Vapour compression system, is a closed-loop system that uses a liquid refrigerant that's alternately compressed and expanded through four stages, changing it from a liquid to a vapor.

is a closed-loop system that uses a liquid refrigerant that's alternately compressed and expanded through four stages, changing it from a liquid to a vapor.

1. Vapour Compression System

2. MODIFICATIONS IN REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE WITH VAPOUR AS A REFRIGERANT The reversed Carnot cycle with vapour as a refrigerant can be used as a practical cycle with minor modifications. The isothermal processes of heat rejection and heat absorption, accompanying condensation and evaporation respectively, are nearly perfect processes and easily achievable in practice. The isentropic compression and expansion processes, however, have certain limitations, therefore, suitably modified.

3. Dry Versus Wet Compression The compression process as shown in Fig. 3.1 involves the compression of wet refrigerant vapour at 1 to dry-saturated vapour at 2. It is called wet compression . With a reciprocating compressor, wet compression is not found suitable due to the following reasons: (1) First, the liquid refrigerant may be trapped in the head of the cylinder and may damage the compressor valves and the cylinder itself. Even though the state of vapour at the end of wet compression is theoretically dry-saturated, it is normal to expect some liquid droplets to remain suspended in the gas, as the time taken by the compression process is quite small compared to the time needed for evaporation of droplets. For example, in a modern high-speed compressor, say, running at 2800 rpm, the time available in one revolution is only 0.021 second. (2) Secondly, liquid-refrigerant droplets may wash away the lubricating oil from the walls of the compressor cylinder, thus increasing wear.

4. It is, therefore, desirable to have compression with vapour initially dry saturated at 1 as shown in Fig. 3.1, or even slightly superheated if a reciprocating compressor is used. Such compression is known as dry compression . The state of the vapour at the end of compression will, therefore, have to be at 2, at pressure pk which is the saturation pressure of the refrigerant corresponding to the condensing temperature tk , instead of being at 2 , which would be the state point if the Carnot cycle were to be executed. It results in the discharge temperature t 2 being higher than the condensing temperature tk . Consequently, the refrigerant leaves the compressor superheated. The increased work of the cycle due to the substitution of wet compression by dry compression appears as the area 2–2 – 2, generally known as superheat horn . It must, however, be stated here that wet compression in some cases is indeed desirable, and also practicable with the use of a continuous flow machine like a centrifugal or a screw compressor with no valves in place which are an essential feature of a reciprocating compressor. The improvement in COP with wet compression and the power consumption per ton refrigeration with wet compression is less by 10 percent as compared with that of dry compression.

5. Throttling Versus Isentropic Expansion Refrigerating machines are usually much smaller devices compared to power plants. Thus the net work required by refrigeration systems is quite small compared to the work done in power-generating plants. Further, the positive work of the cycle, recovered during the isentropic expansion process, as shown by area 3-a-b-4 in Fig. 3.2, is even smaller, as compared to the negative work of the cycle consumed during the isentropic compression process shown by area 1-2-a-b. This is evident from the expression for work, viz., – vd p . Thus for the same pressure difference d p , the work depends on the volume of the working substance. In the expander, the refrigerant is in the liquid state, whereas, in the compressor, it is in the gaseous state. The volume of the vapour is very large compared to the volume of the liquid (v g >> vf ). Hence, the positive work of isentropic expansion is seldom large enough to justify the cost of an expander. On the other hand, the thermodynamic and friction losses of an expander, if employed, may even exceed the gain in work. Moreover, there are practical difficulties in smoothly expanding a liquid of a highly wet vapour in an expander.

6. Accordingly, the isentropic expansion process of the Carnot cycle may be replaced by a simple throttling process or an isenthalpic process by the use of an expansion device such as a throttle valve or a capillary tube. The process is an irreversible one and is accompanied by increase of entropy as shown by line 3-4 on the T - s diagram in Fig. 3.3. Thus, the substitution of the isentropic-expansion process 3-4 by the isenthalpic/throttling process 3-4 would, theoretically, result in a loss of work represented by area 3-a-b-4 on the p - v diagram and a decrease in the refrigerating effect represented by area 4-c-d-4 on the T - s diagram. It can be shown that both these areas are equal

