Unit -2: Major approaches to the study of Political Obligation a. Classical Approaches - Hobbes, John Locke and J. J. Rousseau b. Modern Approaches - Max Weber, Max Emile Durkheimand J S Mill c. Why people ought to obey the state

Unit -2: Major approaches to the study of Political Obligation
a. Classical Approaches - Hobbes, John Locke and J. J. Rousseau
b. Modern Approaches - Max Weber, Max Emile Durkheimand J S Mill
c. Why people ought to obey the state

1. UNIT – II Major Approaches to Study of Political Obligation

2. a) Classical Approaches Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) • Human nature (Individual), state of nature (Society/State) → need of Contract. • Formation of Contract • Rights of People / nature of authority in state. Hobbes was a British Philosopher & belonged to the troubled phase of British history. He witnessed anarchy and the Puritan Revolution. During his time, there were three struggles: (a) Protestant and Catholics (b) Royalist and Parliamentarian (c) Feudal Class & Capitalist

3. Hobbes emphasized Order; he wanted to end anarchy, establishment of peace and order in society was his core concern. He was the first Modern Political Thinker as he emphasized understanding the Nation State. Sovereignty is the most defining element of state—the supreme power of law-making in all modern states. State not only has supremacy of law but also monopoly over police power within state. Hobbes belongs to the school of Materialism. He also believes that man is materialist by nature. He laid the foundation of Utilitarianism and is also an absolutist (authority of state is absolute, people have no right against state). He is also a great individualist & belongs to the tradition of social contract.

4. Work of Hobbes: • Thucydides II (1628) • Two essays: human nature & corporate politics (1640) • Elements of Law (1650) • De Corpore Politics (1655) Hobbes describes human nature in terms of practical experiences and says that fear is the subjection of one to another. At. De Homine (1659), Leviathan (1651): • Part I: Of Man • Part II: Of Common Wealth • Part III: Of Christian Commonwealth • Part IV: Of the Kingdom of Darkness`

5. Human Nature: Hobbes states that there is a general inclination in all mankind for perpetual and restless desire for power, after power which ceases only in death. Fear and desire were born together. By using the Resolutive Composite method, Hobbes projected that man is utilitarian by nature, pleasure & pain are two basic emotions in human mind. Man has continuous desire for power & hence always in search of power that ends only with his death. Man hates death, specifically accidental death, because of losing the scope for pleasure; hence, man values & protects life

6. State of Nature The state of nature is (anarchy), might is right—a situation depicting life in absence of state or before. State of War: The state of nature is/state of war all against all since man is utilitarian & individualistic and always seeks for power. In the state of nature, there is no security of life, hence no scope for the good life, no distinction of right or wrong, just or unjust, no power over man, no such thing as private property—only force & fraud. Hobbes gives the theory that state of nature will be state of war.

7. Contract To avoid pain & enjoy pleasure, people come into contract: “I authorize and give up my right of governing myself to this man or assembly and authorize him in like condition you give-up.” All people in the contract transfer all of their sovereignty to a third party—that is, the State—thus it becomes sovereign. State represents the conflicting will of everyone. Individuals are powerless in a state.

8. Law Hobbes belongs to the school of positive law. Natural law is as per reason, and its characters are: (a) Emerge from definite source (Sovereign) (b) Enforcement of law & contracts (c) Establishment of state as sovereign As per Hobbes, only organized, peaceful, and social life is possible till sovereign authority remains in existence. He talks on state absolutism; that is, if state law exists, man or any other association will have no freedom to act according to his own choice. Man is selfish by nature; self-interest is the mainspring of human nature. Man wants pleasure, power gives pleasure, so life of man is a continuous search of power

9. 2. . John Locke (1632-1704) John Locke was a British philosopher; he witnessed the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89 (transformation of absolute monarchy into parliamentary democracy) and hence got a more optimistic view of human nature. He is known as father of Liberalism, supported limited state, and also considered father of Theory of Natural Rights and theory of separation of powers. In his first book, Locke criticized Filmer’s Patriarcha , a representative of god, for giving divine rights theory (state is created by god & king is the representative of god on earth and enjoys absolute authority). Locke gives the theory of limited state & states that government does not have original powers but only delegated powers. He states that even in state of nature, man does not harm each other.

