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1. History of the Science of History of the Science of
World ReligionsWorld Religions

2. A. Religion—from Latin “religio”A. Religion—from Latin “religio”
1. Originally seems to referred to as “fear” or 1. Originally seems to referred to as “fear” or
reverence for the gods—later to the rites offered reverence for the gods—later to the rites offered
to themto them
2. Confusion as to where word originates2. Confusion as to where word originates
a. “relegere”--to gather things together” or “to a. “relegere”--to gather things together” or “to
pass over things repeatedly”pass over things repeatedly”
b. “religare”--to bind things together”—b. “religare”--to bind things together”—
emphasize communal aspect—draws people emphasize communal aspect—draws people
into religious rites, practice and beliefinto religious rites, practice and belief

3. 
A. The study of religions seemingly A. The study of religions seemingly
originated with the Greeksoriginated with the Greeks

1. Herodotus—father of history—took 1. Herodotus—father of history—took
seriously the chronology of the pastseriously the chronology of the past

2. Epicurus—a radical critic of religion and 2. Epicurus—a radical critic of religion and
sought to catalog and explain the sense of sought to catalog and explain the sense of
the sacredthe sacred

3. Stoics—believed there was a common 3. Stoics—believed there was a common
denominator of sacred behind all religiondenominator of sacred behind all religion

4. 
B. Romans studied religionB. Romans studied religion

1. Cicero—concerned with the word 1. Cicero—concerned with the word
“religion” and was first to use the term“religion” and was first to use the term

2. Seneca, Tacitus, and Julius Caesar all 2. Seneca, Tacitus, and Julius Caesar all
interested in the studyinterested in the study

3. After Christianity emerged study of 3. After Christianity emerged study of
different religions was neglected since the different religions was neglected since the
church was more concerned with its own church was more concerned with its own
mission and survivalmission and survival

5. 
C. Confrontation with IslamC. Confrontation with Islam

1. Islam rapid expansion1. Islam rapid expansion

2. Crusades2. Crusades

6. 
D. The Modern Mission MovementD. The Modern Mission Movement

With William Carey in 1792With William Carey in 1792

7. 
E. The New Empiricism and RationalismE. The New Empiricism and Rationalism

1. Deists and philosophers such as Hume, 1. Deists and philosophers such as Hume,
Rousseau, and Voltaire discussed the Rousseau, and Voltaire discussed the
problem of “natural religion”problem of “natural religion”

2. Max Mueller wrote an essay on 2. Max Mueller wrote an essay on
comparative mythology—he found the comparative mythology—he found the
origin of myths in natural phenomenaorigin of myths in natural phenomena

8. Criteria for the Study of World Criteria for the Study of World
ReligionsReligions

9. 
A. Objectivity—students of religion A. Objectivity—students of religion
must observe facts as objectively as must observe facts as objectively as
possiblepossible

1. One must consider sacred texts and 1. One must consider sacred texts and
historical manifestations of the faithhistorical manifestations of the faith

2. It is important not to pre-judge another 2. It is important not to pre-judge another
religious perspectivereligious perspective

10. 
B. A Thorough GroundingB. A Thorough Grounding

1. Must have knowledge of history, 1. Must have knowledge of history,
psychology, philosophy, sociology, and psychology, philosophy, sociology, and
theology in order to come to the theology in order to come to the essenceessence
of different religionsof different religions

2. Such facts are necessary for intelligent 2. Such facts are necessary for intelligent
comparisons and discussionscomparisons and discussions

11. 
C. Proper CriteriaC. Proper Criteria

One must have the responsibility to One must have the responsibility to
establish a criteria for judgment based on establish a criteria for judgment based on
fact, not value judgmentsfact, not value judgments

12. 
Distinguishing between fact and valueDistinguishing between fact and value

1. A factual judgment asserts that 1. A factual judgment asserts that isis or or is is
soso

2. A value judgment asserts that 2. A value judgment asserts that
something something ought to beought to be

13. The Study of ReligionThe Study of Religion

14. 
A. AnimismA. Animism

Edward Tylor—founder of modern Edward Tylor—founder of modern
anthropologyanthropology

A type of consciousness in animate and A type of consciousness in animate and
inanimate objectsinanimate objects

