WASTE MANAGEMENT.pptx

...

1. Waste Management (Solid Waste)

2. WHAT IS WASTE? Waste is a product or substance which is no longer suited for its intended use. Whereas in natural ecosystems waste (i.e. oxygen, carbon dioxide and dead organic matter) is used as food or a reactant, waste materials resulting from human activities are often highly resilient and take a long time to decompose. It is often also called trash, garbage, rubbish, or junk. It can be solid, liquid, or gas. Waste (or wastes) are  unwanted or unusable materials . Waste is any substance which is discarded after primary use, or is worthless, defective and of no use.

3. CONCEPT OF WASTE MANAGEMENT Waste management is the collection, transport, processing,(waste treatment), recycling or disposal of waste materials, usually ones produced by human activity, in an effort to reduce their effect on human health or local aesthetics or amenity. Waste management  refers to the various schemes to manage and dispose of wastes. It can be by discarding, destroying, processing, recycling, reusing, or controlling wastes. The prime objective of waste management is to reduce the amount of unusable materials and to avert potential health and environmental hazards. The collected wastes are disposed of by various methods, e.g. by landfill compaction and incineration. Solid wastes, most especially, are incinerated to reduce their volume by 80 to 95%, and to convert them into gas, steam, ash, and heat. However, air pollution is a concern when disposing of wastes by means of incineration. Thus, other means are encouraged, such as recycling, reprocessing, and re-use. Organic wastes, especially those that are biodegradable, are allowed to be decomposed so that they can be used as mulch or compost in agriculture and the methane gas from the biological degradation be collected and used for generating electricity and heat. Liquid wastes, such as wastewater, undergo treatment producing sewage sludge that can be disposed of by incineration, composting, and landfill. Synonym: waste disposal.

4. CLASSIFICATION OF WASTE

5. I. Reduce:  Buy only what you need because a better way to reduce waste is by not creating it. II. Reuse:  If you have to acquire goods, try getting used ones or obtaining substitutes. III. Recycle:  When discarding your waste, find ways to recycle it instead of letting it go to landfill.

6. I. Reduce Reducing the amount you buy is the most significant of all the options to manage waste. The key is to only purchase goods that we need and in the right amount Reducing the amount you buy can help reduce waste in surprising ways: Phone books:  When was the last time you used a phone book? The white pages alone cost 5 million trees a year. They generated 650,000 tons of waste in 2009 (EPA, 2010). You can opt out of phone book delivery by registering your address at sites like www.yellowpagesoptout.com. Disposable razors:  More than 2 billion disposable razors are disposed of each year in the U.S. alone (EPA, n.d.). Disposable diapers:  In 2010, 50,000 tons of wood pulp were used to produce disposable diapers, and almost 4 million diapers were discarded in landfills (EPA, 2011). As listed in Table 1, it takes 450 years to decompose a disposable diaper. Cell phones:  Despite great strides in manufacturing, a typical new cellphone consists of 40% metals and 40% plastics, which use oil for their manufacturing, as well as other resources for packaging and transportation. EPA estimates that more than 125 million cell phones are discarded each year, generating more than 65,000 tons of waste (EPA, 2004). Because cell phones contain hazardous materials, you should always trade in, donate, or recycle your old phones.

7. Reduce: What Can We Do? Choosing items that you need, not want:  People who keep upgrading their electronics (e.g., cellphones) to the latest design are very likely to waste their money and also unnecessarily waste natural resources. Shopping for high-quality items:  You may have to pay more, but high-quality items may last longer, perform better, and give fewer problems than lower-quality items. Instead of disposable items, opt for durable ones such as silverware, reusable cups, and reusable water bottles. Using minimum packaging:  Packaging materials like plastic bags, boxes, packing peanuts, and plastic wrappers often wind up in landfills. Bring your own shopping bags instead of using plastic bags. If you don't have shopping bags, use paper bags instead of plastic because they decompose faster. Many stores have reusable bags for sale at the register, and some stores even have used plastic bags for consumers to use. Buying local products:  Besides stimulating the local economy, buying local products means we can reduce negative environmental impacts from transportation.