10. Human Nature & State of Nature: Locke’s view is that human nature is balanced; he accepts man is self-centered but has reason, not to harm other people. “Reason teaches man that being all equal & independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, possession!” Locke states that the state of nature is the state of peace, goodwill, mutual assistance, preservation. According to Locke, the state of nature is a state of peace but there are some inconveniences: (a) No common authority to make law (b) No judge to execute law (c) Reason may fail & passion dominate; if this happens, the state of peace will be destroyed

11. So, there were two contracts: • The first contract was the formation of civil society • The second contract created civil government In the first contract, all members of society enter into the contract with each other and there is formal recognition of each others' rights. In the second contract, people have transferred only three powers to government: (a) Right to make law (b) Right to execute law (c) Right to adjudicate

12. Three inalienable rights of man (life, liberty & property) are given by nature, and hence state can't take them away but only protect them. Locke states that creation of state is not a necessity, but a matter of convenience. Locke focuses on man’s right to property. Property is part of man’s labor & personality, and hence both are inalienable. Locke’s three limitations on man's right to property: (a) Property should be a product of labor (b) Everyone should have equal right to property (c) Property is sacred & hence must not be spoiled

13. Locke has given the right to revolution—right to peaceful change of persons in power. Civil government requires the consent of people, which is expressed through election. Locke suggested that ruling class should give religious freedom to the people.

14. 3. J. J. Rousseau (1712-1778) Rousseau lived at the time when the absolutist feudal order presided over by Louis XV reigned France. Rousseau believed that the problem with modern man is that he had lost touch with his feelings. He was known as the intellectual father of French revolution, and it is his thinking—equality, fraternity and liberty of French Revolution derived from him. Rousseau was the first thinker to blame society for man not having good life if he lives in a corrupt society. According to Karl Marx, Rousseau is thinker of Bourgeoisie class. Rousseau criticized science, reason, modernity & civilization. He was the first person to suggest that man is essentially good; what needs to change is society, and due to formation of civil society, man lost his freedom, hence to regain freedom there is need of new social order.

15. The central concern of Rousseau’s philosophy is reconciliation between freedom & authority. Rousseau gave the important concept of general will. Human Nature: According to Rousseau, man is essentially good. He has self-love as well as sympathy for his fellow beings. He describes human nature in state of nature as “Noble savage” (uncivilized), though man was uncivilized, yet man is noble. Reason in man made him deprived; with private property, the equality and feeling of mine & thine started, man lost freedom in civil society. Since Rousseau is scholar of capitalist class he held that with reason, man became calculating man—calculating profit & loss. Pleasure & pain.

16. State of Nature: In the state of nature, man acted as per his choice or will. No civilization, science, or chains—Free Will. Men had capacity to determine their choices, and action was based on instinct since man is essentially good & noble savage, was self-preserving & had pity (both self-love and sympathy). Man had free will & self-improvement tendencies, resulting in “Perfectibility” in state of nature. “Man is born free but everywhere in chains”—meaning, restriction on human freedom by society; hence need of social contract to get back freedom. Though Rousseau critiqued ‘civil society’, he did not suggest man to choose savage existence. “Each of us puts his person & all his power in common under the general will, and, in our corporate capacity, we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole.”

17. Social Contract: Creates equality among men, ensures freedom, entails surrendering one's rights to the entire community, gives objective moral dimension to actions. According to Rousseau, two types of will: (a) Original (Real will; good, spontaneous will) (b) Actual will (selfish, perverted will) Actual will puts man into chains; real will makes man free and happy. Man must live according to real (original) will to regain freedom; sum of all real wills is general will. General will is sum of good/original wills—all persons in a contract, everyone agree to act with their original will while making laws. Objective of Rousseau’s contract is to regain freedom for human; he is promoter of direct democracy, importance to liberty & freedom rather than restrictions. Private property responsible for inequality; Rousseau says private property is essential for good life, hence he is not socialist but liberal in true sense.

18. b) Modern Approaches (1864–1920) Max Weber Prominent German Sociologist and Political Economist; influential in modern approach. Weber wrote comprehensive analysis of agrarian problems of German east. Concerned with objectivity in social sciences; ideal type scrutinizes, classifies, systematizes, and defines social reality without subjective bias. Major Works: • “The Protestant Ethic & the Spirit of Capitalism” (1905): Relationship between Protestantism & rise of Capitalism. • “The City” (1912): Historical development of cities, social structures, urbanization’s impact. • “The Sociology of Religion” (1922): Role of religion in shaping social structures, norms & values. • “General Economic History” (1923): Analyzed historical periods, economic systems. • “Theory of Social & Economic Organization” (1938): Discussed bureaucracy, authority, etc.

19. Power: Power is the probability that one actor within a social relationship will be in position to carry out his own will despite resistance. Power is the chance of men or number of men to realize their own will in communal action, even against resistance of others. Weber says power cannot be restricted to battlefield or politics; it can be exercised in all walks of life. Sources of Power: (a) Derived from constellation of interests (in free markets) (b) Established system of authority that allocates right to command & duty to obey Three Independent Orders: (a) Economic (b) Social (c) Political

20. State of Nature: In the state of nature, man acted as per his choice or will. No civilization, science, or chains—Free Will. Men had capacity to determine their choices, and action was based on instinct since man is essentially good & noble savage, was self-preserving & had pity (both self-love and sympathy). Man had free will & self-improvement tendencies, resulting in “Perfectibility” in state of nature. “Man is born free but everywhere in chains”—meaning, restriction on human freedom by society; hence need of social contract to get back freedom. Though Rousseau critiqued ‘civil society’, he did not suggest man to choose savage existence. “Each of us puts his person & all his power in common under the general will, and, in our corporate capacity, we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole.”

