Unit II Engineering Ethics (GE8076 Professional Ethics in Engineering)

GE8076 Professional Ethics in Engineering

1. GE8076 Professional Ethics
in Engineering
UNIT II
by
Dr. S. Selvaganesan Ph.D.(Malaysia)
Professor & HoD / IT

3. UNIT II
Engineering Ethics
UNITII
Sensesof‘EngineeringEthics’–Varietyof
moralissues–Typesofinquiry–Moral
dilemmas–MoralAutonomy–Kohlberg’s
theory–Gilligan’stheory–Consensusand
Controversy – Professions and
Professionalism–ProfessionalIdealsand
Virtues–UsesofEthicalTheories

4. Engineering Ethics
EngineeringEthics:
•Concernedwiththerulesandstandards
governingtheconductofengineersintheirrole
asprofessionals.
•Abodyofphilosophyguidingthewaysthat
engineersshouldconductthemselvesintheir
professionalcapacity.
EngineeringBodies:
AeronauticalSocietyofIndia(AeSI)
ComputerSocietyofIndia(CSI)
OpticalSocietyofIndia(OSI)[4]
TheInstitutionofEngineers(India)(IEI)
InstitutionofElectronicsandTelecommunicationEngineers(IETE)
IndianInstituteofChemicalEngineers(IIChe)
IndianInstitutionofIndustrialEngineering(IIIE)
SocietyofEMCEngineers(India)(SEMCE(I))
IndianSocietyforTechnicalEducation(ISTE)
IndianScienceCongressAssociation(ISCA)
InstitutionofMechanicalEngineersIndia(IME(I))
TheInstitutionofBiomedicalEngineers(India)(IBEI)

5. Engineering Ethics
WhatisEngineeringEthics?
•EngineeringEthicsistheActivityanddiscipline
aimedat
•Understandingmoralvaluesthatoughtto
guideengineeringprofessionorpractice
•Resolvingmoralissuesinengineering,and
•Justifyingthemoraljudgmentsinengineering
•Engineeringethicsisdefinedbythecodesand
standardsofconductendorsedbyengineering
(professional)societieswithrespecttothe
particularsetofbeliefs,attitudesandhabits
displayedbyindividualorgroup.

6. Engineering Ethics
WhatisEngineeringEthics?(Contd.)
AnotherimportantgoalofEngineeringEthicsis
Discoveryofthesetofjustifiedmoralprinciplesof
obligation,rightsandidealsthatoughttobeendorsedby
theengineersandapplythemtoconcretesituations.
Engineeringisthelargestprofession;Decisionsand
actionsofengineersaffectallofusinalmostallareas
ofourlives,namely,publicsafety,health,andwelfare.
TheConceptofEngineeringEthicsisnotapplicable
onlyforengineers.
Appliedtootherswhoengageinanytechnologicalenterprises
(Scientists,Technicians,TechnicalWriters,Supervisors,Sales
Staff,Lawyers,Doctorsetc.)

7. Engineering Ethics
EngineeringEthicsVsProfessionalEthics
Bothareinterchangeable.
Professionalethicsiswiderinscopethanthe
engineeringethics
Engineeringethicsisapartofprofessionalethics.
ProfessionalEthicsisthedisciplineaimedat
understandingthemoralvaluesthatoughttoguide
allprofessionalpractices,includingengineering,
medicine,lawandotherpractices.
EngineeringEthicsreferstothesetofspecific
moralproblemsandissuesrelatedtoengineering
professiononly.

8. Engineering Ethics
AimsinStudyingEngineeringEthics(WhyStudy
EngineeringEthics)
1.Stimulating the moral
imagination
2.Recognizing ethical
issues
3.Developing analytical
skills
4.Drawing out a sense
of responsibility
Ethical Requirements Vs.
Ethical Ideals
5.Addressing unclarity,
uncertainty, and
disagreement
Figure 1: Aims in Studying Engineering Ethics

9. Scope of Engineering Ethics
ScopeofEngineeringEthics
Ethicsoftheworkplacewhichinvolvestheco-
workersandemployeesinanorganization
Ethicsrelatedtotheproductorworkwhich
involvesthetransportation,warehousing,anduse,
besidesthesafetyoftheendproductandthe
environmentoutsidethefactory.

10. Approaches in the study of
ethics
Twoapproaches
Micro-ethics:dealswithdecisionsand
problemsofindividuals,professionals,and
companies.
Macro-ethics:dealswiththesocialproblems
onaregional/nationallevel.

11. Sense of Engineering Ethics
Therearetwodifferentsenses(meanings)of
engineeringethics,namely,NORMATIVE and
DESCRIPTIVEsenses.
NormativeSenseincludesthefollowing:
1.Knowingmoralvalues,findingaccuratesolutionsto
moralproblems,andjustifyingmoraljudgmentsin
engineeringpractices.
2.Studyofdecisions,policies,andvaluesthatare
morallydesirableintheengineeringpracticeand
research,and
3.Usingcodesofethicsandstandardsandapplying
themintheirtransactionsbyengineers.

12. Sense of Engineering Ethics
DescriptiveSensereferstowhatspecific
individualorgroupofengineersbelieveandact,
withoutjustifyingtheirbeliefsoractions.

13. Morality
AccordingtotheOxforddictionary,moralitymeansprinciples
concerningrightandwrongorgoodandbadbehavior.
Theterm‘morality’isconcernedwith
(a)whatoughtoroughtnottobegiveninagiven
situation,
(b)whatisrightorwronginhandlingit,
(c)whatisgoodorbadaboutthepersons,policiesand
principlesinvolvedinit.

14. Morality
Moralreasonsarerequiredtosupportanact(oranidea)tobe
calledasmorallyrightact.
Whataremoralreasons?
Respectingothersandourselves
Respectingtherightofothers
Keepingpromisestoothers
Avoidingunnecessaryoffenceandpaintoothers
Avoidingcheatinganddishonesty
Showinggratitudeforfavortoothers
Encouragingteamwork.

15. Variety of Moral Issues
Twoapproaches
•Micro-ethics:dealswithdecisionsandproblemsof
individuals,professionals,andcompanies.
•Macro-ethics:dealswiththesocialproblemsona
regional/nationallevel.

16. Variety of Moral Issues
WhereandHowdoMoralProblemsAriseinEngineering?
Engineerscarryoutvariousactivitiesanddecision-making
exercisesinvolvingtechnical,financial,managerial,
environmentalandethicalissues.
Therearemanysituationsandmoralissuesthatcause
professionaldisagreementsamongengineers.

