Thinking.... thought process psychology...
PradyunThakur1
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Jan 27, 2025
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About This Presentation
thinking
Slide Content
Thinking
Unit - III
•Introduction
•Building Blocks of Thought
•The Process of Thinking
–Types of Thinking
–Levels of Thinking
–Development of Thinking
•Communication
•Principles of Effective communication
•Language, Thought and Culture
•Decision Making
•Introduction
•Building Blocks of Thought
•The Process of Thinking
–Types of Thinking
–Levels of Thinking
–Development of Thinking
•Communication
•Principles of Effective communication
•Language, Thought and Culture
•Decision Making
Introduction
“What is Cognition or Thinking?”
Your answer may be something like this
““Thinking is what goes on inside your head”Thinking is what goes on inside your head”
“What is Cognition or Thinking?”
Your answer may be something like this
““Thinking is what goes on inside your head”Thinking is what goes on inside your head”
Introduction
Cognitive abilities like thinking, reasoning and
problem - solving may be considered to be
some of the chief characteristics which
distinguish human beings from other species
including the higher animals.
Cognitive abilities like thinking, reasoning and
problem - solving may be considered to be
some of the chief characteristics which
distinguish human beings from other species
including the higher animals.
Introduction
The challenges and problems faced by the
individuals or by society, in general are solved
through series of efforts involving thinking and
reasoning.
The challenges and problems faced by the
individuals or by society, in general are solved
through series of efforts involving thinking and
reasoning.
Introduction
The powers of thinking and reasoning may thus
be considered to be the essential tools for the
welfare and meaningful existence of the
individual as well as society.
The powers of thinking and reasoning may thus
be considered to be the essential tools for the
welfare and meaningful existence of the
individual as well as society.
Definition
Cognitive processes play an important role in
many psychological functions.
“Thinking includes the processing and retrieval
of information from memory.”
But it requires manipulation of information in
various ways.
Cognitive processes play an important role in
many psychological functions.
“Thinking includes the processing and retrieval
of information from memory.”
But it requires manipulation of information in
various ways.
Examples of Thinking
•Reflection
•Conceptualization
•Evaluation
•Problem solving
•Decision making
•Reflection
•Conceptualization
•Evaluation
•Problem solving
•Decision making
•“I have given it some thought” implies
reflection or meditation.
•“I think this town is like the one I grew up in”
indicates conceptualization.
•“What does he think of all this?” is a way of
asking for an Evaluation.
Examples of Thinking
reflection or meditation.
•“I think this town is like the one I grew up in”
indicates conceptualization.
•“What does he think of all this?” is a way of
asking for an Evaluation.
Examples of Thinking
•“Aha! I think I have the answer!” reflects Problem
solving and insight.
•“I think I’ll but the red one.” indicates a Decision
making.
Cognition plays a crucial role in coping , adjustment,
abnormal behaviour and interpersonal relations.
Examples of Thinking
solving and insight.
•“I think I’ll but the red one.” indicates a Decision
making.
Cognition plays a crucial role in coping , adjustment,
abnormal behaviour and interpersonal relations.
Examples of Thinking
Definitions
Ross: Thinking is a mental activity in its cognitive
aspect or mental activity with regard to
psychological aspects.
Garrett: Thinking is a behaviour which is often
implicit and hidden and in which symbols are
ordinarily employed.
Ross: Thinking is a mental activity in its cognitive
aspect or mental activity with regard to
psychological aspects.
Garrett: Thinking is a behaviour which is often
implicit and hidden and in which symbols are
ordinarily employed.
Definitions
Glimer: Thinking is a problem – solving process
in which we use ideas or symbols in place of
overt activity.
Mohsin: Thinking is an implicit problem –
solving behaviour.
Glimer: Thinking is a problem – solving process
in which we use ideas or symbols in place of
overt activity.
Mohsin: Thinking is an implicit problem –
solving behaviour.
When we think about a close friend, we may have in
mind some complex statements about her, such as “I’d
like to talk to her soon” or “I wish I could be like her.”
You may also have an image of her – probably her face or
sound of her voice. Or you may think of your friend by
various concepts or categories such as woman, kind,
strong, dynamic and gentle.
Building Blocks of Thought
mind some complex statements about her, such as “I’d
like to talk to her soon” or “I wish I could be like her.”
You may also have an image of her – probably her face or
sound of her voice. Or you may think of your friend by
various concepts or categories such as woman, kind,
strong, dynamic and gentle.
Building Blocks of Thought
Building Blocks of Thought
1. Language
Human language is a flexible system of symbols
that enables us to communicate our ideas,
thoughts and feelings.
To understand human system of language, one
should study its basic structure which
constitute phonemes and morphemes.
Human language is a flexible system of symbols
that enables us to communicate our ideas,
thoughts and feelings.
To understand human system of language, one
should study its basic structure which
constitute phonemes and morphemes.
Phonemes
•Spoken language is based on units of sound
called phonemes.
•The sounds of t, th and k are all phonemes in
English.
•There are about 45 phonemes in English
language.
•Spoken language is based on units of sound
called phonemes.
•The sounds of t, th and k are all phonemes in
English.
•There are about 45 phonemes in English
language.