8. II. Reuse The idea of being wasteful makes many people uncomfortable. Yet most of us continue to waste because we can't think of anything better to do with last year's phone book, draperies that are too short, or a closet door that was scratched by a favorite pet. We are conditioned to think of things that are old, empty, worn, broken, ugly, or marred as useless, so we throw them away without much thought about the consequences. Most Americans buy far more than they can use effectively, as evidenced by bulging attics and garages. The process of reusing starts with the assumption that the used materials that flow through our lives can be a resource rather than refuse. Waste, after all, is in the eye of the beholder. One person's trash is another person's treasure. If we really look at things we are throwing away, we can learn to see them as materials that can be reused to solve everyday problems and satisfy everyday needs. Most of us, however, haven't even begun to exploit the resources in our trash. Once you have made up your mind to use trash for positive uses, you can begin to brainstorm and generate ideas. Reusing saves money, conserves resources, and satisfies the human urge to be creative.

9. Reuse: What Can We Do? The following are some examples of reuse. Containers can be reused at home or for school projects. Reuse wrapping paper, plastic bags, boxes, and lumber. Give outgrown clothing to friends or charity. Buy beverages in returnable containers. Donate broken appliances to charity or a local vocational school, which can use them for art classes or for students to practice repairing. Offer furniture and household items that are no longer needed to people in need, friends, or charity. Sheets of paper that have been used on only one side can be used for note-taking or rough drafts. Old, outdated furniture can be reupholstered or slipcovered. Have padding added to the furniture to give it a new look. Often the frame can be modified slightly to change the way it looks. Old towels and sheets can be cut in small pieces and used for dust cloths. Books and magazines can be donated to schools, public libraries, or nursing homes. Newspapers can be donated to pet stores. Packing materials, such as polystyrene, plastic quilting, and similar materials, can be saved and reused again for packing. Carry a reusable tote bag or take bags to the store when you go shopping. There are attractive nylon mesh bags available that can be stored easily in the glove compartment of your car. Durable canvas bags, which take very little space to tuck away when not in use, can also be used. If you buy prepared microwaveable dinners, save the plates for outdoor parties or for children. Old tires can be used in the garden and in the play yard. Some of the strategies are very closely related in these "Three Rs" categories. For instance, we need to reduce the use of plastic bags for grocery shopping, but we can use tote bags instead and reuse them while making sure that they are clean.

10. III. Recycle The main benefits of recycling are: Recycling generates industry:  As New Mexicans recycle, there will be a growing supply of materials generated. In order to utilize these recycled materials, manufacturing facilities will emerge to find uses for them. As more recycling plants are built and more products are manufactured, we will gain a greater understanding of the entire process. Recycling creates jobs:  EPA estimates that recycling 10,000 tons of materials would create 36 jobs compared to six for landfilling the same amount (EPA, 2002). Some communities have formed working partnerships with workshops for the disabled, developed and administered job-training partnerships, or otherwise found work for unemployed labor in recycling programs. Cost avoidance of recycling:  For years, recycling has been hampered by the belief that it should make money. That may be true for some recyclables, but not for others. Rather, recycling should be thought of as a cost-effective disposal option. It usually requires fewer government subsidies than landfilling or incineration. It saves natural resources and helps protect the environment. Lower taxes, energy savings, and a cleaner environment are the real "bottom lines" in favor of recycling.