15. B.B. FearFear
C.C. Rabbi BrownRabbi Brown

Anicent humanity was Anicent humanity was
insecure because of the forces insecure because of the forces
of natureof nature

Suggested Gen. 1:1 should Suggested Gen. 1:1 should
have readhave read

““in the beginning was fear”in the beginning was fear”

Lucretius offered this as Lucretius offered this as
explanation of origin of explanation of origin of
religionreligion

““We fear what we do not We fear what we do not
know”know”

16. C.C.Totemism—DurkheimTotemism—Durkheim
Worship of ancestorsWorship of ancestors
Religion arose out of fear for Religion arose out of fear for
loved onesloved ones
Tribe was the family enlargedTribe was the family enlarged
Religion is identified with Religion is identified with
societysociety

17. 
D. High God Revelation—Wilhelm D. High God Revelation—Wilhelm
SchmidtSchmidt

Rooted against evolution view of Rooted against evolution view of
religionreligion

Believed most ancient people had a Believed most ancient people had a
belief in a higher beingbelief in a higher being

18. Definitions of ReligionDefinitions of Religion

19. 
A. Religion as a phenomenon looked on A. Religion as a phenomenon looked on
as universal—Eliade’s concept of the as universal—Eliade’s concept of the

““sense of the sacred”sense of the sacred”

20. 
B. Anti-Rationalistic DefinitionsB. Anti-Rationalistic Definitions

1. Lucretius—an anti-rational, coercive force1. Lucretius—an anti-rational, coercive force

2. Reinanch—a sum of scruples which 2. Reinanch—a sum of scruples which
impede the free exercise of our facultiesimpede the free exercise of our faculties

3. Marx—a pathological manifestation of 3. Marx—a pathological manifestation of
protective forces, deviation caused by protective forces, deviation caused by
ignorance of natural causes and their effectsignorance of natural causes and their effects

21. 
C. Intellectual DefinitionC. Intellectual Definition

Max Mueller wrote that religion is a mental Max Mueller wrote that religion is a mental
factor independent of sense and reason to factor independent of sense and reason to
apprehend the infinite in different namesapprehend the infinite in different names

22. 
D. Emotional DefinitionsD. Emotional Definitions

1. Schleiermacher saw the essence of 1. Schleiermacher saw the essence of
religion as an emotion and consists of religion as an emotion and consists of
feelings of absolute dependencefeelings of absolute dependence

2. McTaggert said religion is best 2. McTaggert said religion is best
described as an emotion resting in described as an emotion resting in
conviction of harmony between ourselves conviction of harmony between ourselves
and the universe at largeand the universe at large

23. 
E. Religion as MoralityE. Religion as Morality

Immanuel Kant saw religion as the Immanuel Kant saw religion as the
recognitions of our duties as divine recognitions of our duties as divine
commands, the driving force of the sacred commands, the driving force of the sacred
is morality, e.g., tabu, holinessis morality, e.g., tabu, holiness

24. 
F. Psychological DefinitionF. Psychological Definition

William James said that religion comes William James said that religion comes
from the feelings and experiences and from the feelings and experiences and
individual peopleindividual people

25. 
G. Religion as Ultimate Valuation—Paul Tillich’s ultimate concernG. Religion as Ultimate Valuation—Paul Tillich’s ultimate concern

1. Ultimate concern has priority in the system of concerns which 1. Ultimate concern has priority in the system of concerns which
constitutes a personality or a culture—it gives meaning and constitutes a personality or a culture—it gives meaning and
purpose to human lifepurpose to human life

2. Ultimate concern is pervasive—spread over the totality of 2. Ultimate concern is pervasive—spread over the totality of
existenceexistence

3. Ultimate concern is concerned with the holy—Rudolph Otto saw 3. Ultimate concern is concerned with the holy—Rudolph Otto saw
holiness as a special and unique experience. He coined the phrase holiness as a special and unique experience. He coined the phrase
numinousnuminous, from Latin meaning divinity, god, or spirit—refers to a , from Latin meaning divinity, god, or spirit—refers to a
special feeling of aweness or fearspecial feeling of aweness or fear

4. Ultimate concern has to do with the expression and 4. Ultimate concern has to do with the expression and
communication of religious experience—religious experience communication of religious experience—religious experience
takes place through symbolic words, objects, and actionstakes place through symbolic words, objects, and actions

