Theories of child development

the theories of child development as given by prominent psychologists

1. Theories of Child Development

2. Contents : Introduction Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Bruner’s Cognitive Development Theory Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Understanding Conclusion

3. Introduction : Child development refers to the process through which human beings typically grow and mature from infancy through adulthood. The different aspects of growth and development include physical , cognitive, social, emotional and moral growth . Name of Stage Age 1. Newborn Birth to 1 month 2. Infant 1 month to 12 months 3. Toddler 1 to 2 years 4. Preschooler 2 to 4 years 5. School-aged child 5 to 12 years 6. Adolescent 13 to 19 years Developmental theories provide insights into how children grow and learn. They also help in understanding strategies for promoting children’s development. There are many theories on child development that help in this. It is a continuous process with a predictable sequence yet having a unique course for every child. The developmental periods in a child’s life are as follows:

4. Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development: Name of the Stage Characteristic Behavior The Sensorimotor Stage (0 to 2 years) The infant’s knowledge is limited to what they can experience through their senses (sensory) and their attempts to coordinate this knowledge with what they can do (motor). The Per-operational Stage (2 to 7 years) The child can now use symbols (as in language),but their concepts are general. The child’s reasoning is pre-operational(it lacks adult logic). The Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years) Children now use logical mental rules, but only in the context of concrete rather than abstract information. The Formal Operational Stage (11+ years) Abstract and systematic thought becomes possible,as distinct from more random problem-solving methods.

5. Bruner’s Cognitive Development Theory: J.S. Bruner, an American psychologist, arrived at the inference that a child’s mental development is a sequential process. He divided the mental development of a child in the following three stages: Enactive Stage(birth to 18 months): A child expresses experiences through non-verbal actions, such as crying when hungry. Through these actions he relates himself with the environment. Iconic Stage(18 to 24 months): A child expresses his experiences through a mental image in his mind. Symbolic Stage(7 years and further): A child expresses his experiences through language, and relates the symbols with their basic options.

6. Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development : S.No Approximate age Quality to be developed Social focus Virtue 1. 0 to 1 year (infancy) Basic trust vs. mistrust Maternal person Hope (an optimistic trust that the world will meet one’s needs.) 2. 2 to 3 years (early childhood) Autonomy vs. shame and doubt Parental persons Will (the ability to exercise self-restraint and choice.) 3. 4 to 5 years (play age) Initiative vs. guilt Basic family Purpose (a sense of goal-directedness) 4. 6 to 12 years (school age) Industry vs. inferiority Neighborhood, school Competence (a sense of confidence in one’s own abilities.)

7. 5. 13 to 18 years (adolescent) Identity vs. role confusion Peer groups Fidelity (the ability to freely pledge loyalty to others) 6. 19 to 25 years (young adulthood) Intimacy vs. isolation Friendships Love (both romantic and erotic and including the ability to commit oneself to others and maintain the commitment through degrees of compromise and self-denial.) 7. 26 to 40 years (middle adulthood) Generativity vs. stagnation The household Care (a sense that certain things in life have meaning and importance, leading one to be productive in life.) 8. 41+ years (old age) Ego integrity vs. despair Humankind Wisdom (a sense that life has been worthwhile, arrived at by integrating the outcomes of previous stages.)

8. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Understanding : First Level : Preconventional Morality (4 to 10 years): Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation: the child follows rules only to avoid punishment Stage 2: Individualism, Instrumental purpose and Exchange: a child follows rules if it is in his immediate interest and brings pleasant results. Second Level: Conventional Morality (10 to 13 years): Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships: moral actions become those that live up to others’ expectations. Stage 4: Maintaining the Social Order: a child conducts himself as approved by the society in order to avoid social censure Third Level: Post-conventional or Principled Morality (13 years and later) : Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights : the child acts to achieve the greatest good for the greatest number. He works in the interests of the community. Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles : the individual follows self-chosen ethical principles in determining what is right.

9. Conclusion: The theories discussed have stood the test of time and have proven to be widely influential, as they have been contributed by the greatest minds in the history of psychology. Development during childhood is of special concern as it the period of the most change in a lifespan. Child development theories enable one to describe, explain and to optimize development. They provide a framework for thinking about human growth, development and learning.