17. Variety of Moral Issues
Varietyofmoralissuesandtheirrelationshipwithother
issuesaredepictedinthefollowingfigure.
1.Organization oriented
Issues
2.Clients or Customers
oriented Issues
3.Competitors oriented
Issues
4.Law, Govtand Public
oriented Issues
5.Professional Societies
oriented Issues
6.Social and Environmental
oriented Issues
7.Family oriented Issues

18. Variety of Moral Issues
1.OrganizationorientedIssues
•Beinganemployeetoafirm,theengineerhastoworktowards
theachievementoftheobjectivesofhis/herorganization.
•Engineershavetogivehigherprioritytothebenefitsofthe
organizationthanone’sownbenefits.
•Engineersshouldbeabletoworkcollectivelywithcolleaguesand
othermembersinordertoachievefirm’sgoals.
2.ClientsorcustomersorientedIssues
•Thecustomer’srequirementsshouldbemet.
•Engineershaveamajorroletoplayinidentifyingthe‘customer
voice’,andincorporatingthevoiceofthecustomerintothe
productdesignandmanufacture.
•Apartfromengineeringtechnicalityissues,engineersalsoshould
faceothermoralandethicalissueswithclients/customers.

19. Variety of Moral Issues
3.CompetitorsorientedIssues
•Inordertowithstandinamarket,engineersshouldproducethings
betterthantheircompetitorsbyallmeans.
•Butengineersshouldnotpracticecut-throatcompetition.They
shouldfollowcertainprofessionalbehaviorwhilefacingtheir
competitors.
•Engineersshouldholdparamountthesafety,healthandwelfareof
thecustomersintheperformanceoftheirprofessionalduties.
4.Law,GovernmentandPublicAgenciesorientedIssues
•Theengineersshouldobeyandvoluntarilycomplywithallthe
governmentrulesandregulationsrelatedtothem.
•Theyshouldalsorespectandhonestlypracticeallothersimilar
laws,policiesandregulations.

20. Variety of Moral Issues
5.ProfessionalSocietiesorientedIssues
•Theengineersshouldfollowstrictlythevariouscodesofethicsby
variousprofessionalsocietiesinordertoperformstandard
professionalbehavior.
6.SocialandEnvironmentalorientedIssues
•Sincetheworksofengineershaveadirectandvitalimpactonthe
qualityoflifeforallpeople,theengineersshouldbededicatedto
theprotectionofthepublichealth,safetyandwelfare.
•Alsoengineersneedtobeawaretheirroleasagentsof
experimenters.Theyshouldhaveaunitedcommitmentin
protectingtheenvironment.
7.FamilyorientedIssues
•Asahumanbeingandthememberofafamily,theengineersdo
havethefamilyobligationstotakecareoftheneedsoftheir
familymembers.

21. Types of Inquiry
Engineeringethicscombinesinquiries
intovalues,meanings,andfacts.
Inordertofindsolutionto‘moral
dilemma’,inquiriesarebeingmade.
Inengineeringethics,threetypesof
inquiry
•NormativeInquiries
•ConceptualInquiries
•Factualinquiries

22. NormativeInquiries
Theseinquiriesaremostlyhelpfulto
identifythevalueswhichguidethe
individualsandgroupsintakinga
decision.
Thesearemeantforidentifyingand
justifyingsomenormsandstandardsof
morallydesirablenatureforguiding
individualsaswellasgroups.
Normative Inquiries

23. Normative Inquiry
1.Howdotheobligationsofengineersprotectthe
publicsafetyingivensituations?
2.Whenshouldanengineerhavetoalarmtheir
employersondangerouspractices?
3.Wherearethelawsandorganizational
proceduresthataffectengineeringpracticeon
moralissues?
4.Wherearethemoralrightsessentialfor
engineerstofulfilltheirprofessionalobligations?
Fromthesequestions,itisclearthatnormative
inquiriesalsohavethetheoreticalgoalof
justifyingmoraljudgments.

24. ConceptualInquiries
Thesearemeantfordescribingthe
meaningofconcepts,principles,and
issuesrelatedtoEngineeringEthics.
Theseinquiriesalsoexplainwhetherthe
conceptsandideasareexpressedby
singlewordorbyphrases.
Conceptual Inquiries

25. Conceptual Inquiries
1.Whatisthesafetyandhowitisrelatedto
risk?
2.Whatdoesitmeanwhencodesofethics
sayengineersshouldprotectthesafety,
healthandwelfareofthepublic?
3.Whatisa‘bribe’?
4.Whatisa‘profession’and
‘professional’?

26. FactualInquiries
Knownas‘descriptiveorexploratory’inquiries.
Helpfultoprovidefactsrequiredforunderstandingand
resolvingvaluesissues.
Researchersandengineersusetheseinquiriestoget
variousinformationsuchasthehistoryofengg.
Profession,theeffectivenessofprofessionalsocieties.
Theabove-obtainedinformationthroughfactualinquiries
providesanunderstandingofthebackgroundconditions
thatgeneratemoralproblems.
Allthesefactualinquiriesarehelpfulinsolvingmoral
problemsbyusingalternativewaysofsolutions.
Thus,factualinquiriesarehelpfulinunderstandingthe
business,social,andpoliticalrealitiesinwhichthe
companyoperates
Factual Inquiries

27. MoralDilemmas
•MoralDilemmasaresituationsinwhichtwo
ormoremoralobligations,duties,rights,
goods,oridealscomeintoconflictwitheach
other.
•Thecrucialfeatureofamoraldilemmaisthat
allthemoralprinciplescannotbefully
respectedinagivensituation.
•Alsosolvingonemoralprinciplecancreate
twoormoreconflictingapplicationsfora
particularsituation.
Moral Dilemma

28. CausesofmoralDilemmas
•Moraldilemmasaresituations,mostly,
duetothefollowingthreeproblems.
1.ProblemofVagueness
2.ProblemofConflictingreasons
3.Problemofdisagreement
Moral Dilemma

29. CausesofmoralDilemmas
1.ProblemofVagueness:
•Vaguemeansnotclearlyexpressedor
perceived;notspecificorexact.
•Foragivensituation,sometimesitisunclearto
theengineerstoapplythemostappropriate
moralconsiderationsorprinciples.
•Theymaynotknowhowandwhich
moralprinciplestobeusedinresolvinga
moralproblem.Thissituationcreatesa
typicalmoraldilemma.
•EXAMPLE
Moral Dilemma