Phonemes
•By themselves, phonemes are meaningless
and seldom play an important role in helping
people to think.
•The sound b, has no inherent meaning but
phonemes can be grouped together to form
words.
•By themselves, phonemes are meaningless
and seldom play an important role in helping
people to think.
•The sound b, has no inherent meaning but
phonemes can be grouped together to form
words.
Morphemes
•When phonemes are grouped together to form
meaningful words, prefixes (such as un- and
pre-) and suffixes (such as -ed and -ing), these
combinations are known as morphemes.
•These are the smallest meaningful unit in a
language and play a key role in human thought.
•When phonemes are grouped together to form
meaningful words, prefixes (such as un- and
pre-) and suffixes (such as -ed and -ing), these
combinations are known as morphemes.
•These are the smallest meaningful unit in a
language and play a key role in human thought.
Morphemes
They can represent important ideas such as “red”
or “calm” or “hot”. The suffix – ed captures the
idea of “in the past” and prefix pre - conveys the
idea of “before” or “prior to”.
Morphemes can be combined to create words
that represent quite complex ideas or thoughts
such as pre-exist-ing, un-excell-ed, psycho-logy.
They can represent important ideas such as “red”
or “calm” or “hot”. The suffix – ed captures the
idea of “in the past” and prefix pre - conveys the
idea of “before” or “prior to”.
Morphemes can be combined to create words
that represent quite complex ideas or thoughts
such as pre-exist-ing, un-excell-ed, psycho-logy.
Grammar
Words can be joined to reflect even more
complex thoughts. Just as there are rules for
combining phonemes and morphemes, there
are rules for structuring sentences and their
meaning. These rules are what linguists call
grammar. The two major components of
grammar are syntax and semantics.
Words can be joined to reflect even more
complex thoughts. Just as there are rules for
combining phonemes and morphemes, there
are rules for structuring sentences and their
meaning. These rules are what linguists call
grammar. The two major components of
grammar are syntax and semantics.
Grammar
The two major components of grammar are:
The two major components of grammar are:
Syntax
Syntax: It is the system of rules that governs how words
are combined to form meaningful phrases and
sentences.
Example: In English and many other languages, the
meaning of a sentence is often determined by word
order. “Sally hit the car” means one thing; “The car hit
Sally” means something quite different; and “Hit Sally
car the” is meaningless.
Syntax: It is the system of rules that governs how words
are combined to form meaningful phrases and
sentences.
Example: In English and many other languages, the
meaning of a sentence is often determined by word
order. “Sally hit the car” means one thing; “The car hit
Sally” means something quite different; and “Hit Sally
car the” is meaningless.
Semantics
Semantics describes how people assign meaning to
morphemes, words, phrases, and sentences – in
other words, the content of language.
When we are thinking about something – say, the
ocean – our ideas usually consist of phrases and
sentences, such as “The ocean is unusually calm
tonight.
Semantics describes how people assign meaning to
morphemes, words, phrases, and sentences – in
other words, the content of language.
When we are thinking about something – say, the
ocean – our ideas usually consist of phrases and
sentences, such as “The ocean is unusually calm
tonight.
Semantics
“Sentences have both a surface structure – the particular
words and phrases – and a deep structure – the
underlying meaning. The same deep structure can be
conveyed by different surface structure:
The ocean is unusually calm tonight.
Tonight, the ocean is particularly calm.
Compared with most other nights, tonight the ocean is
calm.
“Sentences have both a surface structure – the particular
words and phrases – and a deep structure – the
underlying meaning. The same deep structure can be
conveyed by different surface structure:
The ocean is unusually calm tonight.
Tonight, the ocean is particularly calm.
Compared with most other nights, tonight the ocean is
calm.
2. Images
Imagine being outside in a summer thunderstorm.
You probably formed mental images of wind,
rain and lightning, or the sound of thunder or
the smell of wet leaves and earth.
We can think by using images about complex and
abstract ideas that would be heard to capture in
words.
Imagine being outside in a summer thunderstorm.
You probably formed mental images of wind,
rain and lightning, or the sound of thunder or
the smell of wet leaves and earth.
We can think by using images about complex and
abstract ideas that would be heard to capture in
words.
Images
“An image is a mental representation of some
sensory experience.”
We can visualize India Gate or Taj Mahal; we can
smell the scent of Christmas tree; we can hear
Martin Luther King Jr. saying, “I have a dream!”
in short, we can think by using images.
“An image is a mental representation of some
sensory experience.”
We can visualize India Gate or Taj Mahal; we can
smell the scent of Christmas tree; we can hear
Martin Luther King Jr. saying, “I have a dream!”
in short, we can think by using images.
Images
Albert Einstein relied heavily on his powers of
visualization to understand phenomenon he
would later describe by using mathematical
formulas.
This great thinker believed his extraordinary genius
resulted in part from his skill in visualizing
possibilities.
Albert Einstein relied heavily on his powers of
visualization to understand phenomenon he
would later describe by using mathematical
formulas.
This great thinker believed his extraordinary genius
resulted in part from his skill in visualizing
possibilities.
Mental Image
•Mental Image – mental representation of an
object or event not physically present.
•Mental imaging works similar to actual visual
imaging.