11. Agricultural waste Green waste Mixed waste Animal by-products Grey water Municipal solid waste Biodegradable waste Hazardous waste Nuclear waste (see Radioactive waste) Biomedical waste Household waste Organic waste Bulky waste Household hazardous waste Packaging waste Business waste Human waste Post-consumer waste Chemical waste Sewage sludge Radioactive waste Clinical waste Industrial waste Low level waste Coffee wastewater Slag High level waste Commercial waste Fly ash Mixed waste (radioactive/hazardous) Composite waste Sludge Spent nuclear fuel Construction and demolition waste (C&D waste) Inert waste Recyclable waste Consumable waste Inorganic waste Residual waste Controlled waste Kitchen waste Retail hazardous waste Demolition waste Litter Sewage Dog waste Liquid waste Sharps waste Domestic waste Marine debris Ship disposal Electronic waste (e-waste) Medical waste Slaughterhouse waste Food waste Metabolic waste Special waste (see Hazardous waste) Gaseous wastes Mineral waste   WASTE TYPES

12. BIODEGRADABLE WASTE  includes any organic matter in waste which can be broken down into carbon dioxide, water, methane or simple organic molecules by micro-organisms and other living things by composting, aerobic digestion, anaerobic digestion or similar processes. BIOMEDICAL WASTE  OR  HOSPITAL WASTE  is any kind of waste containing infectious (or potentially infectious) materials. It may also include waste associated with the generation of biomedical waste that visually appears to be of medical or laboratory origin (e.g. packaging, unused bandages, infusion kits etc.), as well research laboratory waste containing bio molecules or organisms that are mainly restricted from environmental release.   BULKY WASTE OR BULKY REFUSE  is a technical term taken from waste management to describe waste types that are too large to be accepted by the regular waste collection. Bulky waste items include discarded furniture (couches, recliners, tables), large appliances (refrigerators, ovens, TVs), and plumbing fixtures (bathtubs, toilets, sinks). BUSINESS (OR COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL) WASTE  – cover the commercial waste and industrial waste types. Generally, businesses are expected to make their own arrangements for the collection, treatment and disposal of their wastes. Waste from smaller shops and trading estates where local authority waste collection agreements are in place will generally be treated as municipal waste. These wastes are also known as industrial wastes and are released in the environment. CHEMICAL WASTE  is a waste that is made from harmful chemicals (mostly produced by large factories)

13. COFFEE WASTEWATER , also known as  coffee effluent , is a byproduct of coffee processing.The unpicked fruit of the coffee tree, known as the coffee cherry, undergoes a long process to make it ready for consumption. This process often entails use of large quantities of water and the production of considerable amounts of solid and liquid waste. The type of waste is a result of the type of process that the coffee cherries go through. The conversion of the cherry to  oro or  green bean  (the dried coffee bean which is ready to be exported) is achieved through either a dry, semi-washed or fully washed process. COMMERCIAL WASTE  consists of waste from premises used mainly for the purposes of a trade or business or for the purpose of sport, recreation, education or entertainment, but excluding household, agricultural or industrial waste. CONSTRUCTION WASTE  OR  DEBRIS  is any kind of debris from the construction process. CONTROLLED WASTE  is waste that is subject to legislative control in either its handling or its disposal.[1] As a legal term, Controlled waste applies exclusively to the UK but the concept is enshrined in laws of many other countries. The types of waste covered includes domestic, commercial and industrial waste.  DEMOLITION WASTE  is waste debris from destruction of buildings, roads, bridges, or other structures. Municipal solid waste  ( MSW ), commonly known as  trash  or  garbage , is a waste type consisting of everyday items that are discarded by the public. "Garbage" can also refer specifically to food waste, as in a garbage disposal.