7. VAPOUR COMPRESSION CYCLE The cycle with the above two modifications is named as the vapour compression cycle and because of its high index of performance or efficiency, it is most widely used in commercial refrigeration systems. A complete vapour compression cycle is shown on the T - s diagram in Fig. 3.4 and on the p - diagram in Fig. 3.5. Figure 3.4 also presents a comparison of the vapour compression cycle 1-2-3-4 with the reversed Carnot cycle 1-2-3-4, or 1-2-3-4, both operating between the same temperature limits of Tk and To . In the vapour compression cycle: Refrigerating effect, qo = area 1-4-d-e Heat rejected, qk = area 2-2-3-c-e Work done, w = qk – qo = area 1-2-2-3-c-d-4-l

8. It may maybe seen that the vapour compression cycle presents three deviations from the reversed Carnot cycle, as indicated below: ( i ) Area 4-4-c-d, representing a loss of the refrigerating effect, qo , as a result of throttling. (ii) Area 4-4-c-d, also representing a loss of positive work, wo , resulting from the failure to recover expansion work. It can be shown that areas 4-4-c-d and 3-f-4 are the same. (iii) Area 2-2-2 of superheat horn, representing an increase of negative work, wk , as a result of dry compression. Consequently, the theoretical COP of the vapour compression cycle is lower than that of the reversed Carnot cycle. Nevertheless, it is closest to the Carnot cycle as compared to other cycles and its COP approaches nearest to the Carnot value.

9. VAPOUR COMPRESSION SYSTEM CALCULATIONS A schematic vapour compression system is shown in Fig. 3.6. It consists of a compressor , a condenser , an expansion device for throttling and an evaporator . The compressor-delivery head, discharge line, condenser and liquid line form the highpressure side of the system. The compressor and matching condenser together are also available commercially as one unit called the condensing unit . The expansion line, evaporator, suction line and compressor-suction head form the low-pressure side of the system. In actual systems unlike in Fig. 3.6, the expansion device is located as close to the evaporator as possible in order to minimise the heat gain in the low temperature expansion line. In plants with a large amount of refrigerant charge, a receiver is installed in the liquid line. Normally, a drier is also installed in the liquid line particularly in flurocarbon systems. The drier contains silica gel and absorbs traces of moisture present in the liquid refrigerant so that it does not enter the narrow cross-section of the expansion device causing moisture choking by freezing. The thermodynamic processes are as follows:

10. Representation of Vapour Compression Cycle on Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram

11. Ex. A R134a vapour compression system operating at a condenser temperature of 40°C and an evaporator temperature of 0°C develops 15 tons of refrigeration. Using the p-h diagram for Freon 134a, determine. (a) the discharge temperature and mass flow rate of the refrigerant circulated, (b) the theoretical piston displacement of the compressor and piston displacement per ton of refrigeration, (c) the theoretical horsepower of the compressor and horsepower per ton of refrigeration, (d) the heat rejected in the condenser, and (e) the Carnot COP and actual COP of the cycle.

12. Ammonia Ice Plant An ammonia ice plant operates between a condenser temperature of 35°C and an evaporator temperature of –15°C. It produces 10 tons of ice per day from water at 30°C to ice at –5°C. Assuming simple saturation cycle, using only tables of properties for ammonia, determine; (a) the capacity of the refrigeration plant, (b) the mass flow rate of refrigerant, (c) the discharge temperature, (d) the compressor cylinder diameter and stroke if its volumetric efficiency is = 0.65, rpm N = 1200 and stroke/bore ratio L/D = 1.2, (e) the horsepower of the compressor motor if the adiabatic efficiency of the compressor = 0.85 and mechanical efficiency = 0.95, and (f) the theoretical and actual COP.

13. Checking if Dry or Wet Compression is Desirable in Ammonia Systems An ammonia refrigerating machine has working temperatures of 35°C in the condenser and –15°C in the evaporator. Assume two cases; (a) dry compression, and (b) wet compression Calculate for each, the following; ( i ) the theoretical piston displacement per ton refrigeration, (ii) the theoretical horsepower per ton refrigeration, and (iii) the coefficient of performance.

14. STANDARD RATING CYCLE AND EFFECT OF OPERATING CONDITIONS Effect of Evaporator Pressure

15. Example : Variation in Capacity of Condensing Unit with Refrigeration Temperature A Freon 22 condensing unit is specified to give 40 TR capacity for air conditioning under standard operating conditions of 40°C condensing and 5°C evaporating temperatures. What would be its capacity in TR for food freezing for which the evaporator temperature is –35°C?