•Mental images are constructed and therefore
subject to error.
•Mental Image – mental representation of an
object or event not physically present.
•Mental imaging works similar to actual visual
imaging.
•Mental images are constructed and therefore
subject to error.
•Steven Kosslyn had
people memorize a
map of an island and
then asked them to
imagine specific areas.
• People took time to
mentally scan their
mental image and find
the different locations.
•People took the same
amount of time to
mentally scan the
image as they did to
visually scan it.
people memorize a
map of an island and
then asked them to
imagine specific areas.
• People took time to
mentally scan their
mental image and find
the different locations.
•People took the same
amount of time to
mentally scan the
image as they did to
visually scan it.
3. Concepts
Concepts are mental categories or schemas for
classifying specific people, things or events.
Example: Dogs, books, fast and beautiful are all
concepts. When you think about a specific thing
– say, Mt. Everest – you may think of concepts
that apply to it, such as highest and dangerous to
climb.
Concepts are mental categories or schemas for
classifying specific people, things or events.
Example: Dogs, books, fast and beautiful are all
concepts. When you think about a specific thing
– say, Mt. Everest – you may think of concepts
that apply to it, such as highest and dangerous to
climb.
Concepts
•Concept:- mental category we form to group
objects, events, or situations that share
common characteristics or features.
•Three Types of Concepts:
1.Formal concept
2.Natural concept
3.Prototype
•Concept:- mental category we form to group
objects, events, or situations that share
common characteristics or features.
•Three Types of Concepts:
1.Formal concept
2.Natural concept
3.Prototype
Concept Hierarchy
•A means to keep mental information
organized from basic concepts to
specific ones
•Move from basic category to more
specific subordinate categories.
•A means to keep mental information
organized from basic concepts to
specific ones
•Move from basic category to more
specific subordinate categories.
Concept Hierarchy
Examples of Concepts
•Formal concept— rigid rules or features
that define a particular concept.
–All or nothing categorization process
• Categories for solid, liquid, or gas
•A square is…
•Formal concept— rigid rules or features
that define a particular concept.
–All or nothing categorization process
• Categories for solid, liquid, or gas
•A square is…
Examples of Concepts
•Natural concept — Eleanor Rosch said these
form from everyday experience and do not
have boundaries that are sharply defined
•Members of these share a kind of “family
resemblance” that helps us to recognize items
that belong in the same category, even if they
are not identical.
•Example: space shuttle & hot air balloon are
both examples of the natural concept “aircraft”
•Natural concept — Eleanor Rosch said these
form from everyday experience and do not
have boundaries that are sharply defined
•Members of these share a kind of “family
resemblance” that helps us to recognize items
that belong in the same category, even if they
are not identical.
•Example: space shuttle & hot air balloon are
both examples of the natural concept “aircraft”
Prototype
•A model
•A typical best example of a particular thing
•The closer a new object is to our concept
prototype the easier it is to categorize it
–If an object has four wheels and doors it probably
fits our prototype for…
•A model
•A typical best example of a particular thing
•The closer a new object is to our concept
prototype the easier it is to categorize it
–If an object has four wheels and doors it probably
fits our prototype for…
Concepts
•It is tempting to think of concepts as simple and
clear cut, but most of the concepts people use
are rather “fuzzy”.
•They overlap one another and often are poorly
defined. Example: most people can tell a mouse
from a rat, but listing the critical differences
between the two would be difficult.
•It is tempting to think of concepts as simple and
clear cut, but most of the concepts people use
are rather “fuzzy”.
•They overlap one another and often are poorly
defined. Example: most people can tell a mouse
from a rat, but listing the critical differences
between the two would be difficult.
Concepts
•So we need to clear these fuzzy concepts in our
thinking by usually constructing a prototype or
model and using these in thinking.
Example: most people have a model bird, or prototype, in
mind – sparrow – that describes the picture of bird.
When new objects are encountered, people compare
them with this prototype. When they think about bird,
they usually think about their prototype bird.
•So we need to clear these fuzzy concepts in our
thinking by usually constructing a prototype or
model and using these in thinking.
Example: most people have a model bird, or prototype, in
mind – sparrow – that describes the picture of bird.
When new objects are encountered, people compare
them with this prototype. When they think about bird,
they usually think about their prototype bird.
Concepts
Our concept of men may
include all of the following
guys….
But they are based
on our prototype
(ideal) male…..
Our concept of men may
include all of the following
guys….
But they are based
on our prototype
(ideal) male…..
Concepts and Images
•Like words and images, concepts help to
formulate thoughts.
•Human cognition involves active and passive
thinking by using words, images and concepts
for problem solving and decision making
•Images and concepts are tools used to solve
different problems.
•Like words and images, concepts help to
formulate thoughts.
•Human cognition involves active and passive
thinking by using words, images and concepts
for problem solving and decision making
•Images and concepts are tools used to solve
different problems.
Concepts and Images
•Most of the time we encounter problems when
goals are not reached.
•Whenever a problem arises, we use different
methods to overcome them.
•Example: we may begin with simple trial and
error method and follow with mechanical steps.
•Most of the time we encounter problems when
goals are not reached.
•Whenever a problem arises, we use different
methods to overcome them.
