Water Security

1. ! 1!
Keith&Cavalli&&
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Drawing&on&your&own&analysis&of&a&case&study,&explain&the&meaning&of&
security&in&contemporary&global&politics.&
Drink&up&Realism!&In&Observing&the&Middle&East,&Should&Realism&Accept&Water&as&a&
Security&Issue?&
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Introduction&&
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Dying!of!thirst!is!a!particularly!disturbing!fate.!The!cells!of!the!body!shrink,!
releasing!water!into!the!bloodstream,!the!kidneys!fail,!delirium!ensues,!and!
death!soon!follows!(Bernstein,!2010).!Depending!on!the!circumstances!this!
process!can!extend!for!days,!or!sometimes,!mercifully,!takes!only!hours.&With!
such!consequences,!it!might!be!accepted!that!thirst!is!one!of!the!most,!if!not!the!
most,!prominent!motivations!for!human!behavior!(Berns,!quoted!by!Bernstein,!
2010).!However,!as!a!determinant!of!life!and!death,!the!provision!of!potable!
water!to!humans!can!be!neglected!in!the!contemporary!world.!Even!if!some!
degree!of!basic!water!needs!are!met!under!the!Millennium!Development!Goals,!
as!many!as!76!million!waterKrelated!deaths!are!estimated!to!occur!by!the!year!
2020,!with!most!of!the!victims!being!children!!(Gleick,!2002,!p.!1).!In!the!context!
of!fetid!rivers!and!swamps,!and!brownKmosaicked!plains!of!agricultural!
desertification,!the!pollution!of!water!systems!on!which!life!depends!could!be!
seen!as!analogous!to!a!serious,!lifeKthreatening!condition!(Falkenmark!and!
Lundqvuist,!1998,!p.!38).!!

2. ! 2!
This!essay!identifies!and!includes!water!as!a!security!issue!in!the!contemporary!
global!environment.!This!inclusion!does!not!intend!to!broaden!the!subject!of!
security!into!humanitarian!concerns.!Rather,!the!necessity!of!water!to!life,!and!its!
close!association!with!conflict,!is!seen!to!legitimise!water!as!a!security!issue!
under!the!realist!paradigm.!Environmental!stress!is!being!increasingly!
acknowledged!as!a!challenge!to!the!state,!for!example!the!recent!report!by!the!
United!States!Department!of!Defense!(DoD)!(2014)!accepts!the!challenges!of!
environmental!change.!And!acceptance!of!water!by!realism!could!be!considered!
as!appropriate!and!necessary!step!to!develop!the!effectiveness!and!maintain!the!
relevance!of!the!theory!in!contemporary!global!politics.!This!essay!analyses!the!
relationship!of!water!to!state!security!using!the!Middle!East!and!Iraq!as!
examples,!and!demonstrates!that!water!is!a!primary!security!concern!for!the!
state!in!the!anarchical!world!order!assumed!by!realism.!!
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Water&security.&Realism&and&human&paradigms&
Critical&resource&vs.&humanitarian&luxury&
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The!realist!view!could!be!considered!narrow!in!its!considerations!when!applied!
to!security!studies.!During!the!Cold!War!the!majority!of!security!scholars!framed!
security!studies!in!realist!terms!of!military!threat!to!the!state!(Baldwin,!1996,!p.!
126).!As!such,!realism!has!been!criticised!as!inflexible,!and!lacking!the!
malleability!required!of!the!contemporary!global!political!environment!!
(Kolodziej,!1992).!Realist!theory!demonstrates!reluctance!to!expand!its!
considerations!of!state!security!for!fear!of!broadening!the!subject!of!security!into!
an!unmanageable,!and!unrealistic!agenda!(Newman,!2010).!For!example,!in!a!