5. Ultimate Concern is both lived and celebrated---celebrated 5. Ultimate Concern is both lived and celebrated---celebrated
through liturgy and mythology—lived out in the religious through liturgy and mythology—lived out in the religious
expressions influencing all factors of lifeexpressions influencing all factors of life

26. Three Types of Religious Three Types of Religious
ExperienceExperience

27. 
A. Cosmic Religion—one in which there A. Cosmic Religion—one in which there
is found a plurality of religious objects is found a plurality of religious objects
or gods; it is polytheistic. The many or gods; it is polytheistic. The many
gods are associated with nature and/or gods are associated with nature and/or
culture. Prehistoric and folk religions culture. Prehistoric and folk religions
are examples of this typeare examples of this type

28. 
B. Acosmic Religion—one in which is B. Acosmic Religion—one in which is
found the religious object beyond the found the religious object beyond the
common secular world of nature and common secular world of nature and
society—usually emphasizes the One.society—usually emphasizes the One.

Hinduism and transcendental monism Hinduism and transcendental monism
are examplesare examples

29. 
C. Historical Religion—one in which is C. Historical Religion—one in which is
found the religious object beyond and found the religious object beyond and
within the common world—sees history within the common world—sees history
as linear—examples are Judaism, as linear—examples are Judaism,
Christanity, and IslamChristanity, and Islam

30. Religion of Pre-Historic Religion of Pre-Historic
HumanityHumanity

31. A.A. Concept of religion is believed to have Concept of religion is believed to have
began in the Old Stone Age (Palaeolithic) with began in the Old Stone Age (Palaeolithic) with
the Neanderthals (100,000-25,000 years ago) the Neanderthals (100,000-25,000 years ago)
1. Deliberate and meticulous care of 1. Deliberate and meticulous care of
burying burying dead, with ceremonydead, with ceremony
2. The dead were buried in a “fetal” 2. The dead were buried in a “fetal”
position—a “return to the womb”position—a “return to the womb”

32. 3. Example of burial in Monte Cicero (Italy)3. Example of burial in Monte Cicero (Italy)
a. Bones of deer, horse, hyena, a. Bones of deer, horse, hyena,
elephant, elephant, and lion were on the floor and and lion were on the floor and
heaped up heaped up around the walls in pilesaround the walls in piles
b. On the floor beneath the cranaium b. On the floor beneath the cranaium
were were two fractured metacarpals of an ox two fractured metacarpals of an ox
and of a and of a deerdeer
c. The skull showed signs of having c. The skull showed signs of having
received received a fatal blow on the right side of the a fatal blow on the right side of the
templetemple

33. d. At its base the portion connecting the d. At its base the portion connecting the
braid with the spinal cord had been cut away braid with the spinal cord had been cut away
after death, probably to extract the after death, probably to extract the
brainbrain
e. The site appeared be a place in which the e. The site appeared be a place in which the
body was deposited ceremonially in a cave body was deposited ceremonially in a cave
used for ritual purposes as a sacred ossuaryused for ritual purposes as a sacred ossuary

34. 4. Another example of a ritual burial is in Bavaria4. Another example of a ritual burial is in Bavaria
a. A nest of 27 human skulls were found in a a. A nest of 27 human skulls were found in a
group group embedded in red ochre, the skulls embedded in red ochre, the skulls
looking westwardlooking westward
b. A few yards away was a second identical b. A few yards away was a second identical
group group of six skulls—some of these the cervical of six skulls—some of these the cervical
vertebrae vertebrae were still attached and from their were still attached and from their
condition the condition the heads must have been severed heads must have been severed
from the body after from the body after death with flint knivesdeath with flint knives

35. c. Those skulls in the center were tightly packed
together and crushed—it seems that they had
been added one by one from time to time
d. Twenty of the skulls were of children
ornamented with snail shells; nine were of women with
necklaces of deer teeth, and four were of adult
males

36. B.B.Cro-Magnons (25,000-10,000 years ago)—more Cro-Magnons (25,000-10,000 years ago)—more
developeddeveloped
1. First “idols” found were of female deities—1. First “idols” found were of female deities—
shows interest in fertility; the concept of the shows interest in fertility; the concept of the
“mother goddess” beginning to appear as a “mother goddess” beginning to appear as a
fecundity motiffecundity motif