21. Legitimacy (Consent of People): Three bases: (a) Traditional – authority of British monarch (b) Charismatic – personality basis (c) Rational-legal – based on law Study of legitimacy useful for understanding complexities of political systems. Authority possesses legitimacy—right to command. Weber uses “Herrschaft” (master); a situation where master dominates or commands others. Authority refers to legitimized power; master has right to command. Types of Social Action: (a) Zweckrational: Rational to achieve goal (b) Wertrational : Rational, working for country (c) Affective: Emotional state of mind (d) Traditional: Determined by customs & beliefs

22. Types of Authority: (a) Traditional: Based on ancient traditions, rulers enjoy authority by inherited status. (b) Charismatic: Extraordinary qualities, powers to capture devotion; authority based on beliefs in supernatural or magical powers; not dependent on rules, but on personal qualities. (c) Rational-legal: Vested in system of regular administrative staff operating under written rules & laws; those exercising authority are appointed on basis of prescribed qualifications. Bureaucracy is the machinery through which rational-legal authority is carried out. Bureaucracy Features: 1. Relies on fixed rules & regulations 2. Activities distributed among officials 3. Stable system with officials vested with authority 4. Strict procedures to ensure adequate performance 5. Hierarchy of officials 6. Management through written documents 7. Highly specialized staff, trained accordingly 8. Bureaucratic officials enjoy high status

23. Rationality & Rationalization: Contemporary world characterized by rationality. To Weber, rationalization means everything mastered by calculation & reason; no mysterious, incalculable forces—logic dominates. Calvinism & Modern Capitalism: Protestant Ethics (Calvinism): 1. Glory of God 2. Doctrine of Predestination 3. Asceticism – self discipline Notion of calling – all work sacred Spirit of Capitalism (Modern): 1. Wealth creation 2. Individualism – hard work & innovation 3. Profit for unlimited accumulation 4. Ethics – “Time is Money” “Work is worship”

24. Karl Marx (1818–1883) Born at Trier in Rhineland (Prussia) in a Jewish Family. Influences: (a) Hegel – dialectical idealism ("ideas" move history) Marx borrowed dialectical method but applied to material conditions of life. (b) Ricardo – labor theory of value (c) French Revolution – socialism (d) Louis Blanc – talked about socialism (e) Adam Smith – Criticized laissez-faire policy Major Works: • Communist Manifesto (1848, with Engels): Foundation for communist theory, historical materialism, revolution • Das Kapital (1867): Materialist philosophy, critique of political economy • Other works: The 18th Brumaire, Poverty & Philosophy, Economic & Philosophical Manuscripts

25. Key Principles: (a) Historical Materialism (b) Dialectical Materialism (c) Class Struggle (d) Analysis of Capitalism (e) Revolution (f) Socialism (g) Communism Marxian socialism aims at establishing communism—a classless & stateless society ("end product" of Marxist revolution). Origin of Society: Society begins with division of labor & man enters for production & satisfaction. Primitive society: Hunters & gatherers; basic structure is economic/material. Base & Superstructure Model: Base: economic relations; Superstructure: political, family, institutions (reflect the base)

26. Those who own means of production (haves) vs. have nots; religion & nationalism are described as "false consciousness". True freedom means freedom from basic necessity & communism provides that. Economy is the basic structure; other institutions reflect it, work in its interests. Concept of Class: (a) Class-in-itself: Situation of low level of consciousness (b) Class-for-itself: Class aware, united against exploiters Dialectical Materialism: Methodology: Thesis–Antithesis–Synthesis; truth emerges by resolving contradictions. Hegel applied dialectics to history, but Marx applies it materially—how society changes. Describes movement from hunter-gatherer to agriculture, villages, towns, cities, feudalism, capitalism.

27. Stages of History by Marx: a. Primitive Communism (pre-historic) b. Ancient Greek Society (slavery): master vs. slave c. Medieval Society (feudal): lord vs. serf d. Capitalism: capitalist vs. worker e. Socialism (after revolution): dictatorship of proletariat f. Communism: classless, stateless, equality & freedom; state and class fade away All human history explained in terms of changes in mode of production & exchange. Marx on Political Obligation: Stage 1: Pre-revolutionary—obligation in favor of capitalist class Stage 2: During revolution—no obligation to obey state Stage 3: Dictatorship of proletariat—obligation to support proletariat Stage 4: Communism—state withers away; obligation becomes social (freedom & equality)

28. Emile Durkheim (1858–1917) French sociologist; possible to develop scientific study of society. Major Works: • Division of Labour • Religion • Suicide • Educational & morals Emphasized two types of social solidarity: Mechanical Solidarity: Traditional societies, similar values/beliefs, strong collective conscience Organic Solidarity: Modern societies, individuals interdependent due to division of labor; fosters social cohesion Role of the State: State is crucial for maintaining social order and cohesion. State represents the collective conscience, has authority to enforce laws.