30. CausesofmoralDilemmas
2.ProblemofConflictingReasons:
•Thisisasituationwheretwoormore
problemsconflictingeachother(eachof
whichseemstobecorrect).
•(Inotherwords)Situationinwhichtwoor
moremoralobligations,duties,rights,
goods,oridealscomeintoconflictwith
eachother.
•Butwhentheycometogether,itisvery
difficultchoicetochoosegoodone.
•EXAMPLE
Moral Dilemma

31. CausesofmoralDilemmas
3.ProblemofDisagreement:
•Individualsandgroupsmayhavedifferent
views,suggestions,interpretationsand
solutionsonamoralprobleminparticular
situations.
•Thisdisagreementamongindividuals
andgroupsoninterpretingmoral
issueswillcreateasituationof
anothermoraldilemma.
•EXAMPLE
Moral Dilemma

32. StepsinConfrontingMoralDilemmas
1.Identifyingthepertinentmoralfactorsandreasons.
2.Collectingallavailablemoralconsiderations,whichare
relevanttothemoralfactorsinvolved.
3.Rankingtheabovecollectedmoralconsiderationsonthe
basisofimportanceasapplicabletotheparticular
situation.
4.Makingfactualinquiries
5.Invitingdiscussions,suggestionsfromcolleagues,
friends,andotherinvolvedpersonstocriticallyexamine
themoraldilemmas.
6.Takingthefinaldecision.
Moral Dilemma

33. WhatismeantbyMoralAutonomy?
1.Asalreadydiscussed,thepracticalaimin
studyingandteachingengineeringethicscourse
istofosterthemoralautonomyoffuture
engineers.
2.Autonomymeans‘Self-determining’or
‘Independent’
3.MoralAutonomyistheabilitytothink
criticallyandindependentlyaboutmoral
issuesandapplythisnormalthinkingto
situationsthatariseduringtheprofessional
engineeringpractice.
Moral Autonomy

34. WhatismeantbyMoralAutonomy?
•Inotherwords,moralautonomymeansthe
skillandhabitofthinkingrationallyon
ethicalissuesbasedonmoralconcern.
•i.e.,itisconcernedwiththe
independentattitudeofanindividual
relatedtoethicalissues.
•Itistheabilitytoarriveatreasonedmoral
viewsbasedontheresponsivenessto
humanvalues.
Moral Autonomy

35. FactorsinfluencingtheMoralConcern(of
aperson)
•Atmosphereinwhichthepersonisbrought
upinhischildhood.
•One’srelationshipwithfriendsand
relatives.
•One’sinteractionwithneighbors.
•One’sfamilystructureandfamily’s
economy.
Moral Autonomy

36. FactorsinfluencingtheMoralConcern(of
aperson)
•Influenceofreligiousinstitutionssuchas
temples,churches,mosquesetc.
•Influenceofeducationalinstitutionssuch
asschools,collegesetc.
•Influenceofteachersandothermentors.
•Influenceofmedialikenewspapers,
novels,movies,televisionetc.
•Influenceofsomesocialevents.
Moral Autonomy

37. SkillsrequiredtoimproveMoral
Autonomy(givenbyMikeMartinand
RolandSchinizinger)
•Proficiencyinrecognizingmoralproblems
andissuesinengineering.
•Skillinunderstanding,clarifying,and
criticallyevaluatingthearguments,which
areagainstthemoralissues.
•Abilitytoformconsistentandcomplete
perspectivesonthebasisofrelevantfacts.
Moral Autonomy

38. SkillsrequiredtoimproveMoralAutonomy
(givenbyMikeMartinandRoland
Schinizinger)
•Abilitytomakeimaginativeandcreative
alternativesolutionsunderdifficultsituations.
•Sensitivitytovaliddifficultiesanddelicacies.
(i.e.sensitivitytoothers’views,problems,and
sufferings.)
•Adequateknowledgetousethecommon
ethicallanguagesoastosupportordefend
one’smoralviewswithothers.
Moral Autonomy

39. •Conceptofmoralautonomyisverymuch
relatedtopsychologyandmoral
development.
•LawrenceKohlbergandCarolGilligan
havedevelopedtheoriesonmoral
developmentbasedonthesortsof
reasoningandmotivationadoptedby
individualswithregardtomoralquestions.
Theories of Moral Development

40. LawrenceKohlberg’sTheory
•LawrenceKohlbergsuggestedthree
levelsofmoraldevelopment,namely,
Pre-conventionalLevel,Conventional
Level,andPost-conventionalLevel
basedonthetypeofreasoningand
motivationoftheindividualsin
responsetomoralquestions.
Theories of Moral Development -
Kohlberg’s Theory

41. LawrenceKohlberg’sTheory
•Pre-ConventionalLevel
•Basedondesiretoderivebenefitsfor
oneself.
•Individualsbehaveaccordingtosocially
acceptablenorms(taughtbyparentsand
teachers)
•Individualsaremotivatedbydesireto
avoidpunishmentorbytheirdesireto
satisfytheirownneeds.
Age:Birthto9years
Kohlberg’s Theory

42. LawrenceKohlberg’sTheory
•ConventionalLevel
•Individualsaremotivatedbydesiretoplease
othersandmeetsocialunitexpectations(other
thanselfinterest).
•Individualsgiveimportancetoloyaltyandclose
identificationwithothers(ratherthanself-
interest).
•Thislevelofmoralthinkingisfoundinsociety
generally.ThatiswhyitiscalledConventional
Level
Age:9yearsto20years
Kohlberg’s Theory

43. LawrenceKohlberg’sTheory
•Post-ConventionalLevel
•Individualsareguidedbystrongprinciplesand
convictions(notbyselfishneedsorpressurefrom
society).
•Theseindividualsarecalled‘autonomous’.(They
thinkfor/bythemselves;theydonotbelievethat
customsareright.)
•Theydesiretomaintainmoralintegrity,self-
respectandtherespectofotherautonomous
individuals.
Age:Over20years
Kohlberg’s Theory