37. 
2. From drawings, it appears the concept 2. From drawings, it appears the concept
of symphatic magic was being conceivedof symphatic magic was being conceived
3. Throughout other burial sites, certain 3. Throughout other burial sites, certain
shells (cowrie) were shaped in the form of shells (cowrie) were shaped in the form of
a portal through which a child enters the a portal through which a child enters the
worldworld
4. During this time there was a 4. During this time there was a
widespread custom of placing ochreous widespread custom of placing ochreous
powder on the body: red was the color of powder on the body: red was the color of
life and placing the red ochre on the body life and placing the red ochre on the body
suggests a belief in a “life to come”suggests a belief in a “life to come”

38. 5. One anthropologist believes the painting of the 5. One anthropologist believes the painting of the
body with the red ochre was the first body with the red ochre was the first
“mummification” and an attempt to make the body “mummification” and an attempt to make the body
“servicable” again“servicable” again
6. Some burial spots could suggest that the living 6. Some burial spots could suggest that the living
were making offerings to the dead out of a fear and were making offerings to the dead out of a fear and
awe of themawe of them

39. C. Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age, 10,000-7,000 C. Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age, 10,000-7,000
years agoyears ago
1. This age was a transitional age which saw 1. This age was a transitional age which saw
the the vanishing of the ice sheet and a gradual shift vanishing of the ice sheet and a gradual shift
from from nomadic to village lifenomadic to village life
2. In one grave site in Brittany were found a 2. In one grave site in Brittany were found a
great great ossuary with ten burial sites, including the ossuary with ten burial sites, including the
remains remains of 23 individuals.of 23 individuals.
a. The bodies were crouched in shallow a. The bodies were crouched in shallow
trench caves trench caves near the hearths near the hearths
accompanied accompanied by implements, perforated by implements, perforated
shell necklaces, shell necklaces, and bracletsand braclets
b. The bodies were covered with red b. The bodies were covered with red
ochre ochre and stone slabsand stone slabs
c. It appeared that the bodies were c. It appeared that the bodies were
clothed clothed where they were interredwhere they were interred

40. 3. In Denmark there was a continuation of 3. In Denmark there was a continuation of
extended burial in earth graves defined by a small extended burial in earth graves defined by a small
ring of small stones around the body and covered ring of small stones around the body and covered
with a large earth mound known as dyssers or with a large earth mound known as dyssers or
dolmansdolmans

41. D. The Neolithic (New Stone Age, 7000-3000 years D. The Neolithic (New Stone Age, 7000-3000 years
agoago
1. This age is characterized by several great 1. This age is characterized by several great
changeschanges
a. Early forms of agriculture, with active a. Early forms of agriculture, with active
tilling of the soiltilling of the soil
b. Domestication of animals and their b. Domestication of animals and their
gathering into flocks and herdsgathering into flocks and herds
c. Advances in the arts of pottery, c. Advances in the arts of pottery,
plaiting, plaiting, weaving, and sewingweaving, and sewing
d. Establishment of settled communities d. Establishment of settled communities
with with an accompanying growth of populationan accompanying growth of population
e. The invention of the wheeled carde. The invention of the wheeled card
f. The first surgeryf. The first surgery

42. 2. Religion also being radically transformed2. Religion also being radically transformed
a. The Mother Goddess or Great a. The Mother Goddess or Great
Goddess of Goddess of earlier hunting culture became earlier hunting culture became
associated associated with creation and regenerationwith creation and regeneration
b. Female divine power went beyond b. Female divine power went beyond
the the animal models of birthing and nurture animal models of birthing and nurture
to the to the watering, tending, and protecting watering, tending, and protecting
of the of the whole world of vegetationwhole world of vegetation
c. Studies of Old Europe (Balkans) reveal c. Studies of Old Europe (Balkans) reveal
a a pantheon of mostly female deities pantheon of mostly female deities
subsequently obscured, but not fully subsequently obscured, but not fully
displaced by later Indo-Aryan patriarchal displaced by later Indo-Aryan patriarchal
and and gender-polarized views.gender-polarized views.

