a
princess of Saxe Altenburg. She married in 1824 the

Grand Duke Michael of Russia, youngest son of the
Emperor Paul.
RUSSIA, the Grand Hereditary Duke of (1818-1881).
Alexander, son of the Emperor Nicholas, whom he
succeeded in 1855 as Alexander II., married in 1841 the
Princess of Hesse Darmstadt.
RUSSIA, the Grand Duchess Olga of (1822-1892). Daughter of
the Emperor Nicholas I. of Russia. She married in 1846
the Hereditary Prince of Würtemberg, who succeeded his
father in the same year.
S
SAGAN, the Duchess of (1781-1839). Wilhelmina, eldest
daughter of Peter, Duke of Courlande. She was married
three times: (1) In 1800 to Prince Henri de Rohan; (2) to
Prince Troubetskoi, and (3) to Count Charles of
Schulenburg who survived her. She died suddenly at
Vienna and left no children.
SAINT AUGUSTINE (354-430). Bishop of Hippo, son of Saint
Monica and one of the fathers of the church.
SAINT BLANCARD, the Marquis de (1814-1897). At one time
page to King Charles X. He married Mlle. de Bauffremont.
SAINT CYRAN, the Abbé de (1581-1643). Jean Duvergier de
Hauranne studied in the University of Louvain and
became connected with the Jansenists, whose doctrines
he ardently embraced, and obtained the Abbey of Saint
Cyran in 1620. Among his numerous disciples and friends
were Arnauld, Lemaistre de Sacy, Bignon, etc. He
attacked the Jesuits in several works and Richelieu kept
him in prison for four years.
SAINTE ALDEGONDE, the Comtesse Camille de* (1793-1869).
Widow of an aide-de-camp of King Louis-Philippe.

SAINTE AULAIRE, the Comte de* (1778-1854). Peer of
France, diplomatist, and Ambassador at Rome, Vienna
and London.
SAINTE AULAIRE, the Comtesse de. Née Louise Charlotte
Victoire de Grimoard de Beauvoir du Roure-Brison. She
married in 1809 M. de Sainte Aulaire, who was already a
widower.
SAINT LEU, the Duchesse de* (1783-1837). Née Hortense de
Beauharnais, she was the widow of Louis Bonaparte,
King of Holland and mother of Napoleon III.
SAINT PRIEST, the Comte Alexis de,* diplomatist and French
writer and member of the French Academy.
SAINT SIMON, Louis de Rouvroy, Duc de (1675-1755). A lord
at the Court of Louis XIV. He wrote famous memoirs,
important to the history of his time.
SALERNO, the Prince of (1790-1851). Leopold de Bourbon,
brother of Francis I., King of Naples, was Inspector-
General of the Royal Guard and leader of the 22nd
Regiment of Austrian Infantry. In 1816 he married the
Archduchess Maria of Austria, and had a daughter who
became the Duchesse d'Aumale.
SALERNO, the Princess of (1798-1880). Maria, daughter of
the Emperor Francis I. of Austria.
SALVANDY, the Comte de* (1795-1856). French man of
letters and politician; Ambassador and several times
Minister.
SALVANDY, the Comtesse de. Julie Ferey, daughter of a
manufacturer and politician, married the Comte de
Salvandy in 1823.
SANDWICH, Lady, died in 1853. Louisa, daughter of Lord
Belmore, married, in 1804, George John Montagu, Lord

Sandwich, who died in 1818. One of his daughters was
the first wife of Count Walewski.
SAULX-TAVANNES, Duc Roger Gaspard de (1806-1845). He
became a peer in 1820 on his father's death, but took no
share in the work of the Chamber, and committed suicide
at the age of thirty-nine, when his old ducal family
became extinct.
SAUZET, Paul* (1800-1876). Lawyer, Deputy, and Minister of
Justice in 1836.
SAXE-WEIMAR, Duke Bernard of (1792-1862). Infantry
General in the service of the Low Countries.
SAXONY, Augustus II., the Strong, Elector of (1670-1733).
Afterwards King of Poland, elected after the death of
John Sobieski by intrigue and bribery, and crowned at
Warsaw in 1697.
SAXONY, Princess Augusta of, born in 1782.
SAXONY, Princess Amelia of (1794-1870). Sister of King
Frederick Augustus and of Prince John of Saxony.
SAXONY, King Frederick Augustus II. of (1797-1854).
Ascended the throne in 1836, after having been co-
regent since 1830, and promulgating a liberal
Constitution for his people. An enlightened, liberal, and
well-educated prince, he died in consequence of a fall
from his horse, leaving no children.
SAXONY, the Queen of (1805-1877). Maria, daughter of King
Maximilian of Bavaria and wife of King Frederick Augustus
II.
SAXONY, Prince John of (1801-1873). This prince succeeded
his brother, King Frederick Augustus, in 1854. He had
married Princess Amelia of Bavaria, by whom he had
several children, and was distinguished throughout his
life for his great virtue and his learning.