45. CarolGilligan’sTheory
•CarolGilliganstatesthatKohlberg’stheoryisonly
onethicsofrulesandrights.
•Buthertheoryisknownasethicsofcare.i.e.context
orientedemphasisrequiredtomaintainthepersonal
relationship.
•Gilligan'sworkonmoraldevelopmentoutlineshow
awoman'smoralityisinfluencedbyrelationships
and how women form
theirmoralandethicalfoundationbasedonhow
theirdecisionswillaffectothers.Shebelievesthat
womentendtodevelopmoralityinstages.
Theories of Moral Development –
Gilligan’s Theory

46. Carol Gilligan’s Theory
Pre-ConventionalLevel
Thisismoreoverthesameas
Kohlberg’sfirstlevel.
i.e.Inthislevel,anindividualis
concernedwithself-centeredreasoning.
Gilligan’s Theory

47. Carol Gilligan’s Theory
ConventionalLevel
ThisleveldiffersfromKohlberg’ssecond
level.
AccordingtoGilligan,womendonotwant
tohurtothersandwanttohelpothersi.e.
womenalwayswanttogiveuptheir
interestsinordertohelptheotherstofulfill
theirneeds.
Gilligan’s Theory

48. Carol Gilligan’s Theory
PostConventionalLevel
•ThislevelalsodiffersfromKohlberg’s
thirdlevel.
•Inthislevel,individuals(particularly
women)wanttobalancebetweencaring
aboutotherpeopleandtheirinterests.
•Thebalancingcanbeachievedonlythrough
context-orientedreasoningandnotby
abstractrules.
Gilligan’s Theory

49. Kohlberg Theory and Gilligan’s Theory

50. •Literally,consensusmeans‘agreement’and
controversymeans‘disagreement’.
•Whenanindividualexercisesmoralautonomy,
he/shemaynotbeabletoattainthesame
resultsasotherpeopleobtaininpracticing
theirmoralautonomy.
•Surelytheremustbesomemoraldifferences
i.e.theresultsorverdictswillbeof
controversy.Thiskindofdisagreementsis
unavoidable.
Consensus and Controversy

51. •Thesedisagreementsrequiresome
tolerancesamongindividualsthosewhoare
autonomous,reasonableandresponsible
thinking.
•Accordingtotheprincipleoftolerance,the
objectiveofteachingandstudying
engineeringethicsistodiscoverwaysof
promotingtoleranceintheexerciseofmoral
autonomybyengineers
Consensus and Controversy

52. RelationshipbetweenAutonomyandAuthority
1.Moralautonomyandrespectforauthorityare
compatiblewitheachother.
•Moralautonomyisexercisedbasedonthe
moralconcernforotherpeopleand
recognitionofgoodmoralreasons.
•Moralautonomyemphasizesthecapabilities
andresponsibilitiesofpeople.
•Authorityprovidestheframeworkthrough
whichlearningattitudesareencouraged.
Consensus and Controversy

53. RelationshipbetweenAutonomyand
Authority
2.Sometimes,conflictswillarisebetween
individuals’needforautonomyandtheneed
forconsensusaboutauthority.Thissituation
canbereducedbyhavingopenandfrank
discussregardingamoralissuewiththehelp
ofauthority.
Illustration:Considertherelationshipbetween
autonomyandauthoritywithreferencetoa
classroom.
Consensus and Controversy

54. Illustration:Considertherelationshipbetweenautonomy
andauthority,withreferencetoaclassroom.Inthe
classroom,theteachershaveauthorityoverstudents.
Authorityoftheteachershelpsinmaintainingthedignity
anddecorumofacademicclimateinainstitution;alsoin
restoringtheconfidenceandrespectbetweenteachersand
students.
Asperthefirstpoint,thereshouldbetheacceptanceof
authoritybyboththeteachersandstudents,inorderto
conducttheclassesinorderlyways.
Whentheauthorityismisused,conflictsmayarisebetween
autonomyandauthority.Asperthesecondpoint,allowing
opendiscussionsbetweenteachersandstudentscanreduce
theunhealthyacademicatmosphere.
Consensus and Controversy

55. WhatisaProfession?
•TheLatinrootword‘profession’is‘professionem’,whichmeans
themakingofapublicdeclaration.
•Professionisalsousedasasynonymfor‘job’and‘occupation’.
•Howdo‘job’and‘occupation’differfrom‘profession’?
•Anyworkforhirecanbeconsideredasajob,irrespectiveof
theskilllevelinvolvedandtheresponsibilityapproved.
•ThewordOccupationmeansemploymentthroughwhich
someonemakesaliving.
•Engineeringiscertainlyajobandalsoanoccupation.
Engineersarepaidfortheservices;theymakelivingoutofit.
Buttheskillsandresponsibilitiesinvolvedinengineeringis
morethanjustajob.
•Thus,professionsareoccupationsrequiringsophisticated
knowledge,groupcommitmenttosomepublicgood,anda
significantdegreeofself-regulation.
Professions and Professionalism

56. AttributesofaProfession(CharacteristicsofaProfession)
•Knowledge:Theworkrequiressuperiorskills(i.e.,knowing-
how),theoreticalknowledge(i.e.,knowingthat),theuseof
judgment,andtheexerciseofdiscretion.
•Organization:Thereshouldbeanorganizationoran
associationorasocietytoenrollthememberspracticingthe
profession,lettingthestandardsforadmissiontothe
profession,draftingthecodesofethics,insistingonthe
standardsofconduct,andrepresentingtheprofessionbefore
thepublicandthegovernment.
•Publicgood:Theprofessionals’knowledgeandskillsshould
behelpfultothewell-beingofthegeneralpublicandsociety.
•Thusanyjoboroccupationorworkcanbesaidtobea
professiononlywhentheabovementionedcriteriaaremet.
Professions and Professionalism

57. •Professional:Aprofessionalissomeonewhoisa
memberofaprofessionorsomeonewhoispractisinga
profession.
•Professionalism:referstothequalities,competencies,
andskillsofprofessional.
•Whenthecriteriaofprofessionareappliedtoone’s
vocationorcalling,itmakesforprofessionalism.
Professions and Professionalism

58. •Thehonoursandliabilitiesofengineeringprofessionasfollows:
•Honoursofengineeringprofession:Itisagreatprofessionan
engineerimagineswiththehelpofsciencetodrawaplanona
paper.Thenitisrealizedinstoneormetalorenergy.Thenitbrings
jobsandhomestomenandwomen.Then,itelevatesthestandards
oflivingandaddscomfortsoflife.Thatis,theengineershavehigh
privilege.
•Liabilitiesofengineeringprofession:Thegreatliabilityofan
engineercomparedtootherprofessionalsisthathe/sheworksoutin
openareawhereallcanseethem.He/Sheworksinhardsubstance.
He/Shecannotburyhismistakesinthegraveasthedoctors.
He/Shecannotarguelikethelawyersblamingthejudges,likethe
politiciansblamingtheopponentsandsoon.Theengineersimply
cannotdenythathedidnotdo.Ifhisworksdonotwork,heis
cursed.
Professions and Professionalism