14. ELECTRONIC WASTE OR E-WASTE  describes discarded electrical or electronic devices. Used electronics which are destined for refurbishment, reuse, resale, salvage recycling through material recovery, or disposal are also considered e-waste. Informal processing of e-waste in developing countries can lead to adverse human health effects and environmental pollution. FOOD LOSS AND WASTE  is food that is not eaten. The causes of food waste or loss are numerous and occur throughout the food system, during production, processing, distribution, retail and food service sales, and consumption. Overall, about one-third of the world's food is thrown away. GREEN WASTE, ALSO KNOWN AS "BIOLOGICAL WASTE" , is any organic waste that can be composted. It is most usually composed of refuse from gardens such as grass clippings or leaves, and domestic or industrial kitchen wastes. Green waste does not include things such as dried leaves, pine straw, or hay. Such materials are rich in carbon and considered "BROWN WASTES," while green wastes contain high in concentrations of nitrogen. Green waste can be used to increase the efficiency of many composting operations and can be added to soil to sustain local nutrient cycling. GREYWATER OR GREY WATER, SULLAGE, ALSO SPELLED GRAY WATER  refers to domestic wastewater generated in households or office buildings from streams without fecal contamination, i.e., all streams except for the wastewater from toilets. Sources of greywater include sinks, showers, baths, washing machines or dishwashers. As greywater contains fewer pathogens than domestic wastewater, it is generally safer to handle and easier to treat and reuse onsite for toilet flushing, landscape or crop irrigation, and other non-potable uses.  HAZARDOUS WASTE  is waste that has substantial or potential threats to public health or the environment.

15. Characteristically, hazardous wastes are materials that are known or tested to exhibit one or more of the following hazardous traits : Ignitability, Reactivity, Corrosive, Toxicity. Household hazardous waste HHW products exhibit many of the same dangerous characteristics as fully regulated hazardous waste which are their potential for reactivity, ignitability, corrosivity, toxicity, or persistence. Examples include drain cleaners, oil paint, motor oil, antifreeze, fuel, poisons, pesticides, herbicides and rodenticides, fluorescent lamps, lamp ballasts containing PCBs, some smoke detectors, and in some states, consumer electronics (such as televisions, computers, and cell phones).  HUMAN WASTE (OR HUMAN EXCRETA) refers to the waste products of the human digestive system, menses, and human metabolism including urine and faeces. As part of a sanitation system that is in place, human waste is collected, transported, treated and disposed of or reused by one method or another, depending on the type of toilet being used, ability by the users to pay for services and other factors SEWAGE SLUDGE  is the residual, semi-solid material that is produced as a by-product during sewage treatment of industrial or municipal wastewater. INDUSTRIAL WASTE  is the waste produced by industrial activity which includes any material that is rendered useless during a manufacturing process such as that of factories, mills, and mining operations. Types of industrial waste include dirt and gravel, masonry and concrete, scrap metal, oil, solvents, chemicals, scrap lumber, even vegetable matter from restaurants. Industrial waste may be solid, semi-solid or liquid in form. 

16. Slag  is a by-product of smelting (hydrometallurgical) ores and used metals. Broadly, it can be classified as ferrous (by-products of processing iron and steel), ferroalloy (by-product of ferroalloy production) or non-ferrous/base metals (by-products of recovering non-ferrous materials like copper, nickel, zinc and phosphorus). Fly ash ,  flue ash ,  coal ash , or  pulverised fuel ash  (in the UK) – plural tantum:  coal combustion residuals  ( CCRs ) – is a coal combustion product that is composed of the particulates (fine particles of burned fuel) that are driven out of coal-fired boilers together with the flue gases. Ash that falls to the bottom of the boiler's combustion chamber (commonly called a firebox) is called bottom ash. Sludge  is a semi-solid slurry that can be produced from a range of industrial processes, from water treatment, wastewater treatment or on-site sanitation systems. For example, it can be produced as a settled suspension obtained from conventional drinking water treatment,as sewage sludge from wastewater treatment processes. Inert waste  is waste which is neither chemically nor biologically reactive and will not decompose or only very slowly. Examples of this are sand and concrete. This has particular relevance to landfills as inert waste typically requires lower disposal fees than biodegradable waste or hazardous waste. Inorganic waste  is a type of waste that does not contain organic compounds. This waste is generally very difficult to decompose by microorganisms. Glass, aluminium cans, dust, and metal are some examples of inorganic waste. Inorganic waste remains free from decay, with more than 500 years needed being common for effective decomposition, therefore disposal can be challenging. Reducing consumption, reusing, and recycling are possible solutions for coping with this type of waste