SAXONY, Princess John of (1801-1877). Amelia, daughter of
King Maximilian of Bavaria and wife of Prince John of
Saxony.
SCHÖNBURG, Princess (1803-1884). Louise Schwarzenberg,
sister of the Cardinal of that name, married, in 1823,
Prince Edward of Schönburg Waldenburg.
SCHÖNLEIN, Dr. Jean Luc (1793-1864). Doctor of medicine at
Zurich. He was summoned to Berlin, where he obtained a
great reputation.
SCHRECKENSTEIN, Baron Maximilian of (1794-1862). For a
long time first Gentleman at the Court of Princess
Stephanie of Baden, and governor of the houses and
property of this princess.
SCHULENBURG-KLOSTERRODE, the Count of (1772-1853). He
served in the Austrian diplomatic service and died at
Vienna. He had married his cousin, the Countess
Armgard of Schulenburg.
SCHULENBURG, Count Charles Rudolph of (1788-1856).
Austrian lieutenant-colonel; he married the Duchess
Wilhelmina of Sagan, the eldest daughter of the last
Duke of Courlande; this marriage was soon dissolved. In
1846 he undertook to administer the property of the
Duchesse de Talleyrand. He died at Sagan of an
apoplectic stroke and was buried there.
SCHWARZENBERG, Charles Philippe, Prince of (1771-1820).
First a soldier and then Austrian Ambassador at Paris. He
negotiated the marriage of Napoleon with the
Archduchess Maria Louisa. On the occasion of this
marriage, in 1810, he gave a large ball, which had a fatal
conclusion owing to a fire at the Embassy, when his wife
perished in the flames.
SCHWEINITZ, Countess of (1799-1854). Fräulein Dullack,
married, in 1832, Count Hans Hermann of Schweinitz and

became, in 1840, chief lady at the Court of Princess
William of Prussia, by birth the Princess of Saxe-Weimar.
SÉBASTIANI DE LA PORTA, Marshal* (1775-1851).
Ambassador at Constantinople, Naples, and London.
SÉBASTIANI, wife of the foregoing, died in 1842. A daughter
of the Duc de Gramont. She had become an émigré at
the age of sixteen with the Bourbons. Her first husband
had been General Davidow, whom she married at Milan,
and her second husband was General Sébastiani, whose
second wife she was.
SÉGUR, the Comtesse de (1779-1847). Félicité d'Aguesseau,
sole heiress of the last Marquis of this name, she married
Count Octave de Ségur, major on the Staff of the Royal
Guard, who died in 1818.
SÉMONVILLE, the Marquis de* (1754-1839). Chief
referendary of the Court of Peers.
SERCEY, the Marquis de (1753-1856). Pierre César Charles
Guillaume de Sercey was a very distinguished sailor. On
the return of the Bourbons, in 1814, he was
commissioned to treat with England for the exchange of
the French prisoners. He was then appointed Vice-
Admiral and entered the Chamber of Peers.
SÉVIGNÉ, the Marquise de* (1626-1696). One of the most
distinguished ladies at the Court of Louis XIV. and author
of remarkable letters.
SFORZA, Ludovico (1451-1508). Known as the Moor, he was
the opponent of the House of Aragon in Italy, and
summoned Charles VIII. there in 1494. After betraying
the French he was attacked by Louis XII., who deprived
him of his states and forced him to flee into Germany.
The unpopularity of Trivulzo in the Duchy of Milan
allowed Sforza to reconquer that province, but in 1500 he

was defeated and captured at Novaro by the French. He
was imprisoned at Loches, and died ten years later.
SIDNEY, Lady Sophia,* died in 1837. Countess of Isle and of
Dudley, fifth child of William IV. of England and of Mrs.
Jordan.
SIEYÈS, the Abbé (1748-1836). Vicar-General of Chartres and
politician during the Revolution.
SIGALON, Xavier (1790-1837). Historical painter. He was
commissioned by the Government in 1833 to go to Rome
and copy Michael Angelo's fresco of the Last Judgment.
This magnificent reproduction, a tenth less in size than
the original, is at the School of Fine Arts in Paris.
SIMÉON, the Comte Joseph Balthazar (1781-1846). Master of
requests at the Council of State and Peer of France in
1835; he had strong artistic tastes.
SOLMS-SONNENWALD, Count William Theodore of (1787-
1859). Cavalry captain and Chamberlain, son of the
Countess Ompteda by her first marriage.
SOLMS-SONNENWALD, the Countess of, born in 1790. By
name, Clementina, daughter of the Count of Bressler.
SOPHIA, the Archduchess (1805-1872). Daughter of King
Maximilian of Bavaria. She married, in 1824, the
Archduke Francis, and was the mother of the Emperor
Francis Joseph I.
SOULT, Marshal* (1769-1852). One of the most famous
soldiers of the Empire and a Minister under Louis-
Philippe.
STACKELBERG, Count Gustavus of, Privy Councillor and
Chamberlain to the Emperor Alexander I. He became
Russian Ambassador and took part in the Congress of
Vienna in 1815. In 1805 he married Mlle. Caroline de