43. Generalizations of Tribal Generalizations of Tribal
ReligionsReligions
A. Traditional—no written language existsA. Traditional—no written language exists
B. Naturalistic framework of reference—B. Naturalistic framework of reference—
biological drivesbiological drives
C. Spontaneous—response to stimuli, C. Spontaneous—response to stimuli,
irrationalirrational

44. Broad GeneralizationsBroad Generalizations
A. Primitive religion is monistic—no dualismA. Primitive religion is monistic—no dualism
B. A sense of absolute interdependence of all thingsB. A sense of absolute interdependence of all things
C. Interdependence maintained by infallible rigid C. Interdependence maintained by infallible rigid
authorityauthority
D. Religion serves to maintain social harmony and D. Religion serves to maintain social harmony and
stabilitystability
E. No opposites among tribal people—everything E. No opposites among tribal people—everything
and everybody complementaryand everybody complementary

45. Characteristics of Characteristics of
Religion in Primal Religion in Primal
CulturesCultures

46. A. Awe before the SacredA. Awe before the Sacred
1. Rudolf Otto in The Ideal of the Holy, bases the 1. Rudolf Otto in The Ideal of the Holy, bases the
experience of the holy upon an encounter with a experience of the holy upon an encounter with a
mysterium tremendum et fascinosum,mysterium tremendum et fascinosum, and found it and found it in in
all religions—the degree of the sense of the awe all religions—the degree of the sense of the awe or or
holy various tremendously with each groupholy various tremendously with each group
2. In most primitive societies the sacred possesses 2. In most primitive societies the sacred possesses
a special significance and cannot be handled lightlya special significance and cannot be handled lightly
3. Objects and persons can have this “awe” within 3. Objects and persons can have this “awe” within
themthem

47. B. Expressions of anxiety in ritualB. Expressions of anxiety in ritual
1. When there is a sense of the sacred, anxiety 1. When there is a sense of the sacred, anxiety
occurs and will cause “action”occurs and will cause “action”
2. This “action” takes the form of special deeds 2. This “action” takes the form of special deeds
and and wordswords
3. Such anxiety is the basis of all religious 3. Such anxiety is the basis of all religious
ritualritual

48. C. Ritual and ExpectancyC. Ritual and Expectancy
1. Some rituals are expectant in nature1. Some rituals are expectant in nature
2. They presuppose a causal efficacy2. They presuppose a causal efficacy
3. They are performed to bring health, 3. They are performed to bring health,
offspring, offspring, productivity of the soil, fertility of cattle, productivity of the soil, fertility of cattle,
et alet al
4. Other rites occur at specific times for 4. Other rites occur at specific times for
specific specific purposespurposes
a. Rites of passage—connected with a. Rites of passage—connected with
birth, birth, name giving, initiation, betrothal, name giving, initiation, betrothal,
marriage, marriage, death, etcdeath, etc
b. The elevation to tribal leadership or b. The elevation to tribal leadership or
kingshipkingship

49. D. Myth and RitualD. Myth and Ritual
1. The making of myth is common in all 1. The making of myth is common in all
human human culturescultures
2. Myths help to answer questions as to the 2. Myths help to answer questions as to the
origin origin of actions or beliefsof actions or beliefs
3. Cosmogonic or “creation” myths help to 3. Cosmogonic or “creation” myths help to
explain explain the origin of existencethe origin of existence
4. An etiological myth is one that explains how 4. An etiological myth is one that explains how
things have come to be as they are nowthings have come to be as they are now
5. The quasi-historical myth is the elaboration 5. The quasi-historical myth is the elaboration
of an of an original happening, usually involving a hero or original happening, usually involving a hero or
pioneer figurepioneer figure

50. E. Types of magicE. Types of magic
1. Magic may be loosely defined as 1. Magic may be loosely defined as an endeavor an endeavor
through utterance of set words, or the performance through utterance of set words, or the performance of of
set acts, or both, to control or bend the powers of set acts, or both, to control or bend the powers of the the
world to one’s willworld to one’s will
2. Sympathetic magic (James Frazer) takes an 2. Sympathetic magic (James Frazer) takes an
imitative form based upon analogyimitative form based upon analogy
a. It assumes that look-alikes act alike, or, a. It assumes that look-alikes act alike, or, more more
significantly, that like influences or even significantly, that like influences or even produces produces
likelike
b. Thus, if one imitates the looks and actions b. Thus, if one imitates the looks and actions of of
a person or an animal (or even a a person or an animal (or even a thundercloud), thundercloud),
one can induce a like and one can induce a like and desired action in the desired action in the
imitated being or objectimitated being or object