59. Models of Professional Roles

60. Models of Professional Roles

61. •WhatismeantbyVirtues?
•Virtuecanbedefinedasmoraldistinctionand
goodness.
•Itreferstomoralexcellenceofone’sbehavior.
•Virtuemeansouridealsofwhatisrightandwhatis
wrong.
•Virtuesaredesirablewaysofrelatingtoother
individuals,groupsandorganizations.Theyarevery
muchrelatedtomotives,attitudesandemotionsthatare
responsibleforrightandwrongconductofan
individual.
•Itisnotedthatprofessionalismismainlybasedonthe
virtuesratherthanthetechnologicaldevelopment,
knowledge,economyetc.
Professional Ideals and Virtues

62. •Doengineersneedvirtues?
•Accordingtoaprofessionalcodeofethics,the
professionals’responsibilitiesincludevirtues
thatgobeyondthebasicdutiesoftheir
professions.
•Honesty,Fair-mindedness,Reliability,
Integrity,Benevolence,Perseverance,Public-
spiritedness,Compassion,Kindness,and
Generosityetc.areassociatedwiththevirtues
ofaperson.
•Thus,virtuesarebasicsofengineering
professionaswellasotherprofessions.
Professional Ideals and Virtues

63. •TheoriesaboutVirtues
•Invirtueethics,one’sactionsare
consideredrightifhe/sheholdsgood
charactertraits;oneactionsareconsidered
wrongifhe/sheholdsbadcharactertraits.
•Thetwobasicold-goodtheoriesabout
virtuesare;
1.Aristotle’sTheory
2.Macintyre’sTheory
Professional Ideals and Virtues

64. •AristotleTheoryofthe‘GoldenMean’
•Aristotledefinedthevirtuesasacquiredhabitsthat
enableanindividualtoengageeffectivelyinrational
activities.Thatis,theactivitiesdefinehim/herasa
humanbeing.
•Accordingtohistheory,thevirtueofwisdomorgood
judgmentishighlyessentialforaccomplishingthe
rationalactivitiessuccessfully.
•Asperthistheory,virtuesaretendencytofindthe
‘GoldenMean’betweenextremeofexcessand
deficiency.
•Forexample,
Courage,Truthfulness,Generosity,Friendliness
Professional Ideals and Virtues

65. •AristotleTheoryofthe‘GoldenMean’
(contd.)
•Aristotlealsoemphasizedthatthe‘Golden
Mean’ofeachvirtuewillgovernaparticular
aspectofourlives.
•Forinstance,couragegoverns
confrontationwithdangerandrisk;
truthfulnessgovernstruth-telling;
generositygovernsgiving;and
friendlinessgoverns personal
relationships.
Professional Ideals and Virtues

66. •Macintyre’sTheoryofVirtue
•Macintyre,acontemporaryethicist,related
virtueswiththesocialpractices,i.e.,
cooperativeactivitiesthatareaimedat
achievingpublicgoods.Thesepublicgoods
shouldnotberelatedtoexternalgoodssuch
asmoneyandprestige.
•AccordingtoMacintrye,anyprofession
shoulddevelopforthesakeofpublicgoods.
Hecallsthesepublicgoodsasinternal
goods.
Professional Ideals and Virtues

67. •Macintyre’sTheoryofVirtue(contd.)
•Examplesillustratinginternalgoods
•ThePrimaryinternalgoodofmedicineisthe
promotionofhealth.
•Theprimaryinternalgoodoflawissocial
justice.
•Theprimaryinternalgoodofengineeringisthe
safety,healthandwelfareofthepublic.
•Thetheoryalsodefinesprofessionalismasthe
servicesrequiredforaccomplishingthepublic
goods,inadditiontothepracticeofadvanced
theoreticalandpracticalknowledge.
Professional Ideals and Virtues

68. THEORIES ABOUT RIGHT ACTION
(ETHICAL THEORIES)
UsesandCriteria
Theethicaltheoriesareusefulinmanyrespects.
1.Inunderstandingmoraldilemma.Theyprovideclarity,
consistency,systematicandcomprehensiveunderstanding.
2.Ethicaltheoriesaidinidentifyingthemoralconsiderations
orreasonsthatconstituteadilemma.
3.Ethicaltheoriesprovideamoreprecisesenseofwhat
kindsofinformationarerelevanttosolvingmoral
dilemmas.
4.Itprovideshelpfulpracticalguidanceinmoralissues
towardsthesolution.Sometimesitofferwaystorankthe
relevantmoralconsiderationsinorderofimportanceand
therebyprovideatleastroughguidanceinsolvingmoral
problems

69. THEORIES ABOUT RIGHT ACTION
(ETHICAL THEORIES)…..
5.Thetheoriessuggestageneralpriorityoftheobligationtoprotectthe
public
i)Thespecialimportanceofrightstolifeandtoinformedconsent
concerningriskstoone’slife.
ii)theimportanceofdutiestoprotectthevulnerablepublic
iii)Thedegreeofimmoralityinvolvedindeathandriskofdeath
comparedtoeconomicbenefitstocorporations.
6.Justifyingprofessionalobligationsanddecisions,and
7.Byprovidingframeworksfordevelopmentofmoralarguments,the
theoriesstrengthenourabilitytoreachbalancedandinsightful
judgments.
8.Inrelatingordinaryandprofessionalmorality.Thetheoriesaugment
theprecisionwithwhichweusemoraltermsandtheyprovideframe
worksformoralreasoningwhendiscussingmoralissues
9.Itprovidesasystematicframeworkforcomparingthealternatives.

70. Different criteria may be applied for evaluating various
ethical theories and deciding upon the best
1.Thetheorymustbeclearand(coherent)formulatedwithconcepts
thatarelogicallyconnected.
2.Itmustbeinternallyconsistent,i.e.,noneofitsprinciplesconflicts
withanyother
3.Thetheoryanditsdefensemustdepend,onlyuponfacts.
4.Itmustorganizebasicmoralvaluesinsystematicand
comprehensivemanner.Itistofixpriorityofvaluesandprovide
guidanceinallsituations
5.Itmustprovideguidancecompatiblewithourmoralconvictions
(judgments)aboutconcretesituations.Forexample,ifanethical
theorysaysthatitisallrightforengineerstomakeexplosive
deviceswithouttheinformedconsentofthepublic,wecan
concludethatthetheoryisinadequate.