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comprehensive!review!of!works!by!the!field’s!scholars,!Baldwin!(1996,!p.!129)!
quoting!Allison,!Treverton!and!Romm!(1993)!argues!that!security!remains!‘“the!
study!of!the!threat,!use,!and!control!of!military!force.”’!And!to!paraphrase!Walt’s!
(1991)!The&Renaissance&of&Security&Studies,!while!the!parameters!of!academic!
subjects!such!as!security!are!receptive!to!new!discourses,!efforts!to!expand!the!
scope!of!security!studies!might!be!considered!to!derail!its!Hobbesian!focus,!for!
the!subject!is!skewed!to!the!study!of!war.!However,!realists!could!be!viewed!as!
discrediting!their!intramural!practice!of!restricting!constitutions!of!security!
through!their!own!professed!failures.!
!
For!example,!some!realist!international!relations!scholars!themselves!are!
criticised!for!demonstrating!their!incompetence!through!their!inability!to!predict!
the!end!of!the!Cold!War!(Kolodziej,!1992,!p.!425).!The!failure!to!foresee!the!end!
of!a!war,!by!scholars!that!pride!themselves!on!the!predictive!nature!of!a!theory!
that!focuses!on!war,!is!admitted!as!an!embarrassment!by!major!international!
relations!figures!(Gusterson,!1999,!p.!319).!Furthermore,!security!academics,!
demonstrating!an!affinity!for!unawareness,!refused!to!acknowledge!the!change!
in!global!power!in!the!postKCold!War!environment!after!it!was!well!under!way!
(Lebow!and!RisseKKappen,!1995,!cited!by!Gusterson,!1999,!p.!319).!And!in!a!
consensus!of!authors,!Baldwin!(1991,!p.!117)!concludes!the!end!of!the!Cold!War!
did!change!the!nature!of!the!field!in!that!hard!military!power!is!less!important.!
The!author!argues!there!is!a!need!to!‘reexamine!the!way!we!think!about!
international!relations!and!national!security’,!and!expand!the!view!of!what!
constitutes!national!security!(Baldwin,!1991,!p.!118).!Realist!security!scholars!
could!be!judged&to!have!demonstrated!their!incompetence!in!key!areas!of!their!

4. ! 4!
security!studies.!Water,!as!critical!to!life,!should!not!be!regarded!by!realists!as!
opening! the! subject! of! security!into!an!endless!list!of!humanitarian!
considerations.!Rather,!acceptance!of!water!by!realism!might!be!considered!a!
necessity!in!order!to!demonstrate!the!ability!of!scholars!to!adapt!their!practice!
and!remain!effective!in!their!analyses.!!
!
Adding!water!to!realist!security!studies!is!concomitant!with!the!increasingly!
accepted!view!that!climate!change!is!a!part!of!the!contemporary!environment,!
and!maintains!realism’s!state!focus.!Climate!change!has!been!a!catalyst!for!
including!the!environmental!health!of!a!nation!to!the!considerations!of!national!
security,!not!necessarily!the!individual!(Tarlock!and!Wouters,!2000,!p.!55).!More!
recently,!the!DoD!(2014,!p.!11)!states!in!its!strategic!report,!‘“the![DoD]!must!
consider!the!effects!of!climate!change…and!how!these!effects!could!impact!our!
national!security”’.!And!realist!theory!is!well!positioned!to!analyse!water!as!a!
security!issue!due!to!the!fear!and!potential!for!conflict!incited!by!water!related!
issues.!Gleick!(1993,!p.!87)!argues!that!even!the!sensitivity!amongst!nations!
concerning!availability!of!fresh,!potable!water!has!the!potential!to!be!used!as!a!
political!instrument!to!assert!power!and!may!result!in!violence!and!military!
conflict.!!
!
Problematic!to!this!argument!is!that!none!of!the!four!indicators!Gleick!(1993)!
uses!to!analyse!the!nation!with!respect!to!water,!security,!and!violence!are!
empirically!derived!or!tested!(Yoffe,!et!al.,!2004,!p.!2).!Nevertheless,!national!
leaders!have!previously!acknowledged!the!empirical!shortcomings!of!the!
indicators!used!by!Gleick!(1993).!Furthermore,!the!relationship!of!water!to!