•Example: we may begin with simple trial and
error method and follow with mechanical steps.
Concepts and Images
We may use a learned set of rules that specify
step-by-step procedure to solve problem. They
are called algorithms. Mathematical formulas
are excellent examples of algorithms.
We use heuristics or “rules of thumb”. These
rules are relevant to a set of situations and are
educated guesses based on experiences.
We may use a learned set of rules that specify
step-by-step procedure to solve problem. They
are called algorithms. Mathematical formulas
are excellent examples of algorithms.
We use heuristics or “rules of thumb”. These
rules are relevant to a set of situations and are
educated guesses based on experiences.
Problem Solving
Problem Solving
•Thinking and behavior directed toward attaining a
goal that is not readily available.
•Must understand the problem correctly to
accurately solve it.
•Thinking and behavior directed toward attaining a
goal that is not readily available.
•Must understand the problem correctly to
accurately solve it.
Algorithms
•A rule that guarantees the
right solution to a problem.
•Usually by using a formula.
•They work but are
sometimes impractical.
•A rule that guarantees the
right solution to a problem.
•Usually by using a formula.
•They work but are
sometimes impractical.
Algorithms
•A problem solving strategy that
guarantees the solution to the problem
•Not always the most efficient method
y + z = r
2
•A problem solving strategy that
guarantees the solution to the problem
•Not always the most efficient method
y + z = r
2
Trial & Error
Trying a variety of solutions and eliminating
those that don’t work.
Trying a variety of solutions and eliminating
those that don’t work.
Using an Algorithm
•Pick any month of the year.
•Look at four dates that form a square in that
month and add them together for a total.
•Given this total, how can you determine the four
dates the person chose using an algorithm?
•To find the first date divide the sum by 4 and then
subtract 4.
•To find the second date just add 1 to the date you
got above.
•To find the third date add 7 to the first date.
•To find the fourth date add 8 to the first date.
•Pick any month of the year.
•Look at four dates that form a square in that
month and add them together for a total.
•Given this total, how can you determine the four
dates the person chose using an algorithm?
•To find the first date divide the sum by 4 and then
subtract 4.
•To find the second date just add 1 to the date you
got above.
•To find the third date add 7 to the first date.
•To find the fourth date add 8 to the first date.
Heuristics
•A rule of thumb that generally,
but not always, can be used to
make a judgment to solve a
problem.
•It is fast, but is…
•Prone to errors
•Two major types of heuristics….
•A rule of thumb that generally,
but not always, can be used to
make a judgment to solve a
problem.
•It is fast, but is…
•Prone to errors
•Two major types of heuristics….
Representativeness Heuristic
•Judging a situation based on how similar the
aspects are to the prototypes the person
holds in their mind.
•Like thinking someone with glasses is boring
or studious, or a blonde person is not smart.
•Judging a situation based on how similar the
aspects are to the prototypes the person
holds in their mind.
•Like thinking someone with glasses is boring
or studious, or a blonde person is not smart.
Availability Heuristic
•Judging a situation
based on examples of
similar situations that
initially come to mind.
•Vivid examples in the
news often cause an
availability heuristic.
Which place would you be more scared of getting mugged or even murdered?
The Bronx, NY
Gary, Indiana
The crime rate of Gary, Indiana is MUCH higher
than the Bronx. But when you think of crime,
which town comes to mind?
I realize the Bronx picture is misleading.
•Judging a situation
based on examples of
similar situations that
initially come to mind.
•Vivid examples in the
news often cause an
availability heuristic.
Which place would you be more scared of getting mugged or even murdered?
The Bronx, NY
Gary, Indiana
The crime rate of Gary, Indiana is MUCH higher
than the Bronx. But when you think of crime,
which town comes to mind?
I realize the Bronx picture is misleading.
Two ways we use Heuristics
•Subgoals – divide the problem into smaller
more manageable parts
–As you solve each sub problem you get closer to
solving the larger problem.
•Working Backward – determine the steps to
reach your goal starting from the end point.
(i.e. making a budget).
•Subgoals – divide the problem into smaller
more manageable parts
–As you solve each sub problem you get closer to
solving the larger problem.
•Working Backward – determine the steps to
reach your goal starting from the end point.
(i.e. making a budget).
Hurdles to problem solving
Mental Set
•A tendency to approach a problem in a
particular way that has worked in the
past
•A well-established habit of perception
or thought
•The set may or may not be helpful in
solving a new problem
•A tendency to approach a problem in a
particular way that has worked in the
past
•A well-established habit of perception
or thought
•The set may or may not be helpful in
solving a new problem
Nine dots problem
•Without lifting your
pencil or re-tracing
any line, draw four
straight lines that
connect all nine dots
•Without lifting your
pencil or re-tracing
any line, draw four
straight lines that
connect all nine dots
Nine dots mental set
•Most people will not
draw lines that extend
from the square formed
by the nine dots
•To solve the problem,
you have to break your
mental set & the implicit
assumption you have to
stay within the dots.
•Most people will not
draw lines that extend
from the square formed
by the nine dots
•To solve the problem,
you have to break your
mental set & the implicit
assumption you have to
stay within the dots.