71. Theoriesandjudgmentsarecontinuallyadjustedtoeach
otheruntilwereachareflectiveequilibrium.Mostofthe
theoriesconvergetowardsthewelfareofthehumanity.
Thedutyethicsandrightethicsdifferingreatextenton
theiremphasis.Buttheyremaincomplementaryalways.
EthicalTheories/Approaches
Severalethicaltheorieshavebeendevelopedoverdifferent
times,eachofthemstressingcertainethicalprinciplesor
features.Eachstressesaviewandmanyatimes,wefindthat
thesetheoriesconvergeandreinforcetheethics,indeciding
upontheactionsandjustifyingtheresults.
THEORIES ABOUT RIGHT ACTION
(ETHICAL THEORIES)

72. Ethicaltheories/Approaches
1.UtilitarianTheory
2.DutyEthicsTheory
3.RightsTheory
4.TheVirtueTheory
5.SelfRealizationEthics
6.Justice(Fairness)Theory
THEORIES ABOUT RIGHT ACTION
(ETHICAL THEORIES)

73. 1. Utilitarian Theory
ThetermUtilitarianismwasconceivedinthe19thcenturybyJeremy
BenthamandJohnStuartMilltohelplegislatorsdeterminewhich
lawsweremorallybest.
Theysuggestedthatthestandardofrightconductismaximizationof
goodconsequences.Goodconsequencesmeaneither‘utilities’orthe
‘balanceofgoodoverevil’.
Thisapproachweighsthecostsandbenefits.Rightactionsarethe
onesthatproducethegreatestsatisfactionofthepreferencesofthe
affectedpersons.Inanalyzinganissueinthisapproach,wehaveto:
ThetermUtilitarianismwasconceivedinthe19thcenturybyJeremy
BenthamandJohnStuartMilltohelplegislatorsdeterminewhich
lawsweremorallybest.Theysuggestedthatthestandardofright
conductismaximizationofgoodconsequences.Goodconsequences
meaneither‘utilities’orthe‘balanceofgoodoverevil’.

74. 1. Utilitarian Theory……..
Thisapproachweighsthecostsandbenefits.Rightactionsaretheonesthat
producethegreatestsatisfactionofthepreferencesoftheaffectedpersons.
Inanalyzinganissueinthisapproach,wehaveto:
(a)Identifythevariouscoursesofactionavailabletous.
(b)Askwhowillbeaffectedbyeachactionandwhatbenefitsorharmswill
bederivedfromeach.
(c)Choosetheactionthatwillproducethegreatestbenefitsandtheleast
harm.Theethicalactionistheonethatprovidesthegreatestgoodforthe
greatestnumber.
TheACTUTILITARIANtheoryproposedbyJ.S.Mill(1806-73)
focusesonactions,ratherthanongeneralrules.Anactionisright,ifit
generatesthemostoverallgoodforthemostpeopleinvolved.
TheRULEUTILITARIANtheory,developedbyRichardBrandt
(1910-97),stressedontherules,suchas‘donotsteal’,‘donoharm
others’,‘donotbribe’,asofprimaryimportance.Hesuggestedthat
individualactionsarerightwhentheyarerequiredbysetofruleswhich
maximizesthepublicgood.

75. 1. Utilitarian Theory……..
Theactutilitariantheorypermittedafewimmoralactions.
Hence,therewasneedtodevelopruleutilitariantheoryto
establishmoralityandjustice,inthetransactions.
Forexample,stealinganoldcomputerfromtheemployerwill
benefittheemployeemorethanthelosstotheemployer.Asper
Act,utilitarianthisactionisright.
Butruleutilitarianobservesthisaswrong,becausethe
employeeshouldactas‘faithfulagentortrusteeofthe
employees’.
Inanotherexample,someundisciplinedengineersare
terminatedwiththeblameforthemistakestheyhavenot
committed.
Theprocessisunfairalthoughthisresultsinpromotionof
overallgood.

76. 2. Duty Ethics theory
A.Thedutyethicstheory,proposedbyImmanuelKant(1724-
1804)states,thatactionsareconsequencesofperformanceof
one’sdutiessuchas,‘beinghonest’,‘notcausesufferingof
others’,‘beingfairtoothersincludingthemeekandweek’,
‘beinggrateful’,‘keepingpromises’etc.Thestressisonthe
universalprincipleofrespectforautonomyi.e.,respectand
rationalityofpersons.AsperKantwehavedutiesto
ourselves,aswearerationalandautonomousbeings.Wehave
adutynottocommitsuicide;adutytodevelopourtalentsand
adutytoavoidharmfuldrugs.Kantinsistedthatmoralduties
arecategoricalimperatives.
Theyarecommandsthatweimposeonourselvesaswellas
otherrationalbeings.Forexample,weshouldbehonest
becausehonestyisrequiredbyduty.Abusinessmanistobe
honestbecausehonestypays—intermsofprofitsfrom
customersandfromavoidingjailfordishonesty.

77. 2. Duty Ethics theory
B.Ontheotherhand,theDUTYethicstheory,asenunciatedbyJohn
Rawl,gaveimportancetotheactionsthatwouldbevoluntarily
agreeduponbyallpersonsconcerned,assumingimpartiality.His
viewemphasizedtheautonomyeachpersonexercisesinforming
agreementswithotherrationalpeople.Rawlproposedtwobasic
moralprinciples;(1)eachpersonisentitledtothemostextensive
amountoflibertycompatiblewithanequalamountforothers,and
(2)differencesinsocialpowerandeconomicbenefitsarejustified
onlywhentheyarelikelytobenefiteveryone,includingmembers
ofthemostdisadvantagedgroups.Thefirstprincipleisofprime
importanceandshouldbesatisfiedfirst.Withoutbasicliberties
othereconomicorsocialbenefitscannotbesustainedforlong.The
secondprincipleinsiststhattoallowsomepeoplewithgreatwealth
andpowerisjustifiedonlywhenallothergroupsarebenefited.In
thebusinessscenario,forexample,thefreeenterpriseis
permissiblesofaritprovidesthecapitalneededtoinvestand
prosper,therebymakingjobopportunitiestothepublicandtaxesto
fundthegovernmentspendingonthewelfareschemesonthepoor

