Urban Sociology pp.pptx

ueban sociology introduction

1. University of Gondar IoT Architecture Department Teaching Material of Urban Sociology Course for Architects ( Mihiret Ashagrie )

2. Sociology in general The word Sociology was coined in the early 1930s by eminent  Frenchman Auguste Comte  and he described it as the scientific study of society. He is referred to as the “Father of Sociology”. He insisted that society needs decisive facts to solve its problems, which can be achieved through scientific study. Sociology aims at understanding human behavior, the working of different societies, and the influence of various social institutions such as religion, culture, hierarchy, and power on individuals . It will help one understand different social norms and phenomena such as social influence, which has a significant impact on decision-making for most people in society, especially when interacting with a group. Sociology is important to understand the nature and behavior of an individual, especially in societies or communities. It is important to understand why individual acts or reacts the way he/she does. It gives us the reason behind every action and decision.

3. The study of sociology include From marriage to divorce, child adoption to surrogacy, racism to gender inequality, and urbanism. Sociology is also essential in understanding various institutions of our lives and people’s perspectives and the social structure of society everything is absolutely and entirely linked to society and its impact on it. Sociologists believe that human decisions are based on multiple variables like the current trends, peer pressure, morals, beliefs, the environment in which they are brought up and their social interactions . We see social inequalities in our day-to-day lives. Some people have privileges while some have to struggle to make ends meet. These inequalities often give rise to conflicts or crimes in society. Social situations like these also give rise to human emotions like anger, frustration or desperation. The poor or vulnerable section might feel left out of society.

4. The study of sociology include Society studies contribute to social policy formulation, which requires knowledge of society. Sociological descriptive research provides valuable information that can be used to make social policy decisions Sociology has contributed to various aspects of society. With the help of specialised courses on gender studies, environment, regulatory policies, and urban policies Studying sociology helps them understand different dynamics of society and then act according to them Sociology strives for the betterment and improvement of society. It analyses the problems within society and strives to find solutions for the smooth functioning of society.

5. The study of sociology include It enlightens us with the fact that every small section of society is interlinked and can have an effect on one another. For instance, conflicts at the workplace or small quarrels at school might impact family time at home. Sociology also enriches culture. In this world, there are multiple societies and even more diverse cultures. Culture is a way of life and sociology helps us to explore and respect how different cultures are co-existing together in a society, peacefully . It helps to understand different past and current happenings in society . To solve social problems, it is imperative to study society. In the current world, there are numerous social problems of great magnitude, including poverty, religious discrimination,  unemployment,  overpopulation, racial problems, crime, addictions, To solve these problems, it is necessary to analyse them carefully, An analysis of this kind can be found in this subject, and also we can under reasons for  social pathology

6. Urban sociology Urban sociology is the sociological study of life and human interaction in metropolitan areas . it is a normative disciplines of sociology seeking to study the structure, process, changes and problems of an urban area and by doing so provide inputs for planning and policy making. In other words it is the sociological study of cities and their role in the development of society like most areas of sociology, urban sociologists use statistical analysis, observation, social theory, interviews, and other methods to study a range of topics, including migration and demographic trends, economics , poverty, race relations and economic trends.

7. Urban Sociology Urban sociology is the sociology of urban living; of people in groups and social relationship in urban social circumstances and situation. The study of urban sociology is generally defined as being the search for answers and reasons for why populations in an urban area react to their environment in the way they do, and how the dynamics of these reactions affect their lives, economics, structures and governmental processes of this area. This also includes the resulting problems that arise from these interactions. The information acquired is helpful in not only creating policies, but is useful in planning strategies for the growth of society in general.