Mental set
•A tendency to only see
solutions that have
worked in the past
•Rigidity
•The tendency to fall into
established or fixed
thought patterns.
•Some examples
are….functional
fixedness
A mental set is a
framework for thinking
about a problem. It can
be shaped by habit or by
desire. Mental sets can
make it easy to solve a
class of problem, but
attachment to the wrong
mental set can inhibit
problem solving.
•A tendency to only see
solutions that have
worked in the past
•Rigidity
•The tendency to fall into
established or fixed
thought patterns.
•Some examples
are….functional
fixedness
A mental set is a
framework for thinking
about a problem. It can
be shaped by habit or by
desire. Mental sets can
make it easy to solve a
class of problem, but
attachment to the wrong
mental set can inhibit
problem solving.
Functional Fixedness
•Type of mental set
•Inability to see an object as having
a function other than its usual one
•Have to unlock the door?
•Use a credit card.
•Tighten a screw without a screwdriver?
• Use a coin !
•Type of mental set
•Inability to see an object as having
a function other than its usual one
•Have to unlock the door?
•Use a credit card.
•Tighten a screw without a screwdriver?
• Use a coin !
Functional Fixedness
The inability to see a new
use for an object.
Think of as many uses
as you can for a ……
The inability to see a new
use for an object.
Think of as many uses
as you can for a ……
Confirmation Bias
•We look for evidence to confirm our beliefs
and ignore evidence that contradicts them.
•For example, many people still believe that
consuming chocolate will cause acne to flare
up in susceptible teenagers, yet this myth was
disapproved nearly half a century ago.
•We look for evidence to confirm our beliefs
and ignore evidence that contradicts them.
•For example, many people still believe that
consuming chocolate will cause acne to flare
up in susceptible teenagers, yet this myth was
disapproved nearly half a century ago.
Framing
•90% of the population will be saved
with this medication…..or
•10% of the population will die despite
this medication.
•You should not drink more than two
drinks per day….or
•You should not drink more than 730
drinks a year.
Look at the following question and think
about how the question is worded may
effect the way it is answered.
•How can businesses become more
socially responsible?
The way a problem is
presented can
drastically effect the
way we view it.
•90% of the population will be saved
with this medication…..or
•10% of the population will die despite
this medication.
•You should not drink more than two
drinks per day….or
•You should not drink more than 730
drinks a year.
Look at the following question and think
about how the question is worded may
effect the way it is answered.
•How can businesses become more
socially responsible?
The way a problem is
presented can
drastically effect the
way we view it.
The Process of Thinking
Technically speaking, thinking refers to the
intermediate stage between stimulus and
response.
Developmentally, a child’s thinking is simpler than
grown ups (who have a lot more cumulative
experiences and exposure to a complicated net
of thinking processes).
Technically speaking, thinking refers to the
intermediate stage between stimulus and
response.
Developmentally, a child’s thinking is simpler than
grown ups (who have a lot more cumulative
experiences and exposure to a complicated net
of thinking processes).
The Process of Thinking
Used in simple way, the word “think” tells us to
remember or reactivate a previously made symbolic
connection between fast driving and fatal accident.
On other hand, the word “think” may refer to highly
rigorous and reflective activity as scientists undertake
when they attempt to solve complex problems.
Used in simple way, the word “think” tells us to
remember or reactivate a previously made symbolic
connection between fast driving and fatal accident.
On other hand, the word “think” may refer to highly
rigorous and reflective activity as scientists undertake
when they attempt to solve complex problems.
The Process of Thinking
Types of Thinking
There are different kinds of thinking based upon
different classifications. The most common
and frequently use types of thinking are as
follows:
6 types are:
There are different kinds of thinking based upon
different classifications. The most common
and frequently use types of thinking are as
follows:
6 types are:
Types of Thinking
1. Critical Thinking
Common understanding leads people to think in
a critical way. It involves:
•Precise, persistent and objective analysis.
•Cognitive strategy consisting of continual
checking and testing the possible solution.
Common understanding leads people to think in
a critical way. It involves:
•Precise, persistent and objective analysis.
•Cognitive strategy consisting of continual
checking and testing the possible solution.
2. Creative Thinking
•This involves divergent thinking.
•It leads to new insights and solutions to a
problems.
•Creative thinking involves several stages.
•This involves divergent thinking.
•It leads to new insights and solutions to a
problems.
•Creative thinking involves several stages.
Creative Thinking
Creative Thinking
•Creative thinking begins with preparation when
relevant information is obtained.
•During incubation stage, no solution is found and ideas
are dormant.
•The third stage is illumination when suddenly the
solution is found to a particular problem.
•Creative thinking begins with preparation when
relevant information is obtained.
•During incubation stage, no solution is found and ideas
are dormant.
•The third stage is illumination when suddenly the
solution is found to a particular problem.
Creative Thinking
•Finally there is evaluation and revision when
solution is re-examined.
•Creativity is often used to refer to mental
processes that lead to solutions, ideas,
conceptualization, artistic forms, theories or
products that are unique.
•Finally there is evaluation and revision when
solution is re-examined.
•Creativity is often used to refer to mental
processes that lead to solutions, ideas,
conceptualization, artistic forms, theories or
products that are unique.