78. 2. Duty Ethics theory…..
C.W.D.Ross,theBritishphilosopherintroducedthetermprimafacieduties,
whichmeansdutiesmighthavejustifiedexceptions.Infact,mostdutiesare
primafacieones;somemayhaveobligatoryorpermissibleexceptions.Ross
assumedthattheprimafaciedutiesareintuitivelyobvious(self-evident),
whilefixingprioritiesamongduties.Henotedthattheprinciplessuchas‘Do
notkill’and‘protectinnocentlife’involvehighrespectforpersonsthan
otherprinciplessuchas,‘Donotlie’(lessharmful).Thistheoryiscriticized
onthefact,thattheintuitionsdonotprovidesufficientguidelineformoral
duty.HehaslistedvariousaspectsofDutyEthicsthatreflectourmoral
convictions,namely:
1.Fidelity:dutytokeeppromises.
2.Reparation:dutytocompensateotherswhenweharmthem.
3.Gratitude:dutytothankthosewhohelpus.
4.Justice:dutytorecognizemerit.
5.Beneficence:dutytorecognizeinequalityandimprovetheconditionof
others.
6.Self-improvement:dutytoimprovevirtueandintelligence.
7.Non-malfeasance:dutynottoinjureothers.

79. 3. Rights Theory
Rightsareentitlementtoactortohaveanotherindividualactinacertainway.
Minimally,rightsserveasaprotectivebarrier,shieldingindividualsfrom
unjustifiedinfringementoftheirmoralagencybyothers.Foreveryright,we
haveacorrespondingdutyofnoninterference.
TheRIGHTSapproachtoethicshasitsrootsinthe18thcenturyphilosopher
ImmanuelKant,whofocusedontheindividual’srighttochooseforoneself.
Peoplearenotobjectstobemanipulated;itisaviolationofhumandignityto
usepeopleinwaystheydonotfreelychoose.Otherrightsheadvocatedare:
1.Therighttoaccessthetruth:Wehavearighttobetoldthetruthandtobe
informedaboutmattersthatsignificantlyaffectourchoices.
2.Therightofprivacy:Wehavetherighttodo,believe,andsaywhateverwe
chooseinourpersonallivessolongaswedonotviolatetherightsofothers.
3.Therightnottobeinjured:Wehavetherightnottobeharmedorinjured
unlesswefreelyandknowinglydosomethingtodeservepunishmentorwe
freelyandknowinglychoosetorisksuchinjuries.
4.Therighttowhatisagreed:Wehavearighttowhathasbeenpromisedby
thosewithwhomwehavefreelyenteredintoacontractoragreement.

80. 3. Rights Theory……
TheRIGHTStheoryaspromotedbyJohnLockestatesthattheactions
areright,iftheyrespecthumanrightsofeveryoneaffected.He
proposedthethreebasichumanrights,namelylife,liberty,and
property.HisviewswerereflectedinthemodernAmericansociety,
whenJeffersondeclaredthebasicrightsaslife,liberty,andpursuitof
happiness.
AsperA.I.Melden’stheorybasedonrights,naturemandatesthatwe
shouldnotharmothers’life,health,libertyorproperty.Meldenallowed
welfarerightsalsoforlivingadecenthumanlife.Hehighlightedthat
therightsshouldbebasedonthesocialwelfaresystem.
Humanrights:Humanrightsareexplainedintwoforms,namelyliberty
rightsandwelfarerights.Libertyrightsarerightstoexerciseone’s
libertyandstressesdutiesonotherpeoplenottointerferewithone’s
freedom.Thefourfeaturesoflibertyrights(alsocalledmoralrights),
whichlaythebaseforGovernmentAdministration,are:

81. 3. Rights Theory……
1.Rightsarenaturalinsofarastheyarenotinventedorcreated
bygovernment.
2.Theyareuniversal,astheydonotchangefromcountryto
country.
3.Theyareequalsincetherightsarethesameforallpeople,
irrespectiveofcaste,race,creedorsex.
4.Theyareinalienablei.e.,onecannothandoverhisrightsto
anotherpersonsuchassellingoneselftoslavery.
Economicrights:Inthefree-marketeconomy,theverypurpose
oftheexistenceofthemanufacturer,thesellersandtheservice
providersistoservetheconsumer.
Theconsumeriseligibletoexercisesomerights.
Theconsumers’sixbasicrightsare:RighttoInformation,Right
toSafety,RighttoChoice,RighttobeHeard,RighttoRedressal,
andRighttoConsumerEducation.

82. 4. The Virtue Theory
Thisemphasizesonthecharacterratherthantherightsorduties.The
characteristhepatternofvirtues(morally-desirablefeatures).Thetheory
advocatedbyAristotle,stressedonthetendencytoactatproperbalance
betweenextremesofconduct,emotion,desire,attitudestofindthegolden
meanbetweentheextremesof‘excess’or‘deficiency’

83. 5. Self-realization Ethics
Rightactionconsistsinseekingself-fulfillment.
Inoneversionofthistheory,theselftoberealizedis
definedbycaringrelationshipswithotherindividualsand
society.
Inanotherversioncalledethicalegoism,therightaction
consistsinalwayspromotingwhatisgoodforoneself.
Nocaringandsocietyrelationshipsareassumed

84. 6. Justice (Fairness) Theory
Thejusticeorfairnessapproachtoethicshasitsrootsinthe
teachingsoftheancientGreekphilosopherAristotle,whosaid
that“equalsshouldbetreatedequallyandunequals
unequally.”
Thebasicmoralquestioninthisapproachis:Howfairisan
action?Doesittreateveryoneinthesameway,ordoesitshow
favoritismanddiscrimination?
Issuescreatecontroversiessimplybecausewedonotbotherto
checkthefairnessorjustice.
Favoritismgivesbenefitstosomepeoplewithoutajustifiable
reasonforsinglingthemout;discriminationimposesburdens
onpeoplewhoarenodifferentfromthoseonwhomburdens
arenotimposed.
Bothfavoritismanddiscriminationareunjustandwrong.