8. Urban Sociology Study and research still involves reaching out to the individuals that make up the urban environment. Most people live in a metropolitan area, and if we stop and think about it, we come to realize that our lives are shaped by that environment, and we in turn will influence our area of that city because we live there . Sociologists look at improving that environment, knowing the added psychological and physical changes will impact those living there. But that is exactly what sociology is, conceptualizing the relationships between people, places, and the institutions in place at that particular time. By studying the different issues of the people living in the city, like race, age, gender, cultural beliefs, economic background and immigration status, urban sociologists can make predictions as well as suggest changes to improve the lives of the citizens living there.

9. Urban Sociology Urban sociology is a branch of sociology that deals with the impact of city life on social action, social relations, social institutions, and the types of civilization derived from and based on urban mode of life. Urban sociology examines a great deal of issues including: 1 . Understanding and explaining the socio-cultural and behavioral peculiarities of urban residents and the urban community. The value, sentiments, desires etc. Of urban communities in contrast to that of the rural characteristics. 2 . Ecological organization and socio geographic differentiation of cities, spatial distribution and structure of cities, interrelationships and interactions among the different socio geographic regions (suburbs, slums). 3 . Social and cultural changes in the organizational structure and functioning of the different sub areas of the city. Causes and consequences of social change. Reactions to the process of social change including maladjustment, conflict, harmony, etc among the different urban groups. 4 . History of urbanization to provide perspectives and comparative materials on earlier urbanization. 5 . Explanation of urban demographic characteristics including population size distribution etc. 6 . The nature of and solutions to urban social evils such as crime, delinquency, drug abuse, pollution, congestion, housing, unemployment etc

10. How did cities form in the first place? Some theorists have speculated on what they consider pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that could explain the rise of cities. Agriculture is believed to be a pre-requisite for cities, which help preserve surplus production and create economies of scale. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic Revolution, with the spread of agriculture. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and settle near others who lived by agricultural production. Agriculture yielded more food, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. Farming led to dense, settled populations, and food surpluses that required storage and could facilitate trade. These conditions seem to be important prerequisites for city life.

11. Origin, Evolution of cities Early humans led a nomadic existence, relying on hunting and gathering for sustenance. Between 8,000 and 10,000 years ago, systematic cultivation of plants and the domestication of animals allowed for more permanent settlements. During the fourth millennium B.C., the requirements for the "urban revolution" were finally met: the production of a surplus of storable food, a more complex social organization, and technological advances such as the plough, potter's wheel, loom and metallurgy. A good environment and strong social organization are two necessities for the formation of a successful city. A good environment includes clean water and a favorable climate for growing crops and agriculture. A strong sense of social organization helps a newly formed city work together in times of need, and it allows people to develop various functions to assist in the future development of the city (for example, farmer or merchant). The first true urban settlements appeared around 3,000 B.C. in ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Indus Valley. Mohenjo-daro , located in the Indus Valley (present-day Pakistan);

12. Why cities are established Ancient cities were notable for their geographical diversity, as well as their diversity in form and function. Excavations at early urban sites show that some cities were sparsely populated political capitals, others were trade centers, and still other cities had a primarily religious focus. Some cities had large dense populations, whereas others carried out urban activities in the realms of politics or religion without having large associated populations. Some ancient cities grew to be powerful capital cities and centers of commerce and industry, situated at the centers of growing ancient empires.

13. Why cities are established While ancient cities may have arisen organically as trading centers, preindustrial cities evolved to become well defined political units, like today’s states . Cities may have held other advantages, too. For example, cities reduced transport costs for goods, people, and ideas by bringing them all together in one spot. By reducing these transaction costs, cities contributed to worker productivity. Finally , cities likely performed the essential function of providing protection for people and the valuable things they were beginning to accumulate .

14. why sociologists are interested in urban From a historical perspective, we have always been curious about the dynamics behind the question, what makes a city? From pioneers in sociology, like Karl Marx, Max Weber, George Simmel and others, we have learned that issues such as cultural differences, poverty, race and demographic and economic trends all play a role in the make-up of an urban area. Early studies suggested that economic problems, as well as social alienation and class, or caste, worked to break down individuals, and further break down families. The work of these sociologists in the early 19th century eventually led to the creation of the Chicago School of Sociology, as we know it today. Using the inner-city of Chicago as a model, the study involved coming to an understanding of the social interactions that resulted in urbanization at that time.