17. Food loss and waste  is food that is not eaten. The causes of food waste or loss are numerous and occur throughout the food system, during production, processing, distribution, retail and food service sales, and consumption. Overall, about one-third of the world's food is thrown away. Litter  consists of waste products that have been discarded incorrectly, without consent, at an unsuitable location. Litter can also be used as a verb; to  litter  means to drop and leave objects, often man-made, such as aluminum cans, paper cups, food wrappers, cardboard boxes or plastic bottles on the ground, and leave them there indefinitely or for other people to dispose of as opposed to disposing of them correctly. Marine debris , also known as  marine litter , is human-created waste that has deliberately or accidentally been released in a sea or ocean. Floating oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the center of gyres and on coastlines, frequently washing aground, when it is known as  beach litter  or tidewrack.  Metabolic wastes  or  excrements  are substances left over from metabolic processes (such as cellular respiration) which cannot be used by the organism (they are surplus or toxic), and must therefore be excreted. This includes nitrogen compounds, water, CO 2 , phosphates, sulphates, etc. Animals treat these compounds as excretes. Plants have chemical "machinery" which transforms some of them (primarily the nitrogen compounds) into useful substances.

18. Radioactive waste  is a type of hazardous waste that contains radioactive material. Radioactive waste is a result of many activities, including nuclear medicine, nuclear research, nuclear power generation, rare-earth mining, and nuclear weapons reprocessing.The storage and disposal of radioactive waste is regulated by government agencies in order to protect human health and the environment. Biodegradable waste  includes any organic matter in waste which can be broken down into carbon dioxide, water, methane or simple organic molecules by micro-organisms and other living things by composting, aerobic digestion, anaerobic digestion or similar processes. Packaging waste , the part of the waste that consists of packaging and packaging material, is a major part of the total global waste. Post-consumer waste  is a waste type produced by the end consumer of a material stream; that is, where the waste-producing use did not involve the production of another product. Radioactive waste  is a type of hazardous waste that contains radioactive material. Radioactive waste is a result of many activities, including nuclear medicine, nuclear research, nuclear power generation, rare-earth mining, and nuclear weapons reprocessing. 

19. SPENT NUCLEAR FUEL , occasionally called  used nuclear fuel , is nuclear fuel that has been irradiated in a nuclear reactor (usually at a nuclear power plant). SHIP DISPOSAL A number of different methods exist for disposing of a ship after it has reached the end of its effective or economic service life with an organisation. ANIMAL PRODUCT  is any material derived from the body of an animal. Examples are fat, flesh, blood, milk, eggs, and lesser known products, such as is in glass and rennet. METABOLIC WASTES  OR  EXCREMENTS  are substances left over from metabolic processes (such as cellular respiration) which cannot be used by the organism (they are surplus or toxic), and must therefore be excreted. This includes nitrogen compounds, water, CO 2 , phosphates, sulphates, etc. Animals treat these compounds as excretes. Post-consumer waste  is a waste type produced by the end consumer of a material stream; that is, where the waste-producing use did not involve the production of another product. The terms of pre-consumer and post-consumer recycled materials are not defined in the ISO standard number 14021 (1999) but pre-consumer and post-consumer materials are. These definitions are the most widely recognized and verified definitions as used by manufacturers and procurement officers worldwide.

20. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT Solid waste refers here to all non-liquid wastes. In general this does not include excreta, although sometimes nappies and the faeces of young children may be mixed with solid waste. Solid waste can create significant health problems and a very unpleasant living environment if not disposed of safely and appropriately. If not correctly disposed of, waste may provide breeding sites for insect-vectors, pests, snakes and vermin (rats) that increase the likelihood of disease transmission. It may also pollute water sources and the environment.