85. Self-interest
Self-interestisbeinggoodandacceptabletooneself.It
ispursuingwhatisgoodforoneself.
Itisveryethicaltopossessself-interest.
Asperutilitariantheory,thisinterestshouldprovide
fortherespectofothersalso.
Dutyethicsrecognizesthisaspectasdutiesto
ourselves.
Thenonlyonecanhelpothers.Rightethiciststresses
ourrightstopursueourowngood.
Virtueethicsalsoacceptstheimportanceofself-
respectaslinktosocialpractices.

86. Customs
EthicalPluralism:Variousculturesinourpluralisticsocietyleadto
toleranceforvariouscustoms,beliefsandoutlooks.Accordingly,
ethicalpluralismalsoexists.Althoughmanymoralattitudesappear
tobereasonable,therationalandmorallyconcernedpeoplecannot
fullyacceptanyoneofthemoralperspectives.
EthicalRelativism:Accordingtothisprinciple,actionsare
consideredmorallyrightwhenapprovedbylaworcustom,and
wrongwhentheyviolatelawsorcustoms.Thedecidingfactoristhe
laworthecustomsofthesociety.
Shouldweaccepttheprincipleofrelativismornot?
ApartheidlawofSouthAfricaviolatedhumanrightsofthenative
Africans.Nolegalactionwasavailablefornativecitizensforalong
time.Now,ofcourse,theselawshavebeenrepealed.
Asperethicalrelativism,theactionsandlawsofNazisandHitlerwho
vowedonAnti-SemitismandkilledseveralmillionJewswouldbe
acceptedasright.

87. Religion
Religionshaveplayedmajorrolesinshapingmoralviews
andmoralvalues,overgeographicalregions.Christianity
hasinfluencedtheWesterncountries,IslamintheMiddle-
Eastcountries,BuddhismandHinduisminAsia,and
ConfucianisminChina.
Further,thereisastrongpsychologicallinkbetweenthe
moralandreligiousbeliefsofpeoplefollowingvarious
religionsandfaiths.Religionssupportmoral
responsibility.
Theyhavesethighmoralstandards.Faithinthereligions
providestrustandthistrustinspirespeopletobemoral.
Thereligionsinsistontoleranceandmoralconcernfor
others.Manyprofessionalswhopossessreligiousbeliefs
aremotivatedtobemorallyresponsible.

88. Religion ………..
Eachreligionlaysstressoncertainhighmoralstandards.For
example,Hinduismholdspolytheistic(manygods)view,andvirtues
ofdevotionandsurrendertohighorder.
ChristianitybelievesinonedeityandemphasizesonvirtuesofLove,
Faith,andHope.Buddhismisnon-theisticandfocuseson
compassionandIslamononedeityandadherenceofishan(pietyor
pursuitofexcellence)andprayer.
Judaismstressesthevirtueof‘tsedakah’(righteousness).Butmany
religioussectshaveadoptedpoormoralstandards,e.g.,many
religioussectsdonotrecognizeequalrightsforwomen.
Therighttoworshipisdeniedforsomepeople.
Peoplearekilledinthenameofortopromotereligion.
Thus,conflictsexistbetweenthe‘secular’andreligiouspeopleand
betweenonereligionandanother.
Hence,religiousviewshavetobemorallyscrutinized.

89. Theethicaltheoriesareusefulinmany
respects.
1.Inunderstandingmoraldilemma.Theyprovide
clarity,consistency,systematicand
comprehensiveunderstanding.
2.Itprovideshelpfulpracticalguidanceinmoral
issuestowardsthesolution.
3.Justifyingprofessionalobligationsand
decisions,and
4.Inrelatingordinaryandprofessionalmorality.
Use of Ethical Theories

90. 1.UnderstandingMoralDilemma
•Ethicaltheorieshelptheprofessionalsin
identifyingthemoralconsiderationsorreasons.
•‘Virtualethics’emphasizesloyaltytoemployerand
colleaguesandloyaltytopublicincludingthesafetyof
thepublic.
•‘DutyEthics’emphasizesthatprofessionalhasdutiesto
protectthepublicaffectedbyhiswork.Alsohe/shehas
torespecthisemployer’sauthority.
•‘Rightsethics’emphasizestherightsofthepublicthat
aretobeprotectedwhileatthesametime,therightsof
themanagementhavetoberespected.
•Ethicaltheoriesproviderelevantinformationin
solvingmoraldilemmas.
Use of Ethical Theories

91. 1.UnderstandingMoralDilemma(contd.)
•Ethicaltheoriesofferwaystoranktherelevant
moralconsiderationsinorderofimportanceand
therebyprovidearoughguidanceinsolving
moralproblems.
•Ethicaltheorieshelpustofindalternativecourses
ofsectioninsolvingmoraldilemmas.
•Ethicaltheoriesstrengthenourabilitytoreach
balancedjudgments.
Use of Ethical Theories

92. 2.Justifyingprofessionalobligationsandideals
•Safetyisinvolvedinmostoftheissuesinengineeringethics.
Engineeringfocusesonsafetyofpublicwhilebringinguseful
technologicalproductstothepublic.
•Under‘theActUtilitariantheory’,oneoftheobligationsof
engineersistoactinanysituationsoastomaximizethegood
consequencesforeveryoneaffectedbyengineeringprojectsand
products.
•‘TheRuleUtilitariantheory’stressesontherules(suchas‘do
notsteal’,‘donotharmothers’,‘donotbribe’)asofprimary
importance.
•Dutyethicsemphasizestheobligationsofengineersbasedonbasic
principlesofduty.
•Rightethicsemphasizesthesafetyobligationsbasedonthemoral
rightsofthoseaffectedbytheirwork.
•Definitiely,thereisadirectlinkbetweenbasichumanrightsand
safetyobligationsofengineers.
Use of Ethical Theories

93. 3.Relatingordinaryandprofessionalmorality
Therearefourviewsconcerningtheoriginandjustificationofthe
safetyobligationofengineers.
•Engineersacquiremoralobligationsconcerningsafetyby
beingsubjecttolaws.
•Engineersacquiresafetyobligationsbyjoininga
professionalsocietyandtherebyagreetolivebythecodeof
ethicsofthesociety.
•Engineersacquiresafetyobligationsthroughthecontractual
agreementsbywhichtheyarehiredbytheiremployers.
•Engineersacquiresafetyobligationsuponenteringintotheir
careers,toprotectandsafeguardthepublicinterestswhile
performingtheirtasks.
However,eachofthesefourviewsprovestobeinadequate
byitselfwithoutreferencetoethicaltheory.
Use of Ethical Theories