51. 3. Outcomes of magic are considered to be:3. Outcomes of magic are considered to be:
a. Productive—Cro-Magnon hunting magic a. Productive—Cro-Magnon hunting magic (painting) (painting)
was a type of imitative magicwas a type of imitative magic
b. Aversive—one can use magic to hurt one’s b. Aversive—one can use magic to hurt one’s
enemies by imitating a harmful act upon an enemies by imitating a harmful act upon an image of image of
a persona person
c. Contagious—things conjoined and then c. Contagious—things conjoined and then separated separated
still are connected—thus severed still are connected—thus severed hair or hair or
fingernails retain a magical sympathy fingernails retain a magical sympathy with the person with the person
to whom they belongto whom they belong

52. 4. Methods of control of magic4. Methods of control of magic
a. Fetishism—refers to any resort to a a. Fetishism—refers to any resort to a
presumed power in inanimate presumed power in inanimate
objects—objects— includes objects which have includes objects which have
power innate in power innate in themthem
b. Shamanism—refers to the conjuring b. Shamanism—refers to the conjuring
of of spirits into or out of human beings by spirits into or out of human beings by
one one who is similarly spirit-possessedwho is similarly spirit-possessed

53. F. PrayerF. Prayer
1. Prayers in preliterate societies are generally 1. Prayers in preliterate societies are generally
formal and structuredformal and structured
2. Where the gods are anthropormorphic, 2. Where the gods are anthropormorphic,
formal formal prayers generally include elements prayers generally include elements
found in more found in more literate societies; namely, literate societies; namely,
adoration, confession of adoration, confession of wrongdoing, and promise wrongdoing, and promise
of atonement, of atonement, thanksgiving in grateful thanksgiving in grateful
recognition of past favors, recognition of past favors, and supplication or and supplication or
petitions of a more or less petitions of a more or less specific kindspecific kind

54. G. DivinationG. Divination
1. A means to by-pass prayer1. A means to by-pass prayer
2. It aims at immediate knowledge of the 2. It aims at immediate knowledge of the
intentions intentions or dispositions of the spiritual powersor dispositions of the spiritual powers
3. Usually there is a connection between 3. Usually there is a connection between
divination divination and shamanismand shamanism

55. H. Belief in Mana (Used by Codrington)H. Belief in Mana (Used by Codrington)
1. Mana is a Melanesian term widely used to 1. Mana is a Melanesian term widely used to
designate a widespread, although not designate a widespread, although not
universal, universal, belief in occult force of indwelling belief in occult force of indwelling
supernatural supernatural power distinct from spiritspower distinct from spirits
2. The term refers to an experienced presence 2. The term refers to an experienced presence
of a of a powerful but silent forcepowerful but silent force

56. I. AnimismI. Animism
1. An acceptance that all sorts of motionless 1. An acceptance that all sorts of motionless
objects objects as well as living and moving creatures as well as living and moving creatures
have souls or have souls or spirits in themspirits in them
2. Identified with E. B. Tylor, who wrote that 2. Identified with E. B. Tylor, who wrote that all all
nature is possessed, pervaded, crowded with nature is possessed, pervaded, crowded with
spiritual beingsspiritual beings

57. J. Veneration and worship of powersJ. Veneration and worship of powers
1. Worship can take three modes1. Worship can take three modes
a. Sometimes an object itself is worshipped a. Sometimes an object itself is worshipped as living as living
and active, heavily charged with and active, heavily charged with manamana
b. Sometimes the object is nor worshipped b. Sometimes the object is nor worshipped for itself, for itself,
but for the spirit or soul lodged in itbut for the spirit or soul lodged in it
c. Sometimes the object is a symbol of the c. Sometimes the object is a symbol of the reality reality
which is worshippedwhich is worshipped
2. Veneration and awe are “short” of worship2. Veneration and awe are “short” of worship