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conflict,!without!empirical!focus,!has!been!developed!by!some!of!contemporary!
history’s!most!prominent!state!leaders.!For!example,!President!Truman’s!
historical!analysis!generated!his!belief!that!water,!and!the!geography!and!
infrastructure!responsible!for!its!delivery,!is!the!source!of!200!years!of!European!
wars!(Tarlock!and!Wouters,!2009,!p.!54).!However,!the!view!that!water!and!
conflict!are!critically!linked!may!be!obfuscated!by!human!security.!
!
In!general!terms,!human!security!is!defined!by!‘freedom!from!want!and!fear’,!
with!provision!of!rights!necessary!to!fundamental!individual!needs,!and!is!based!
on!ethics!and!norms!(Newman,!2010,!p.!78).!The!theory!suffers!from!the!absence!
of!a!consensus!of!definition,!and!specific!aspirations!(McDonald,!2010,!p.!279).!
Water!seems!to!lose!its!critical!status!under!this!model!where!the!concept!of!
security!as!derived!from!the!environment!moves!beyond!the!assumption!of!
causality!between!environmental!stress!and!violent!conflict,!and!into!the!broader!
theory!of!human!security!that!includes!the!dynamics!between!environment!and!
society!(Yoffe,!et!al.,!2004,!p.!2).!This!widening!of!the!security!agenda!is!seen!as!
problematic!by!realists,!and!may!have!diluted!the!perception!of!water!as!critical!
to!the!state,!and!the!power!of!water!to!motivate!human!behavior!(Berns,!cited!by!
Bernstein,!2010).!!
!
The!fear!of!the!human!security!paradigm!is!that!it!is!a!‘shopping!list’!that!risks!
incorporating!multiple!issues!into!a!definition!of!security!to!the!point!where!the!
effectiveness!of!the!concept!is!lost!to!policymakers!(Krause,!cited!by!Newman,!
2010,!p.!82).!It!may!not!be!the!case!that!water!security!will!result!in!the!security!
‘shopping!list’!argued!by!Newman!(2010),!rather!it!may!be!the!association!with!

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words!such!as!‘society’!and!‘poverty’!that!could!make!the!prospect!of!including!
water!under!the!realist!paradigm!feel!like!it!may!open!the!realm!of!humanitarian!
concerns.!For!as!a!determinant!of!life!and!death,!water!is!integral!to!nearly!all!
aspects!of!human!production!and!the!environment!that!sustains!us!(Grey!and!
Sadoff,!2007,!p.!547).!!
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Water!security!does!not!result!in!a!list!of!needs!so!much!as!it!is!a!universal!
requirement!in!the!existence!of!all!countries.!As!a!force!for!destruction,!either!
catastrophically!through!droughts!and!floods,!or!progressively!through!
desertification,!the!detrimental!nature!of!water!resulting!from!such!power!
demonstrates!its!capacity!to!influence!state!populations!(Grey!and!Sadoff,!2007,!
p.!547).!The!example!of!the!Middle!East!can!illustrate!that!inclusion!of!water!to!
the!realist!view!of!security!is!appropriate,!as!the!resource!could!be!considered!
integral!to!conflict!and!the!existence!of!the!state.!!!!
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Water,&conflict,&and&displacement&in&the&Middle&East&!
The&tide&of&conflict&in&the&desert&&
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The!inclusion!of!water!in!conflict!could!be!considered!unexciting!as!opposed!in!
comparison!to!the!dramatic,!elegant,!destruction!caused!by!machine!guns!and!
phosphorous!as!described!by!Broyles!(1984,!p.!8).!In!The&Coming&Anarchy&(2000,!
p.!19)!Kaplan!argues!that!the!subject!of!‘the!environment’!or!‘diminishing!natural!
resources’!in!foreign!policy!forums!becomes!quickly!mired!in!boredom!and!
skepticism,!but!claims!it!is!time!to!regard!environmental!factors!as!the!primary!
national!security!issues!of!the!twenty!first!century.!Future!wars!will!be!