16. Effect of Condenser Pressure An increase in condenser pressure, similarly results in a decrease in the refrigerating capacity and an increase in power consumption, as seen from the changed cycle The decrease in refrigerating capacity is due to a decrease in the refrigerating effect and volumetric efficiency. The increase in power consumption is due to increased mass flow (due to decreased refrigerating effect) and an increase in specific work (due to increased pressure ratio), although the isentropic line remains unchanged. It may, however, be noted that the effect of increase in condenser pressure is not as severe, on the refrigerating capacity and power consumption per ton of refrigeration, as that of the decrease in evaporator pressure

17. Effect of Suction Vapour Superheat Superheating of the suction vapour is advisable in practice because it ensures complete vaporization of the liquid in the evaporator before it enters the compressor. Also, in most refrigeration and air-conditioning systems, the degree of superheat serves as a means of actuating and modulating the capacity of the expansion valve. It has also been seen that for some refrigerants such as R 134a, Isobutane , etc., maximum COP is obtained with superheating of the suction vapour. It can be seen from Fig. 3.15, that the effect of superheating of the vapour from t 1 = t to t 1 ’ is as follows: ( i ) Increase in specific volume of suction vapour from (ii) Increase in refrigerating effect from (iii) Increase in specific work from

18. As both the numerator and the denominator increase, the numerical value of COP may increase or decrease or remain the same. It has been shown that in Freon 12 systems, superheating increases the COP whereas in Freon 22 and ammonia systems, it decreases it. In general, however, the effect of slight superheat on the volumetric efficiency of the reciprocating compressor and the COP is beneficial as it ensures complete vaporization of liquid refrigerant droplets in suspension in the suction vapour.

19. Effect of Liquid Subcooling It is possible to reduce the temperature of the liquid refrigerant to within a few degrees of the temperature of the water entering the condenser in some condenser designs by installing a subcooler between the condenser and the expansion valve. The effect of subcooling of the liquid from t 3 = t k to t 3 is shown in Fig. 3.16. It will be seen that subcooling reduces flashing of the liquid during expansion and increases the refrigerating effect. In general, the functions of the condenser as well as the subcooler can be combined in the condenser itself by slightly oversizing the condenser

20. Using Liquid–Vapour Regenerative Heat Exchanger If we combine superheating of vapour with liquid subcooling , we have a liquid vapour regenerative heat exchanger. A liquid–vapour heat exchanger may be installed as shown in Fig. 3.17. In this, the refrigerant vapour from the evaporator is superheated in the regenerative heat exchanger with consequent subcooling of the liquid from the condenser. The effect on the thermodynamic cycle is shown in Fig. 3.18. Since the mass flow rate of the liquid and vapour is the same, we have from energy balance of the heat exchanger The degree of superheat and the degree of subcooling need not be the same as the specific heats of the vapour and liquid phases are different In all the above expressions, both numerators and denominators increase. The net effect, whether positive, negative or zero, depends on the refrigerant used and the operating conditions

21. Example (a) An R 134a simple saturation cycle refrigerator operates at 40°C condenser and –16°C evaporator temperatures. Determine COP and HP/TR. (b) If a liquid–vapour regenerative heat exchanger is installed in the system, with the suction vapour at 15°C, what will be the effect on COP and HP/TR?

22. 6. A 15 TR Freon 22 vapour compression system operates between a condenser temperature of 40°C and an evaporator temperature of 5°C. Determine the compressor discharge temperature ( i ) Using the p-h diagram for Freon 22. (ii) Using saturation properties of Freon 22 and assuming the specific heat of its vapour as 0.8 kJ/kg K. (iii) Using superheat tables for Freon 22. (b) Calculate the theoretical piston displacement and power consumption of the compressor per ton of refrigeration. A simple saturation ammonia compression system has a high pressure of 1.35 MN/m2 and a low pressure of 0.19 MN/m2. Find per 400,000 kJ/h of refrigerating capacity, the power consumption of the compressor and COP of the cycle. 8 . A Freon 22 refrigerating machine operates between a condenser temperature of 40°C and an evaporator temperature of 5°C. Calculate the increase (per cent) in the theoretical piston displacement and the power consumption of the cycle: ( i ) If the evaporator temperature is reduced to 0°C. (ii) If the condenser temperature is increased to 45°C