58. K. Recognition of a Supreme BeingK. Recognition of a Supreme Being
1. Great debate as to whether primal peoples 1. Great debate as to whether primal peoples
had a had a belief in a supreme beingbelief in a supreme being
2. It is rather common to find a belief in a deity 2. It is rather common to find a belief in a deity
up up in the sky or at a great distance from the earthin the sky or at a great distance from the earth
3. Daily activities did not include such a high 3. Daily activities did not include such a high
deitydeity
4. The great deity usually was the creator of 4. The great deity usually was the creator of
the the more popular deitiesmore popular deities

59. L. Taboo-TabuL. Taboo-Tabu
1. Taboos are prohibitions applied to things, 1. Taboos are prohibitions applied to things,
persons, and actions because they are persons, and actions because they are
considered considered sacred, dangerous, or socially forbiddensacred, dangerous, or socially forbidden
2. Many taboos are due to fear based on 2. Many taboos are due to fear based on
mana; mana; others may reflect the dread of pollutionothers may reflect the dread of pollution

60. M. Purification ritesM. Purification rites
1. Ceremonies of purification and cleansing 1. Ceremonies of purification and cleansing
are due are due to the belief of taboos or the impurity of to the belief of taboos or the impurity of
a certain a certain person or objectperson or object
2. In some cases, purification rites are used for 2. In some cases, purification rites are used for
the the motive of purifying oneself for future ritualmotive of purifying oneself for future ritual
3. Purification rites may take the form of 3. Purification rites may take the form of
fasting, fasting, abstention from sex, ablutions, et alabstention from sex, ablutions, et al

61. N. Sacrifices and giftsN. Sacrifices and gifts
1. Sacrifice usually entails the giving up or 1. Sacrifice usually entails the giving up or
destruction (e.g., burning) of something, destruction (e.g., burning) of something,
animate or animate or inanimate, human, animal, or vegetable inanimate, human, animal, or vegetable
in order to in order to cause it to pass from human possession cause it to pass from human possession
to that of to that of the divinethe divine
2. Original sacrifices seem to have involved 2. Original sacrifices seem to have involved
animal animal and/or human sacrifices, because the and/or human sacrifices, because the
spirits as well spirits as well as humans need the vitality and as humans need the vitality and
strength present in strength present in life and bloodlife and blood
3. Sacrifice may be performed to seek 3. Sacrifice may be performed to seek
reconciliation reconciliation with a divinitywith a divinity
4. Sacrifice may be performed to placate the 4. Sacrifice may be performed to placate the
gods; gods; thus considered to be propitiatorythus considered to be propitiatory

62. O. Attitudes toward the deadO. Attitudes toward the dead
1. In many ancient societies, there developed 1. In many ancient societies, there developed
a a view that the dead may cause injury to the view that the dead may cause injury to the
livingliving
2. Thus, some kind of actions or words may be 2. Thus, some kind of actions or words may be
performed to prevent such interferenceperformed to prevent such interference

63. P. TotemismP. Totemism
1. A very common characteristic of primal religions 1. A very common characteristic of primal religions
recognize the existence of a more or less intimate recognize the existence of a more or less intimate
relationship between certain human groups or relationship between certain human groups or
particular individuals and classes or species of particular individuals and classes or species of
animals, plant, or inanimate object in natureanimals, plant, or inanimate object in nature
2. This recognition results in special social grouping 2. This recognition results in special social grouping
and special rituals unique to that social groupingand special rituals unique to that social grouping
3. If an animal is the totem, the group is forbidden 3. If an animal is the totem, the group is forbidden
to eat the animal except in special casesto eat the animal except in special cases
4. By eating the animal, the group takes on the 4. By eating the animal, the group takes on the
power of that particular animalpower of that particular animal

64. African ReligionAfrican Religion

65. I. No way to really discuss as one I. No way to really discuss as one
category since differences are so greatcategory since differences are so great
—we can look at a few recurring themes—we can look at a few recurring themes
A. TranscendenceA. Transcendence
1. Names and expressions of 1. Names and expressions of
divinities vary greatlydivinities vary greatly
2. But there does seem to be 2. But there does seem to be
a a general belief that there exists general belief that there exists
a a kind kind of a supreme being of a supreme being
who has who has control over the lesser control over the lesser
spiritsspirits