15. why sociologists are interested in urban The Chicago School had only one question. How did an increase in urbanization during the industrial revolution contribute to the growth of today’s socio-economic problems in a metropolis? This question was researched through interviews, observations, statistical analysis, theory and other methods to come to a conclusion based on their findings .

16. why sociologists are interested in urban Sociologists are interested in urbanization because the urban mode of life is becoming more and more dominant. Percentage of world population living in places of 5000 and more population Year % of urban population 1800 3% 1900 14% 1950 28% 1980 45% 2000 55% 2025 64% The above figure indicates that the settlement pattern of the human population which was dominantly rural has been in a process of reversal and the rural population is diminishing through time while the urban share is growing. Before the industrial revolution, the proportion of the rural population was very large while after the industrial revolution the urban population has been in a radical increase.

17. why sociologists are interested in urban According to kingsely Davis, the reasons why sociologists are interested in urban phenomenon include: Urban mode of life is recent phenomenon in the history of mankind. Urbanization has brought revolutionary changes in the whole pattern of social life. It tends to affect every aspect of human life, social institutions, production systems, transportation etc. Urban centers tend to be centers of power and influence throughout the whole society. The most important economic activities (trade, communication. administration etc ) are concentrated in urban areas. Cities are centers of political power and residence of emperors and presidents(governors) The process of urbanization is still occurring and its direction is uncertain. There are many problems associated with urbanization

18. What is a Sociologically-Urban-Area ? THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES CLASSICAL THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES Louis Wirth , Georg Simmel   Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Ferdinand Tonnies Emile Durkheim Max Weber Sorokin and Zimmerman

19. What is a Sociologically-Urban-Area? THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES of Louis Wirth , Sociological view of urban life is quite deep. It has a great combination of various theories by different sociologists. Yet most of the sociologists find it difficult to define an urban area. Louis Wirth, in his article,  Urbanism as a Way of Life   gave a sociological definition of the city. He says,  “For sociological purposes a city maybe defined as a relatively large, dense and permanent settlement of socially heterogeneous individuals.”  He also argued that sociology should emphasize on the cultural aspect rather than geographical aspect. In 1903 Georg Simmel  wrote an article on urban life which has the headline  ‘The Metropolis and Mental Life’.  It is the first sociological write-up on urbanisation . Therefore Georg Simmel is considered as the father of Urban Sociology

20. What is a Sociologically-Urban-Area? THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES of Louis Wirth Concerning  urban sociology,  there is popular theory by Louis Wirth called  Urbanism . There he used the metaphor  melting pot  for urban areas.    Are you wondering why? In primitive society, like-minded people lived together, societies were all about homogenous groups. The same culture is still quite maintained in rural areas too. But in an urban area, it is a great combination of heterogeneous people. From profession to the prospect of life, almost everything is variable. Different people play different roles. This is how cities are built up, people are useful to each other. Everyone comes to the city to meet their needs and eventually they fulfil what a city needs. People do not think if they would find similar people like them. Rather it is the livelihood they seek for. No wonder a city is so densely populated. In the words of Louis Wirth  “The city has thus historically melting-pot of races, peoples and cultures, and a most-favorable breeding ground of new biological and cultural hybrids .” Louis Wirth thinks there is a big chance for  Anomie  to be created. Mental breakdown, suicide, personal disorder etc are much more like in the urban areas than in the rural ones.