23. 9. An ammonia ice plant operates on simple saturation cycle at the following temperatures. Condensing temperature 40°C Evaporating temperature –15°C It produces 10 tons of ice per day at –5°C from water at 30°C. Determine: (a) Capacity of the refrigeration plant. (b) Mass flow rate of refrigerant. (c) Isentropic discharge temperature. (d) Compressor dimensions (bore and stroke) if its volumetric efficiency is assumed as 65%. The compressor is to run at 1400 rpm. Take stroke/ bore ratio (L/D) as 1.2. (e) Power of the compressor if its adiabatic efficiency is taken as 85% and mechanical efficiency as 95%. (f) Theoretical and actual COP. 10. A Refrigerant 22 vapour compression system meant for food freezing operates at 40°C condensing temperature and –35°C evaporating temperature. Its compressor is capable of pumping 30 L/s of vapour at suction. (a) Calculate the COP of the system and its refrigerating capacity. (b) If a regenerative heat exchanger is installed which allows suction vapour to be heated by 30°C with liquid from the condenser at 40°C to be cooled correspondingly, what is the new COP and refrigerating capacity?

24. Multi-stage systems can be classified into: a) Multi-compressors systems b) Multi-evaporators systems Why Multi stage compression system ? What are limitations of single stage system The single stage vapour compression systems are adequate for small temperature lift However, there are many applications where the temperature lift can be quite high. The temperature lift can become large either due to the requirement of very low evaporator temperatures and/or due to the requirement of very high condensing temperatures.

25. For example, in frozen food industries the required evaporator can be as low as –40 o C , while in chemical industries temperatures as low as –150 o C may be required for liquefaction of gases, . On the high temperature side the required condensing temperatures can be very high if the refrigeration system is used as a heat pump for heating applications such as process heating, drying etc. However, as the temperature lift increases the single stage systems become inefficient and impractical.

26. Compressor work increases : h 2 ” – h 1 “ > h 2 ’ –h 1 > h 2 –h 1 Discharge temperature increases: T 2 ’’ > T 2 ’> T 2 Quality of the vapour at the inlet to the evaporator increases : X 4 ”> X 4 ’> X 4 Pressure ratio (P 2 /P 1 ) increases : Vol. Efficiency reduces : ɳ V1 ” < ɳ V1 ’ < ɳ V1 Specific volume at the inlet to the compressor increases : ϑ 1 ” > ϑ 1 ’> ϑ 1 Effect of evaporator temperature on cycle performance (T-s diagram) Effect of evaporator temperature on cycle performance (P-h diagram) steeper isentropic Flatter isentropic P 2 P 1 T c T e1 T e2 T e3

27. Limitations of Single stage systems The slopes of the constant entropy lines on the p-h diagram decreases for the isentropics away from the saturated vapour line. Compressor discharge temperature increases causing additional load on condenser and compressor. Superheat losses increase High temperature can cause oil breakdown and can reduces the life of compressor Quality of the vapour at the inlet to the evaporator increases – reduces RE Pressure ratio increases - High pressure ratio reduce the volumetric efficiency of reciprocating compressor Specific volume at the inlet to the compressor increases – Reduces the volumetric refrigeration capacity of compressor Due to these drawbacks, single stage systems are not recommended in high temperature lift. In such cases multi-stage systems are used in practice. Single stage system is used upto an evaporator temperature of –30 o C. A two-stage system is used upto –60 o C.

28. Two stage vapour compression with Flash gas removal Schematic Diagram of system with flash gas removal The RE can be increased by maintaining the condition of the refrigerant in more liquid state at the entrance to the evaporator. This can be done by expanding refrigerant very close to the saturated liquid line. Thermodynamic cycle on P-h diagram

29. Two stage compression with Flash intercooling steeper isentropic flatter isentropic m 2 > m 1 P II = m 2 (h 4 – h 3 ) Schematic Diagram of system with flash intercooling Thermodynamic cycle on P-h diagram

30. Two stage system with flash gas removal , water and flash intercooling Schematic Diagram of system with flash gas removal, water and flash intercooling Thermodynamic cycle on P-h diagram