Ludolf, daughter of the Ambassador of Naples at St.
Petersburg.
STACKELBERG, the Countess of (1785-1868). Née Caroline de
Ludolf, she married Count Stackelberg in 1805; when she
was left a widow she settled at Paris.
STANLEY, Lady. Henrietta Maria, daughter of Viscount Dillon,
married in Italy, in 1826, Sir Edward John Stanley,
member of the English Parliament.
STOPFORD, Robert (1768-1847). An English Admiral who
became famous in the chief naval campaigns of the
Revolution and the Empire. In 1840 he bombarded Saint
Jean d'Acre.
STROGONOFF, Countess Julia. She had married a Spaniard,
the Count of Ega, with whom she lived at Madrid, when
she made the acquaintance of Count Gregory Strogonoff,
who carried her off and married her. She was well
received in St. Petersburg society, but owing to her false
position, she could not obtain for a long time the Order
of St. Catherine, which was her great ambition. She died
at an advanced age between 1860 and 1870, after
carefully tending her husband, who had become blind.
STURMFEDER, Frau von (1819-1891). Camilla Wilhelmena of
Münchingen had married the Baron of Sturmfeder and of
Oppenweiller, and was Chief Lady at the Court of the
Grand Duchess Stephanie of Baden.
SUTHERLAND, the Duchess of,* died in 1868. Née Lady
Carlisle. She was mistress of the robes to Queen Victoria.
SYRACUSE, the Comte de (1813-1860). Léopold de Bourbon,
son of Francis I., King of Naples and of Maria Isabella of
Spain. He was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant-
General, though he never received any command.

SYRACUSE, the Countess of (1814-1874). See Carignan,
Philiberte de.
T
TALARU, the Marquis de (1769-1850). M. de Talaru, on the
return from exile in 1815, was called to the Peerage and
became French Ambassador at Madrid in 1823. In 1825
he was Minister of State and a member of the Privy
Council of Charles X., but went into retirement upon the
Revolution of 1830. He had married Mlle. de Rosière-
Saraus, widow of the Count of Clermont-Tonnerre, by
whom he had no children, so that the house of Tonnerre
became extinct with him.
TALLEYRAND-PÉRIGORD, Cardinal of* (1736-1821).
Alexandre Angélique, second son of Daniel de Talleyrand-
Périgord, was Archbishop of Reims in 1777 and of Paris in
1817.
TALLEYRAND, Charles Maurice, Prince de* (1754-1838).
Prince of Benevento. He was Minister of Foreign Affairs,
High Chamberlain of France, member of the Institute and
Ambassador. He had abandoned the church into which he
had been forced to enter, and was one of the best
politicians of his time.
TALLEYRAND, the Princesse de* (1762-1835). Née Catharine
Werlée, of English origin, she went through a civil
marriage in 1802 with the Prince de Talleyrand, by the
order of the Emperor Napoleon, a marriage which was
immediately dissolved.
TALLEYRAND, the Duc de (1762-1838). Known as le bel
Archambaud. He married in 1779 Mlle. Sabine de
Senozan de Viriville, who was executed in 1793 during
the Revolution.

TALLEYRAND, the Comte Anatole de, died in 1838. Son of
Baron Augustin de Talleyrand and of Adélaide de
Montigny.
TASCHERAU, M. (1801-1874). A French deputy. He first
studied law; some interesting publications gained him a
great reputation among scholars; he became chief
administrator of the Imperial Library upon its
reorganisation.
TATITCHEFF, Demetrius Paulowitch de (1769-1845). A
Russian diplomatist. Minister at Madrid in 1815, then at
Vienna where he remained until 1845. He then became
Councillor of State and Lord Chamberlain to the Emperor
Nicholas.
TAURY, the Abbé Francois Louis (1791-1859). Priest of
Chauvigny; he was selected in 1832 by the Abbé Tournet,
founder of the community of the Sisters of Saint Andrew,
to succeed him as Superior General of that community. In
1845 he was appointed Vicar-General at Niort. He died of
an apoplectic stroke when he was descending from the
pulpit and about to celebrate Mass.
TAYLOR, Sir Herbert* (1775-1839). Private Secretary to King
George III., George IV., and William IV. of England.
THERESA, the Archduchess (1816-1867). Daughter of the
Archduke Charles and of the Princess of Nassau
Weilburg. The Archduchess Theresa became the second
wife of Frederick II., King of Naples, who married her in
1837.
THIARD DE BUSSY, the Comte de* (1772-1852). French
Marshal, liberal deputy, appointed French Minister of
Switzerland in 1848.
THIERRY, Augustin (1795-1856). Famous French historian;
author of "Letters on the History of France," and
"Narratives of Merovingian Times."

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The Sage Handbook Of Emotional And Behavioral Difficulties 2nd Edition Philip Garner

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The Sage Handbook Of Emotional And Behavioral Difficulties 2nd Edition Philip Garner

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