3. Convergent Thinking
•It is the cognitive processing of information
around a common point to bring thoughts from
different directions onto common ground.
• This is true when problems don’t have a single
solution.
•It is associated with critical thinking.
•It is the cognitive processing of information
around a common point to bring thoughts from
different directions onto common ground.
• This is true when problems don’t have a single
solution.
•It is associated with critical thinking.
4. Divergent Thinking
•This type of thinking starts from a common
point and moves outward into a variety of
perspectives.
•This thinking is characterized by a process of
moving away in various directions.
•It is frequently associated with critical thinking.
•This type of thinking starts from a common
point and moves outward into a variety of
perspectives.
•This thinking is characterized by a process of
moving away in various directions.
•It is frequently associated with critical thinking.
5. Inductive Thinking
This is the process of reasoning from parts to
the whole, i.e. from examples to
generalization.
This is the process of reasoning from parts to
the whole, i.e. from examples to
generalization.
6. Deductive Thinking
This type of reasoning moves from the whole to
its parts i.e. from generalization to underlying
concepts to examples.
This type of reasoning moves from the whole to
its parts i.e. from generalization to underlying
concepts to examples.
Types of Thinking
1. Perceptual or Concrete Thinking
This is the simplest form of thinking, the basis of
this type is perception (i.e. interpretation of
sensation according to one’s experience).
It is also called concrete thinking as it is carried
out on the perception of actual or concrete
objects and events.
This is the simplest form of thinking, the basis of
this type is perception (i.e. interpretation of
sensation according to one’s experience).
It is also called concrete thinking as it is carried
out on the perception of actual or concrete
objects and events.
2. Conceptual or Abstract Thinking
Here one makes use of concepts, the
generalized objects and languages, it is
regarded as being superior to perceptual
thinking as it economizes efforts in
understanding and problem - solving.
Here one makes use of concepts, the
generalized objects and languages, it is
regarded as being superior to perceptual
thinking as it economizes efforts in
understanding and problem - solving.
3. Reflective Thinking
This type of thinking aims in solving complex
problems. It requires reorganization of all the
relevant experiences to a situation or
removing obstacles instead of relating with
that experiences or ideas.
This type of thinking aims in solving complex
problems. It requires reorganization of all the
relevant experiences to a situation or
removing obstacles instead of relating with
that experiences or ideas.
Reflective Thinking
This is an insightful cognitive approach in
reflective thinking as the mental activity here
does not involve the mechanical trial and
error type of efforts.
This is an insightful cognitive approach in
reflective thinking as the mental activity here
does not involve the mechanical trial and
error type of efforts.
Reflective Thinking
In this type, thinking processes take all the
relevant facts arranged in a logical order into
an account in order to arrive at a solution of
the problem.
In this type, thinking processes take all the
relevant facts arranged in a logical order into
an account in order to arrive at a solution of
the problem.
4. Creative Thinking
This type of thinking is associated with one’s
ability to create or construct something new,
novel or unusual. It looks for new
relationships and associations to describe and
interpret the nature of things, events and
situations.
This type of thinking is associated with one’s
ability to create or construct something new,
novel or unusual. It looks for new
relationships and associations to describe and
interpret the nature of things, events and
situations.
Creative Thinking
Here the individual himself usually formulates the
evidences and tools for its solution. For
example; scientists, artists or inventors.
Skinner, the famous psychologist says creative
thinking means that the prediction and
inferences for the individual are new, original,
ingenious and unusual.
Here the individual himself usually formulates the
evidences and tools for its solution. For
example; scientists, artists or inventors.
Skinner, the famous psychologist says creative
thinking means that the prediction and
inferences for the individual are new, original,
ingenious and unusual.
Creative Thinking
The creative thinker is one who expresses new
ideas and makes new observations, new
predictions and new inferences.
The creative thinker is one who expresses new
ideas and makes new observations, new
predictions and new inferences.
Characteristics of Creative
Thinking
•Creative thinking, in all its shapes and forms is
absolutely an internal mental process and
hence should be considered as an important
component of one’s cognitive behaviour.
•Every one of us is capable of creative thinking
and hence it is an universal phenomenon.
Thinking
•Creative thinking, in all its shapes and forms is
absolutely an internal mental process and
hence should be considered as an important
component of one’s cognitive behaviour.
•Every one of us is capable of creative thinking
and hence it is an universal phenomenon.
Characteristics of Creative
Thinking
Creative thinking results in the production of
something new or novel including a new form
of arrangement of old elements. It involves
divergent thinking instead of the routine and
final types of convergent thinking.
Thinking
Creative thinking results in the production of
something new or novel including a new form
of arrangement of old elements. It involves
divergent thinking instead of the routine and
final types of convergent thinking.
Characteristics of Creative
Thinking
•The mind must have complete freedom to
wander around to create a new idea.
•The field of creative thinking and its out part is
quite comprehensive and built wide. It covers
all the aspects of human accomplishments
belonging to an individual’s life.
Thinking
•The mind must have complete freedom to
wander around to create a new idea.
•The field of creative thinking and its out part is
quite comprehensive and built wide. It covers
all the aspects of human accomplishments
belonging to an individual’s life.