21. Three city characteristics contribute to “Urban Way of Life” or “Urban Personality” Type Size of Population Density Heterogeneity It is always a secondary level conduct! Primary level of conducts are much common in rural areas which is almost absent in urban area. This distinguished urban society from the rural one. Louis Wirth believes that the interactions are superficial. It does not involve your heart. It is just about purposes! Theories of urban sociology Leus Wirth

22. Theories of urban sociology Emile Durkhem Emile Durkheim   described sociology as  the study of social facts through social institutions . He was the first philosopher and sociologist actually to use scientific methods to understand social notions. Durkheim used statistics to understand the behaviour of individuals. He compiled theories on different forms of suicides and their reasons with the help of statistical data . the theory of  Social Solidarity  by  Emile Durkheim  can be applied to describe the urban environment these are Mechanical solidarity and Organic solidarity Cities definitely visualise the organic solidarity. A high division of labour is present here.

23. Theories of urban sociology Emile Durkheim Mechanical solidarity : refers to social bonds constructed on likeness and largely dependent upon common belief, custom, ritual, routines, and symbol, people are identical in major ways and thus united almost automatically, self-sufficient; social cohesion based upon the likeness and similarities among individuals in a society. Common among prehistoric and pre-agricultural societies, and lessens in predominance as modernity increases. 2) Organic solidarity : social order based on social differences, complex division of labour where many different people specialize in many different occupations, greater freedom and choice for city inhabitants despite acknowledged impersonality, alienation, disagreement and conflict, undermined traditional social integration but created a new form of social cohesion based on mutual interdependence, liberating; social cohesion based upon the dependence individuals in more advanced society have on each other.

24. Theories of urban sociology Max Weber Max Weber ,  a German Sociologist annotated sociology as   the study of social action .  Weber stressed that sociologists need to study and observe different phenomena from the perspective of individuals in society and study them from the eyes of people rather than studying the events only. Sociology as a modern discipline was founded, however, in the 19th century through three major changes that changed the way people viewed society and sociology. The first one is the development of scientific and modern technology. It enabled social scientists to study and analyse society beyond morals and norms and evaluate and understand it with the help of science and statistics. It helped to develop a perspective around sociology, that social problem can be solved with the help of advancements in science and technology. The second event which boosted the significance of sociology was the emergence of democratic governments. The French and American revolutions and the formation of the People’s Republic of China brought an end to the age-old forms of Government based on Monarchy or God.

25. Theories of urban sociology Emile Durkehm The third change A new kind of society was visible With the industrial revolution at its peak, new concepts like urbanisation , capitalist competition and individualism transformed society . Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels – People in preindustrial, traditional societies were generic, tribal beings Rise of city was transition from barbarism to civilization People realize political and economic freedom, productive specialization Social evolution of humans not complete until capitalism was transformed into socialism Emphasis of economics and problems of inequality and conflict

26. Theories of urban sociology Ferdinand Tonnies (1855-1936) Ferdinand Tonnies (1855-1936) German (pessimistic) - macro-sociological Considered social structure of city Defined and described two basic organizing principles of human association or two contrasting types of human social life, a typology with a continuum of pure type of settlement: 1) Gemeinschaft (community): characterized country village, people in rural village have an essential unity of purpose, work together for the common good, united by ties of family (kinship) and neighbourhood , land worked communally by inhabitants, social life characterized by intimate, private and exclusive living together, members bound by common language and traditions, recognized common goods and evils, common friends and enemies, sense of we-ness or our-ness, humane 2) Gesellschaft (association): characterized large city, city life is a mechanical aggregate characterized by disunity, rampant individualism and selfishness, meaning of existence shifts from group to individual, rational, calculating, each person understood in terms of a particular role and service provided; deals with the artificial construction of an aggregate of human beings which superficially resembles the Gemeinschaft in so far as the individuals peacefully live together yet whereas in Gemeinschaft people are united in spite of all separating factors, in Gesellschaft people are separated in spite of all uniting factors