21. DISEASE TRANSMISSION POLLUTION EFFECT ON MORALE ASSOCIATED RISK WITH SOLID WASTE

22. ASSOCIATED RISK WITH SOLID WASTE 1. DISEASE TRANSMISSION Decomposing organic waste attracts animals, vermin and flies. Flies may play a major role in the transmission of faecal -oral diseases, particularly where domestic waste contains faeces (often those of children). Rodents may increase the transmission of diseases such as leptospirosis and salmonella, and attract snakes to waste heaps. Solid waste may also provide breeding sites for mosquitoes. Mosquitoes of the Aedes genus lay eggs in water stored in discarded items such as tins and drums; these are responsible for the spread of dengue and yellow fevers. Such conditions may also attract mosquitoes of the Anopheles genus, which transmit malaria. Mosquitoes of the Culex genus breed in stagnant water with high organic content and transmit microfilariases ( Médecins Sans Frontières , 1994), appropriate conditions are likely to arise where leachate from waste enters pooling water.

23. 2. POLLUTION Poor management of the collection and disposal of solid waste may lead to leachate pollution of surface water or groundwater. This may cause significant problems if the waste contains toxic substances, or if nearby water sources are used for water supplies. Where large quantities of dry waste are stored in hot climates this may create a fire hazard. Related hazards include smoke pollution and fire threat to buildings and people. ASSOCIATED RISK WITH SOLID WASTE

24. EFFECT ON MORALE The effect of living in an unhygienic and untidy environment may lead people to become demoralised and less motivated to improve conditions around them. Waste attracts more waste and leads to less hygienic behaviour in general. ASSOCIATED RISK WITH SOLID WASTE

25. SOURCES AND TYPES OF SOLID WASTE Sources of solid waste In most situations the main sources of solid waste are: Medical centres Food stores Feeding centres Food distribution points Slaughter areas Warehouses Agency premises Markets Domestic areas

26. TYPE AND QUANTITY OF WASTE The type and quantity of waste generated in situations varies and the main factors affecting these are: The Geographical Region (Developed Or Less-developed Country Or Region); Socio-cultural Practices And Material Levels Among Affected Population; Seasonal Variations (Affecting Types Of Food Available); The Stage Of Emergency (Volume And Composition Of Waste May Change Over Time); The Packaging Of Food Rations. In general, the volume of waste generated is likely to be small and largely degradable where the population is of rural origin and the food rations supplied are unpackaged dry foodstuffs. Displaced urban populations are more likely to generate larger volumes of non-degradable waste, especially where packaged food rations are provided.  

27. Different categories of solid waste include:   Organic waste: Waste from preparation of food, market places, etc. Combustibles: Paper, wood, dried leaves, packaging for relief items, etc. (high organic and low moisture content) Non-combustibles: Metal, tin cans, bottles, stones, etc. Ashes/dust: Residue from fires used for cooking. Bulky waste: Tree branches, tyres, etc. Dead animals: Carcasses of domestic animals and livestock Hazardous waste: Oil, battery acid, medical waste Construction waste: Roofing, rubble, broken concrete, etc.

28. STEPS FOR SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT Identify safe disposal method/s Identify safe transportation method/s Identify safe collection method/s Determine the volume of waste generated Determine the potential health hazards from waste Identify the sources of waste Identify the types of waste

29.   KEY COMPONENTS OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT Solid waste management can be divided into five key components: Generation Storage Collection Transportation Disposal

30. GENERATION Generation of solid waste is the stage at which materials become valueless to the owner and since they have no use for them and require them no longer, they wish to get rid of them. Items which may be valueless to one individual may not necessarily be valueless to another. For example, waste items such as tins and cans may be highly sought after by young children.