66. 3. The first observations that 3. The first observations that African African
religion was simply forms religion was simply forms of primitive of primitive
polytheism does not polytheism does not seem to bear outseem to bear out
4. The supreme being is 4. The supreme being is described in described in
various ways—as a various ways—as a beneficent being, beneficent being,
a father or a father or mother, or as a holy godmother, or as a holy god
5. Popular religion seems to be 5. Popular religion seems to be
polytheistic; these beings seem to polytheistic; these beings seem to be be
representatives or servants of representatives or servants of the the
higher godhigher god

67. 6. Like most religions, there 6. Like most religions, there
are are creation storiescreation stories

68. B. Stages on Life’s way—one’s life is B. Stages on Life’s way—one’s life is
dominated by rituals—rites of passagedominated by rituals—rites of passage
1.Birth—children are important—1.Birth—children are important—naming naming
ceremonies is important ceremonies is important ceremony, ceremony,
accomplished in a accomplished in a variety of waysvariety of ways
2. Initiation—the coming of age, 2. Initiation—the coming of age,
assumption of responsibilities assumption of responsibilities of of
adulthoodadulthood

69. 3. Marriage—very important 3. Marriage—very important
and and intricateintricate
4. Death—serious and 4. Death—serious and
somewhat somewhat fearful experience; fearful experience;
there is there is general belief in a general belief in a
life after death; life after death; reincarnation reincarnation
believed by somebelieved by some

70. C. Religious roles
1. Includes prophets, shamans,
sacred kings, traditional medicine
men
2. They have means of
foreseeing the future
3. Oracles are important
4. The priest is important; uses
established ritual forms which
relate human life to transcendent
life
5. King is important feature

71. Native American Native American
ReligionReligion

72. A. Like African religions, there is great A. Like African religions, there is great
varietyvariety
1. Differences between gatherers 1. Differences between gatherers
and and farmersfarmers
2. The latter celebrate the cycle of 2. The latter celebrate the cycle of
the agricultural yearthe agricultural year
3. Many hunter-gatherers have 3. Many hunter-gatherers have
stories stories of a transformer of trickster of a transformer of trickster
who set who set things in motionthings in motion
4. For farmers the creator is not a 4. For farmers the creator is not a
person, but a power in the skyperson, but a power in the sky

73. B. Recurring ThemesB. Recurring Themes
1. Transcendence1. Transcendence
a. There exists in all persons a. There exists in all persons
and and objects a mystifying spirit—objects a mystifying spirit—
called called mana by Melanesiansmana by Melanesians
b. Many do not have concept b. Many do not have concept
of a of a single high godsingle high god

74. c. Paul Radin notes two aspects c. Paul Radin notes two aspects of this of this
high godhigh god
(a) the supreme deity is just (a) the supreme deity is just and rational and rational
but remotebut remote
(b) the transformer who is (b) the transformer who is not always not always
fair, but actively fair, but actively intervene in human intervene in human
life; life; there also exists great there also exists great number of number of
other other spirits—good and badspirits—good and bad

75. C. Stages on Life’s wayC. Stages on Life’s way
1. Birth—naming ceremony is 1. Birth—naming ceremony is
extremely importantextremely important
2. Initiation2. Initiation
a. A vision quest for boys a. A vision quest for boys
and sometimes for girlsand sometimes for girls
b. Usually accomplished b. Usually accomplished
by by sending them into sending them into
wilderness, usually sees a wilderness, usually sees a
supernatural visitor, that supernatural visitor, that
becomes major becomes major
divinity of divinity of the personthe person

76. 3. Marriage—intricate—no single 3. Marriage—intricate—no single
pattern—many see in women a pattern—many see in women a
mysterious powermysterious power
4. Death—usually takes on form of 4. Death—usually takes on form of
fear and avoidance—contact with fear and avoidance—contact with
corpse leads to separation or corpse leads to separation or
isolationisolation

77. D. Religious roles—emphasis on D. Religious roles—emphasis on
shaman, medicine man and priest—shaman, medicine man and priest—
priests lead in established rituals, no priests lead in established rituals, no
vision necessaryvision necessary