27. Theories of urban sociology Ferdinand Tonnies (1855-1936) There are three types of Gemeinschaft relationships: Kinship, Friendship, and Neighborhood or Locality 1.1) Kinship Gemeinschaft is based on Family; the strongest relationship being between mother and child, then husband and wife, and then siblings. Gemeinschaft also exists between father and child, but this relationship is less instinctual than that of mother and child. However, the father-child relationship is the original manifestation of authority within Gemeinschaft . 1.2) Kinship develops and differentiates into the Gemeinschaft of Locality, which is based on a common habitat 1.3) there is also Friendship, or Gemeinschaft of the mind, which requires a common mental community ( eg : religion). He feared the undermining of the fabric of social life

28. Theories of urban sociology Georg Simmel (1858-1918) Considered importance of urban experience, i.e. chose to focus on urbanism (life within the city) rather than urbanizetion (development of urban areas ), Unique trait of modern city is intensification of nervous stimuli with which city dweller must cope, from rural setting where rhythm of life and sensory imagery is slower, habitual and even, to city with constant bombardments of sights, sounds and smells Individual learns to discriminate, become rational and calculating, develops a blasé attitude – matter-of-fact, a social reserve, a detachment, respond with head rather than heart, don’t care and don’t get involved Urbanites highly attuned to time Rationality expressed in advanced economic division of labour , and the use of money because of requirement for a universal means of exchange Acknowledged freedom, transcendence of pettiness of daily routine, new heights of personal and spiritual development but sense of alienation could override this To maintain sense of individuality and not feel like cog in machine, do something different or odd to stand out

29. Theories of urban sociology Georg Simmel (1858-1918) Philosophy of Money Economic exchange is a form of social interaction When monetary transactions replaced earlier forms of barter, significant changes occurred in the form of interaction between social actors Money is subject to precise division and manipulation, it permits exact measurement of equivalents Money is impersonal, objects of barter are/were not Money promotes rational calculation in human affairs, furthering rationalization characteristic of modern societies Money replaces personal ties by impersonal relations that limited to a specific purpose Abstract calculation invades areas of social life, e.g. kinship relations or realm of esthetic appreciation Shift from qualitative to quantitative appraisals Money increases personal freedom and fosters social differentiation Money in modern world is standard of value and means of exchange Above economic functions, it symbolizes and embodies modern spirit of rationalism, calculability and impersonalit

30. Theories of urban sociology Georg Simmel (1858-1918) The blasé attitude Incapacity to react to new sensations due to saturation. Reinforced by the money economy: money--a common denominator of all values, regardless of their individuality. Reserve, indifference, apathy--forms of psychological protection--become parts of the metropolitan lifestyle. Positive aspect of metropolitan life: reserve and detachment produce individual freedom. Paradox of city life: objectification leads to greater individualism and subjectivism. [The most significant characteristic of the metropolis] "Functional extension beyond its physical boundaries"—a person’s life does not end with the limits of his/her body and the area of his/her immediate activity.  

31. Theories of urban sociology Theory of (Sorokin and Zimmerman 1929) There has been a recent international resurgence of interest in the modern city in particular, emphasis has been placed on urban areas and regions as drivers of economic change and centers of cultural regeneration and identity formation, as well as spaces of social division, conflict and inequality. Cities, with their concentration of talent, mixture of peoples, and economic surplus, have provided a fertile ground for the evolution of human culture: the arts, scientific research, and technical innovation. They serve as centers of communication, where new ideas and information are spread to the surrounding territory and to foreign lands. However the opposing cultural theme portrays rural society as a way of life that is superior to existence in the cities and threatened by urban industrial capitalism (Sorokin and Zimmerman 1929). It has protagonists within rural sociology and in society for whom the problem is how to preserve the wholesome qualities of rural society against the encroachments of urban industrial capitalism (e.g., how to avoid community disintegration, loss of local autonomy, the collapse of the family farm, the decline of the traditional rural way of life, degradation of the rural landscape, and depletion of nonrenewable natural resources).