29. Moral Authority & Political Delegation: Individuals obey state not just out of fear, but recognizing state's role in upholding collective values & ensuring stability. Collective Conscience: Shared beliefs & values essential for social integration; state's legitimacy comes from its ability to embody & enforce this. "Anomie": State of normlessness during rapid social change/crisis; state helps restore order. Bureaucracy & Modern State: Durkheim emphasizes role of bureaucracy in modern states. Social Fact: Way of acting, thinking, or feeling, general in given society. Types: (a) Structural/Morphological elements (b) Institutionalized facts (laws, morals, religion) (c) Non-institutionalized facts (public opinion, crowd reactions) (d) Pathological facts (deviations)

30. Division of Labor: As population density increases, interaction increases, leading to specialized functions, mutual dependence, social cohesion, autonomy. In traditional society: • Mechanical solidarity; shared belief/identity In modern society: • Organic solidarity; differences and specialization hold society together Collective Conscience: Body of common beliefs, sentiments throughout society gives social purpose, structures life. Durkheim discusses Morality in 4 types: (a) Individual: duties to oneself (b) Domestic: duties to family (c) Civil: duties to those in same territory (community) (d) Social: relations of man with man

31. John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) Mill belongs to time of transition—people realized negative consequences of classical liberalism (negative liberty), not welfare state. Pupil of Jeremy Bentham, who gave utilitarianism theory and distinguished pain & pleasure. Mill’s ideas based on respect for individual rights & protection of individual rights, a modified version of utilitarianism—quality of pleasures, not just quantity. He believed in liberty, that utilitarian goods could be achieved only by developing a good society & promotion of liberal values. Mill on Utilitarianism: Individualism & human liberty, cardinal for democracy; survival & safeguarding individuals. “He followed Bentham: ‘Greatest happiness of greatest number’—divided two governance wise (pain & pleasure). Bentham: ‘Take away all pleasures & pains & you have no desire & without desire there is no action.’” Mill criticized Bentham’s philosophy for neglecting individual character. Emphasized happiness, dignity, moral virtues, perfection of human nature, cultivation of moral virtues, total control over appetites & interests.

32. Aspects of human action: (a) Moral (b) Aesthetic (c) Sympathetic Regarded self-development & diversity as ultimate ends, important for human happiness. Individual is best judge of his own interests, must be given conditions for fuller development. Mill’s idea of freedom & defense of liberty: Freedom enables formation of one’s character, not metaphysical quality of mind; only in self-preservation can individuals be coerced, otherwise must be granted largest freedom for self-development. If clash between opinion of individual & community, individual is the ultimate judge unless convinced by community. Essentially defended liberty of action in self-regarding sphere because coercion is detrimental to self-development.

33. Four reasons: (a) Evils of coercion outweigh good achieved (b) Individuals diverse in needs/capacities for happiness; uniformity is futile (c) Diversity is good and should be encouraged (d) Freedom most important requirement for rational person Emphasized freedom of speech—important for full development, social utility. Four points in favor: (a) If suppressed opinion is right, humankind deprived of benefit (b) Truth emerges from conflict of opposing views (c) Freedom of expression can show right is wrong (d) Prevailing views may need opposition to reinforce truth, avoid becoming inert clichés Mill’s views on democracy: • Democracy is ideal form due to freedom of speech & expression • Prefers direct democracy, accepts representative democracy in complex societies

34. Mill on despotism: • Despotism legitimate for "barbarians" for their improvement. Democracy is hard-earned after struggles, not a free gift. Proposed reforms: 1. Weighted reform 2. Proportional Representation 3. Right to vote & Open Ballot System Mill on subjection of women: • After Plato, advocated equality of women in public sphere • Liberalism extended to defend liberty of action and equality of women • Attempted to pass legislation allowing women to vote Recognized limitations of classical utilitarian liberalism; supported state intervention (such as compulsory education). Described himself as socialist, diverged from Bentham.

35. Why People Ought to Obey the State Key Theories & Perspectives: 1. Transactional Accounts: Political obligation arises from transactions/agreements between people & state: • Fairness: cooperative scheme providing services & benefits; debt of gratitude towards state for protection/benefits. • Consent: Political obligation arises from express or implicit consent to government. 2. Natural Duty: Obligation derived from general moral duty to support just institutions; includes obeying law if it leads to greatest good (utilitarianism), supporting rights-protecting institutions.