5. Critical Thinking
It is a type of thinking that helps a person in
stepping aside from his own personal beliefs,
prejudices and opinions to sort out the faiths
and discover the truth, even at the espense of
his basic belief system.
It is a type of thinking that helps a person in
stepping aside from his own personal beliefs,
prejudices and opinions to sort out the faiths
and discover the truth, even at the espense of
his basic belief system.
Critical Thinking
Here one resorts to set higher cognitive abilities
and skills for the proper interpretation,
analysis, evaluation and inference, as well as
explanation of the gathered or communicated
information resulting in a purposeful unbiased
and self - regulatory judgement.
Here one resorts to set higher cognitive abilities
and skills for the proper interpretation,
analysis, evaluation and inference, as well as
explanation of the gathered or communicated
information resulting in a purposeful unbiased
and self - regulatory judgement.
Critical Thinking
An ideal thinker is habitually inquisitive, well -
informed, open - minded, flexible, fair minded
in evaluation, free from personal bias and
prejudices, honest in seeking relevant
information, skilled in the proper use of the
abilities like interpretation, analysis, synthesis,
evaluation and drawing conclusions.
An ideal thinker is habitually inquisitive, well -
informed, open - minded, flexible, fair minded
in evaluation, free from personal bias and
prejudices, honest in seeking relevant
information, skilled in the proper use of the
abilities like interpretation, analysis, synthesis,
evaluation and drawing conclusions.
Critical Thinking
The critical thinking is of a higher order well -
disciplined thought process which involves the
use of cognitive skills (conceptualization,
interpretation, analysis, synthesis and
evaluation) for arriving at an unbiased, valid
and reliable judgement of the information.
The critical thinking is of a higher order well -
disciplined thought process which involves the
use of cognitive skills (conceptualization,
interpretation, analysis, synthesis and
evaluation) for arriving at an unbiased, valid
and reliable judgement of the information.
6. Non -directed or Associative
Thinking
There are times when we find ourselves engaged
in a unique type of thinking which is non
directed and without goal. It is reflected through
dreaming and other free flowing uncontrolled
activities. Psychologically these forms of thought
are termed as associative thinking.
Thinking
There are times when we find ourselves engaged
in a unique type of thinking which is non
directed and without goal. It is reflected through
dreaming and other free flowing uncontrolled
activities. Psychologically these forms of thought
are termed as associative thinking.
Non -directed or Associative
Thinking
Here day dreaming, fantasy and delusions of all
fall in the category of withdrawal behaviour
that helps an individual to escape from the
demands of the real world by making his
thinking face non - directed and floating.
Thinking
Here day dreaming, fantasy and delusions of all
fall in the category of withdrawal behaviour
that helps an individual to escape from the
demands of the real world by making his
thinking face non - directed and floating.
LEVELS OF THINKING
•Different problems involve different levels of
processing or thinking.
•Example, remember a house no or someone’s
telephone number does not require much of an
effort.
•Using Bloom’s Taxonomy 6 levels of thinking
have been identified.
•Different problems involve different levels of
processing or thinking.
•Example, remember a house no or someone’s
telephone number does not require much of an
effort.
•Using Bloom’s Taxonomy 6 levels of thinking
have been identified.
LEVELS OF THINKING
LEVELS OF THINKING
Development of Thinking
Thinking is one of the most important aspects of
learning process. Our ability to learn and solve
the problems depends upon our ability to
think correctly which helps us in adjustment
and is necessary for a successful living.
Thinking is one of the most important aspects of
learning process. Our ability to learn and solve
the problems depends upon our ability to
think correctly which helps us in adjustment
and is necessary for a successful living.
Development of Thinking
Only those men who can think distinctly,
constructively and carefully can contribute
something worthwhile to the society.
As no person is born thinker, one has to acquire
knowledge of technique and practice proper
thinking.
Only those men who can think distinctly,
constructively and carefully can contribute
something worthwhile to the society.
As no person is born thinker, one has to acquire
knowledge of technique and practice proper
thinking.
Methods of Development of
Thinking
Thinking
Development of Thinking
Children possess beginnings of the development of
cognitive skills as they are only able to direct
their attention but lack the other necessary skills
needed for a higher level of thinking. On the
other hand, mature thinkers have a variety of
higher skills to perform various kinds of functions
such as attaining goals, monitoring a process etc.
Children possess beginnings of the development of
cognitive skills as they are only able to direct
their attention but lack the other necessary skills
needed for a higher level of thinking. On the
other hand, mature thinkers have a variety of
higher skills to perform various kinds of functions
such as attaining goals, monitoring a process etc.
Development of Thinking
Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980), a biologist, studied the
development of children’s understanding
through talking with, listening to and observing
them while they worked on exercises he set.
He was able to study and develop theories which
have been influential.
Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980), a biologist, studied the
development of children’s understanding
through talking with, listening to and observing
them while they worked on exercises he set.
He was able to study and develop theories which
have been influential.
Development of Thinking
Piaget put forth the idea that thinking in children
does not develop absolutely smoothly and that
the transitions take place at about 18 months, 7
years and 11 or 12 years. Piagets’s approach is of
prime importance to “cognitive constructive.”