32. Theories of urban sociology Theory of (Sorokin and Zimmerman 1929) 'Principles of Rural-Urban sociology have stated that the factors distinguishing rural from urban communities include occupation, size and density of population as well as mobility, differentiation and stratification. The urban society is heterogeneous known for its diversity and complexity. It is dominated by secondary relations. Formal means of social control such as law, legislation, police, and court are needed in addition to the informal means for regulating the behavior of the people. The urban society is mobile and open. It provides more chances for social mobility. The status is achieved than ascribed. Occupations are more specialized. There is widespread division of labor and specialization opportunities for pursuing occupations are numerous. Family is said to be unstable. More than the family individual is given importance. Joint families are comparatively less in number. People are more class -conscious and progressive .They welcome changes. They are exposed to the modern developments in the fields of science and technology. Urban community is a complex multi group society. The urban community replaced consensus by dissensus . The social organization is atomistic and ill defined. It is characterized by disorganization, mental illness and anomie. Mass education is widespread in the city increasing democratization of the organizations and institutions demand formal education.

33. Theories of urban sociology : Theory of Urban Form Urban Form Theory focuses on the historical and current production of the built environment and centers on realizing the position of urban design within the broader fields of urban development. how urban space is shaped by human relations, and in turn, shapes these same relations for future generations. recognize how social, economic, political and cultural forces shape urban built form. also examine the crucial links between design and society, looking particularly at how formal elements can create or sustain diversity and interaction. Theorists on urban form Ernest Burgess' Concentric Zone Theory Homer Hoyt’s Sector Theory Harris and Ullman’s Multiple Nuclei Theory

34. Theory of Urban Form Urban form’ and ‘urban morphology’    Urban form refers to the arrangement of the larger functional units of a city, reflecting both the historical development of the city and its more recent planning history; it is defined by the spatial patterning of industrial, commercial and residential land uses and also by different levels of residential density ( Rose, 1967 ).  Urban morphology, sometimes referred to as the ‘urban fabric' or ‘urban texture’, deals primarily with the particular shape and dimensions of the built environment and with the aggregations and configurations of building types. At this fine scale the configurations of cities directly affect both outdoor and indoor activities . Moreover, Urban Morphology is the study of internal structure of the cities, involves the analysis of the locational pattern of the functions and residences. One needs to know where they are found and why. This pattern is outcome of several factors. The segregation of functions and residences and internal differentiation of cities occur due to economic and social and spatial causes.

35. Theory of Urban Form cont. Urban form’ and ‘urban morphology ’ cont. Urban structure can also refer to urban spatial structure; the arrangement of public and private space in cities and the degree of connectivity and accessibility. In this context, urban structure is concerned with the arrangement of the CBD, industrial and residential areas, and open space. Milder provides an overview of typologies of urban forms, pointing out that there are various classifications that are found in the literature, but reducing them to ‘roughly’ seven forms, of which all other classifications are mainly sub-divisions: Dispersed city; Compact city; Corridor/Linear/ City; Radial city; Multi-nuclear/polycentric city; Fringe city; Edge city; Satellite city. The dispersed city and the compact city can be seen as two extreme poles with the other classifications fitting somewhere in between

36. Theory of Urban Form Urban form’ and ‘urban morphology’ cont . Urban Structure/form Models 1. Concentric Ring Model The concentric ring model was postulated in 1924 by sociologist Ernest Burgess, based on his observations of Chicago. It draws on human ecology theories, which compared the city to an ecosystem, with processes of adaptation and assimilation. Urban residents naturally sort themselves into appropriate rings, or ecological niches, depending on class and cultural assimilation . His model, referred to as the concentric zone or zonal model also deals with the urban growth process. Burgess demonstrated how with functional differentiation and growing population which competes for space; the city enlarges itself but still maintains a basic structure. The Concentric Zone Model suggests that as cities expand, the interaction of people and their economic social and political organizations create rings of urban growth from centre to outwards as follows

37. Urban form’ and ‘urban morphology’ cont. Urban Structure/form Models 1. Concentric Ring Model The innermost ring represents the central business district (CBD), called Zone A. It is surrounded by a zone of transition (B), which contains industry and poorer-quality housing. The third ring (C) contains housing for the working-class—the zone of independent workers’ homes. The fourth ring (D) has newer and larger houses occupied by the middle-class. The outermost ring (E), or commuter’s zone, is residential suburbs These expand outward from the city center which is the main area of commercial activity or the Central Business District (CBD).