31. 2. Storage Storage is a system for keeping materials after they have been discarded and prior to collection and final disposal. Where on-site disposal systems are implemented, such as where people discard items directly into family pits, storage may not be necessary. In emergency situations, especially in the early stages, it is likely that the affected population will discard domestic waste in poorly defined heaps close to dwelling areas. If this is the case, improved disposal or storage facilities should be provided fairly quickly and these should be located where people are able to use them easily. Improved storage facilities include: Small containers: household containers, plastic bins, etc. Large containers: communal bins, oil drums, etc. Shallow pits Communal depots: walled or fenced-in areas In determining the size, quantity and distribution of storage facilities the number of users, type of waste and maximum walking distance must be considered. The frequency of emptying must also be determined, and it should be ensured that all facilities are reasonably safe from theft or vandalism.

32. 3. Collection Collection simply refers to how waste is collected for transportation to the final disposal site. Any collection system should be carefully planned to ensure that storage facilities do not become overloaded. Collection intervals and volumes of collected waste must be estimated carefully. 4. Transportation This is the stage when solid waste is transported to the final disposal site There are various modes of transport which may be adopted and the chosen method depends upon local availability and the volume of waste to be transported. Types of transportation can be divided into three categories Human-powered: open hand-cart, hand-cart with bins, wheelbarrow, tricycle Animal-powered: donkey / bullock cart-drawn cart Motorized: tractor and trailer, standard truck, tipper-truck

33. 5. Disposal The final stage of solid waste management is safe disposal where associated risks are minimized. There are four main methods for the disposal of solid waste:   Land application: burial or landfilling Composting Burning or incineration Recycling (resource recovery)

34. ON-SITE DISPOSAL OPTIONS COMMUNAL PIT DISPOSAL Perhaps the simplest solid waste management system is where consumers dispose of waste directly into a communal pit. The size of this pit will depend on the number of people it serves. The long-term recommended objective is six cubic metres per fifty people. The pit should be fenced off to prevent small children falling in and should generally not be more than 100m from the dwellings to be served. Ideally, waste should be covered at least weekly with a thin layer of soil to minimise flies and other pests.   Advantages: It is rapid to implement; and requires little operation and maintenance.   Constraints: The distance to communal pit may cause indiscriminate disposal; and waste workers required to manage pits

35. FAMILY PIT DISPOSAL Family pits may provide a better long-term option where there is adequate space. These should be fairly shallow (up to 1m deep) and families should be encouraged to regularly cover waste with soil from sweeping or ash from fires used for cooking. This method is best suited where families have large plots and where organic food wastes are the main compo- nent of domestic refuse. Advantages: Families are responsible for managing their own waste; no external waste workers are required; and community mobilisation can be incorporated into hygiene promo- tion programme. Constraints: Involves considerable community mobilisation for construction, operation and maintenance of pits; and considerable space is needed.

36. Communal bins Communal bins or containers are designed to collect waste where it will not be dispersed by wind or animals, and where it can easily be removed for transportation and disposal. Plastic containers are generally inappropriate since these may be blown over by the wind, can easily be removed and may be desirable for alternative uses. A popular solution is to provide oil drums cut in half. The bases of these should be perforated to allow liquid to pass out and to prevent their use for other purposes. A lid and handles can be provided if necessary.

37. TRANSPORTATION OPTIONS Where bins or collection containers require emptying, transportation to the final disposal point is required. As described, waste transportation methods may be human-powered, animal-powered or motorised.

38. Agricultural wastewater treatment  is a farm management agenda for controlling pollution from confined animal operations and from surface runoff that may be contaminated by chemicals in fertilizer, pesticides, animal slurry, crop residues or irrigation water.

39. Agricultural waste is  waste produced as a result of various agricultural operations . It includes manure and other wastes from farms, poultry houses and slaughterhouses; harvest waste; fertilizer run- off from fields; pesticides that enter into water, air or soils; and salt and silt drained from fields

40. Reusing is  the act of taking old items that you might consider throwing away and finding a new use for them . Get the most mileage out of the materials you encounter. Jars from grocery store foods can be used to store leftovers or to take lunch to work.