The stages of thinking and main features are as
follows:-
Piaget put forth the idea that thinking in children
does not develop absolutely smoothly and that
the transitions take place at about 18 months, 7
years and 11 or 12 years. Piagets’s approach is of
prime importance to “cognitive constructive.”
The stages of thinking and main features are as
follows:-
Development of Thinking
Development of Thinking
Sensory Motor Stage
•The child is able to differentiate self from
others.
•The child begins to recognize himself as an
agent of action and begins to act intentionally
•The child realizes that things continue to exist
even when no longer present to the sense.
•The child is able to differentiate self from
others.
•The child begins to recognize himself as an
agent of action and begins to act intentionally
•The child realizes that things continue to exist
even when no longer present to the sense.
Pre – Operational Stage
•The child learns to use language and to
represent objects by images and words
•The child is egocentric and finds it difficult to
take the viewpoints of others
•The child develops the ability to classify
objects according to a single feature.
•The child learns to use language and to
represent objects by images and words
•The child is egocentric and finds it difficult to
take the viewpoints of others
•The child develops the ability to classify
objects according to a single feature.
Concrete Operational Stage
•The child begins to think logically about
objects and events
•The child begins to achieve the concept of
conservation of number, mass and weight
•The child develops the ability to classify
objects according to several feaatures
•The child begins to think logically about
objects and events
•The child begins to achieve the concept of
conservation of number, mass and weight
•The child develops the ability to classify
objects according to several feaatures
Formal Operational Stage
•The child can think in a logical manner about
abstract thing and go about testing his/her
own hypotheses
•The child begins to feel concerned with the
hypothetical, the future and iodeological
problems
•The child can think in a logical manner about
abstract thing and go about testing his/her
own hypotheses
•The child begins to feel concerned with the
hypothetical, the future and iodeological
problems
Communication
The word “Communication” has been derived
from a Latin word which implies “common
with someone or something.”
Usually a person communicates a thought, an
idea, or a concept to another human being.
The word “Communication” has been derived
from a Latin word which implies “common
with someone or something.”
Usually a person communicates a thought, an
idea, or a concept to another human being.
Communication
Lev Vygotsky provides good insight into stages
of language development, and they are:
1. The non-intellectual or thoughtless speech
that develops into a naive stage in which the
symbolic functions of words are acquired.
Lev Vygotsky provides good insight into stages
of language development, and they are:
1. The non-intellectual or thoughtless speech
that develops into a naive stage in which the
symbolic functions of words are acquired.
Communication
2.. The egocentric language stage where young
children happily talk about what they are doing
even though no one is interested or is listening.
3. The inner speech stage where children are
able to manipulate thoughts using soundless
speech.
2.. The egocentric language stage where young
children happily talk about what they are doing
even though no one is interested or is listening.
3. The inner speech stage where children are
able to manipulate thoughts using soundless
speech.
Communication
According to Vygotsky, these processes occur as
children grow older and move from one stage
to another wherein they old processes get
destroyed and are replaced by new ones that
get constructed.
During the last stage of development, language
and thinking become interdependent.
According to Vygotsky, these processes occur as
children grow older and move from one stage
to another wherein they old processes get
destroyed and are replaced by new ones that
get constructed.
During the last stage of development, language
and thinking become interdependent.
Communication
Communication involves conveying or transmitting
meaning from one person to another person.
Thus, all communications involve a sender, a
message, a communication channel and a
receiver. Communication takes place in an
environment where noise may interfere with the
process of communication.
Communication involves conveying or transmitting
meaning from one person to another person.
Thus, all communications involve a sender, a
message, a communication channel and a
receiver. Communication takes place in an
environment where noise may interfere with the
process of communication.
Communication
The recipient of a message often provides
feedback about the message received. In the
health care set-up, communication with
patients is very crucial.
Infact communication is central to everyday life
in formal, informal, personal and social
settings.
The recipient of a message often provides
feedback about the message received. In the
health care set-up, communication with
patients is very crucial.
Infact communication is central to everyday life
in formal, informal, personal and social
settings.
Communication
The messages to communicate can be verbal or
nonverbal:-
•Verbal messages can be in writing or by way of
speaking
•Nonverbal messages are in the form of body
language, facial language, facial expression, eye
contact, physical distance and intonation.
The messages to communicate can be verbal or
nonverbal:-
•Verbal messages can be in writing or by way of
speaking
•Nonverbal messages are in the form of body
language, facial language, facial expression, eye
contact, physical distance and intonation.
Communication
In this way, communication may entail a mixture
of verbal and nonverbal messages along with a
blend of written and spoken communication.
It has been found that body language (body
movements and postures) provide more
significant information than other nonverbal
cues.
In this way, communication may entail a mixture
of verbal and nonverbal messages along with a
blend of written and spoken communication.
It has been found that body language (body
movements and postures) provide more
significant information than other nonverbal
cues.
Communication
“Actions speak louder than words”
is a common saying used that gives importance
to non verbal communication
“Actions speak louder than words”
is a common saying used that gives importance
to non verbal communication
Principles of Effective
Communication
1.Effective speaking
2.Effective listening
3.Empathy
Communication
1.Effective speaking
2.Effective listening
3.Empathy
THANKS
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