38. Concentric Ring Model cont. The two inner rings of Burgess’ model are distinct in their functional character. The transition zone actually marks the extension of the CBD, where older derelict houses are converted for commercial use. The CBD is the life centre of the city and is also the most accessible part because people from all economic as well as social groups need to commute there every day. Very often the CBD draws people from outside the urban limits. The ‘centrality’ of a city can be measured by the character of its CBD. The more important regional centres that serve a large hinterland will have larger CBDs, where financial as well as material and service transactions draw people daily from other service centres too.

39. Urban Structure/form Models cont. 1. Concentric Ring Model cont. 1.Central Business District (CBD) 2 . Transition Zone 3 . Zone of lower income group 4 . Zone of middle and high income group 5 . Commuter Zone . 1 2 3 4 5 Fig. 1 Burgus Concentric Ring Model.

40. Urban Structure/form Models cont. 1. Concentric Ring Model cont. Limitation of the model Since the concentric zone model is based on the empirical study of American cities especially Chicago, it is essentially an inductive one. The universality of the model is therefore difficult to establish, although it has been widely studied and discussed . this is unnatural since change is never abrupt. Moreover the basic homogeneity of each zone is questionable . what limits the model is its lack of universality, since this theory is restricted to a particular time and place that is Chicago in the 1920’s. It describes an American geography in which the inner city is poor while suburbs are wealthy—elsewhere, the converse is the norm. In new, western U.S. cities such as Los Angeles, advances in transportation and communication have blurred these “zones.” Further , the model fails to account for topographical and physical features of the landscape. Even in Chicago, the concentric rings were semi-circles, interrupted by Lake Michigan.

41. Urban Structure/form Models cont. 2. Sector Model cont. In 1939, the economist Homer Hoyt adapted the concentric ring model by observing 25 cities proposing that cities develop in wedge-shaped sectors instead of rings . The model demonstrate a CBD from which grow the sectors belonging to different economic levels. The picture presents a central commercial area with sectoral landuse zones radiating from Some kinds of landuse tend to attract each other such as industrial areas and working-class residences, while some repel each other. Certain areas of a city are more attractive for various activities, whether by chance or geographic/environmental reasons. As these activities flourish and expand outward, they form wedges, becoming city sectors. Like the concentric ring model, Hoyt’s sectoral model has been criticized for ignoring physical features and new transportation patterns that restrict or direct growth . Hoyt’s Sectoral Model of Urban Growth: In Hoyt’s model, cities grow in wedge-shaped sectors radiating from the center.

42. Urban Structure/form Models cont. 2. Sector Model cont. Fig. 2 Homer Hoyt Sector Model.

43. Urban Structure/form Models cont. 3. Multiple Nuclei Model cont. The multiple nuclei model was developed by C.D . Harris and E.L. Ullman (1945) proposed a model with multiple nuclei as follows to explain city formation after the spread of the automobile. People have greater movement due to increased car ownership, allowing for the specialization of regional centers. A city contains more than one center around which activities revolve. Some activities are attracted to particular nodes while others try to avoid them. For example, a university node may attract well-educated residents, pizzerias, and bookstores, whereas an airport may attract hotels and warehouses. Incompatible activities will avoid clustering in the same area.

44. Multi nuclei model cont. They observed that towns and cities do not necessarily grow around a single business district. Differential landuse patterns evolve around several commercial centres and it is an agglomeration of these that make the city. Some underlying factors are common in the way in which growth takes place around a number of nuclei: ( 1.)Certain activities require specialized facilities. A port for instance, needs to be located at the waterfront while business areas must have a high degree of accessibility. ( 2.)Certain kinds of activities will tend to stay apart such as heavy industry and upper class residences. ( 3.)Certain kinds of activities are found together to their mutual advantage. ( 4.)The rental rates differ from one area to another.

45. Multiple nuclei cont. 1. CBD) 2 . Wholesale and light manufacturing 3 . Low-class residential 4 . Middle-class residential 5 . High-class residential 6 . Heavy manufacturing. 7 . Outlying Business District 8 . Residential Suburb 9 . Industrial Suburb .

46. Urban social problems social problem refers to any undesirable condition or situation that is judged by an influential number of persons within a community to be intolerable and to require group action toward constructive reform =  examples are urban homelessness, poverty, crime, prostitution, divorce, chronic unemployment, racial and cultural conflict, and so on Classic sociology considered social problems to be the result of the disintegrating influences of the city ======> that is, they are typically associated with the dense, mixed, heterogeneous, disorderly populations of large urban centers. {Although such problems also exist in rural areas, we still tend to perceive them to be worse in cities . contemporary theorists tend to see all social problems as social constructions tied to economic and political inequalities =====> even what is defined as a social problem is determined by power relations =====> social problems are created and fashioned by political domination and socio-economic control

47. Urban social problems Some of the major problems of urbanization are 1. Urban Sprawl 2. Overcrowding 3. Housing 4. Unemployment 5. Slums and Squatter Settlements 6. Transport 7. Water 8. Sewerage Problems 9. Trash Disposal 10. Urban Crimes 11. Problem of Urban Pollution.12 drug addiction.13 racial and ethnic inequality The sheer magnitude of the urban population, haphazard and unplanned growth of urban areas, and a desperate lack of infrastructure are the main causes of such a situation. The rapid growth of urban population both natural and through migration, has put heavy pressure on public utilities like housing, sanitation, transport, water, electricity, health, education and so on. Poverty, unemployment and under employment among the rural immigrants, beggary, thefts,burglaries and other social evils are on rampage. Urban sprawl is rapidly encroaching the precious agricultural land

48. Urban problems of sprawl and over dens

49. Urban problem: unemployment and urban crime

50. Urban problem: flood and slum in the urban area

51. Urban problem: pollution and congestion

52. REFERENCES: Fannagan W., Contemporary Urban Sociology,  Cambridge, University of Cambridge, 1993 Squirs , G.Ed . Urban Sprawl, Causes, Consequences and Policy Responses, the urban publication 2002 Louis Wirth, Urbanism as a way of Life, American Journal of Sociology Park Dixton Goist , City and ‘community’:  Mark Gottdiener , Ray Hutchinson, The New Urban Sociology, 4 th  edition, Westview Press Archer, J. (2005). Social Theory of Space: Architecture and the Production of Self, Culture, and Society. Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, 64(4), 430-433.  https://www.jstor.org/stable/25068197 Korllos , T. (1980). Sociology of architecture: An emerging perspective. Ekistics, 47(285), 470-475. Retrieved June 14, 2021, from  http://www.jstor.org/stable/43619763 Lipstadt , H. (2005). Sociology: Bourdieu’s Bequest.  Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians,   64 (4), 433-436. doi:10.2307/25068198 Ankerl , G. (1981). Experimental sociology of architecture: A guide to theory, research and literature. Mouton Publishers.  https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110903058 Muller, A. & Reichmann, W. (2015). Architecture, Materiality and Society: Connecting Sociology of Architecture with Science and Technology Studies. Palgrave Macmillan.  http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781137461131 Jones, P. (2011). The sociology of architecture. Liverpool University Press. https://is.muni.cz/el/1423/podzim2015/SOC593/um/Jones_2011_The_Sociology_of_Architecture_book_130920.pdf

53. Thank you I wish you all the Best