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intensified,!or!even!caused,!by!environmental!shortages,!and!waged!in!a!bid!for!
communal!survival!(Kaplan,!2000,!p.!49).!The!proliferation!of!globally!desperate!
circumstances!creates!a!picture!of!anarchy!and!selfKinterested!behaviour!
envisioned!by!realists.!This!could!be!viewed!as!revolving!around!environmental!
degradation!and!resources!such!as!water.!Kaplan!(2000,!p.!49)!puts!forth!
scenarios!where!water!and!the!environment!are!deteriorated!threaten!the!state,!
and!that!neglect!of!conflict!at!the!subnational!level!will!gradually!degrade!the!
power!of!the!state,!and!ultimately!result!in!the!demise!of!the!state!itself.!Water!
security!may!correspond!with!state!security.!!
!
Tarlock!and!Wouters!(2009,!p.!54)!argue!that!the!‘characterisation!of!water!
stresses!as!a!security!problem!has!an!extensive!pedigree’!extending!to!the!period!
of!the!Old!Testament,!and!that!the!stress!of!drought!has!always!generated!fear.!
However,!a!study!by!international!relations!scholars!of!shared!freshwater!
resources!found!that!while!conflicts!over!water!occurred,!international!
cooperation!far!outweighed!conflict,!which!resulted!in!numerous!international!
water!agreements!(Yoffe,!et!al.,!2004,!p.!7).!Closer!examination!reveals!this!study!
lacks!the!historical!perspective!put!forth!by!Tarlock!and!Wouters!(2009),!and!
considers!only!the!last!sixty!years!(Wolf,!Yoffe!and!Giordano,!2003,!p.!29).!Water!
and!conflict!could!have!a!much!stronger!historical!relationship!than!water!and!
cooperation.!For!example,!water!supply!infrastructure!has!been!targeted!in!
military!conflicts!from!the!time!of!6th!Century!BC!and!Nebuchadnezzar!in!
Babylon,!and!continues!in!conflicts!throughout!the!Middle!East!in!the!
contemporary!period!(Gleick,!2000,!p.!87).!!
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Arguments!over!water!security!in!the!region!can!be!criticised!for!neglecting!the!
global!view!of!international!relations!(Yoffe,!et!al.,!2004,!p.!9K10).!However,!
responses!to!national!and!regional!disagreements!in!the!terms!of!use!of!water!
have!been!reKidentified!as!a!problem!of!security!as!significant!as!war!and!
terrorism!(Tarlock!and!Wouters,!2000,!p.!54).!Furthermore,!Chuck!Hagel,!the!U.S!
Secretary!of!Defense!has!officially!acknowledged!the!link!between!conflict!and!
water!shortages!(DoD,!2014,!foreword).!While!water!and!the!infrastructure!
required!for!delivery!may!meet!individual!needs,!as!a!component!of!state!
security!it!could!be!argued!to!fit!into!the!realist!paradigm!due!to!the!link!between!
water!and!conflict.!!
!
A!distinctive!aspect!to!water!is!that!its!presence,!in!addition!to!its!absence,!may!
also!become!a!security!issue!(Grey!and!Sadoff,!2007,!p.!547).!For!example,!the!
World!Health!Organisation!(WHO)!predicts!that!260!million!people!will!be!
infected!by!Schistosomiasis,!a!disease!contracted!via!contact!with!water!tainted!
by!the!parasite!(WHO,!2014).!Without!significant!efforts!to!combat!the!
deleterious!effects!of!the!parasite,!the!demand!for!water!intensifies!as!its!
usefulness!declines,!and!reuse!becomes!impossible!(Falkenmark!and!Lundqvuist,!
1998,!p.!38).!This!phenomenon!can!be!viewed!beyond!parasitic!epidemics.!
Pollution!loads!degrade!the!capacity!of!water!systems!to!purify!which!will!
gradually!lead!to!situations!where!water!is!not!only!the!source!of!life!and!
wellbeing!of!humans!and!ecosystems,!but!also!a!cause!of!disease,!ecosystem!
disruption,!and!societal!disorder:!a!term!known!as!hydrocide!(Lundqvist,!cited!in!
Falkenmark!and!Lundqvuist,!1998,!p.!38).!As!the!strategic!value!of!potable!water!
increases,!the!control!of!supply!becomes!central!to!state!security.!In!this!way,!the!

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water!assets!of!Turkey!are!an!example!of!the!relationship!between!water!and!
state!security.!
!
According!to!Kaplan!(2000,!p.!41),!the!water!resources!of!the!Turks,!such!as!the!
monumental!hydropower!complex!comprised!partially!of!the!Ataturk!Dam,!
define!the!state!as!a!significant!power.!‘“Turks!may!have!little!oil,!but!their!
Anatolian!heartland!has!lots!of!water!K!the!most!important!fluid!of!the!21st!
century”’!(Kaplan,!2000,!p.!36).!For!example,!when!the!flow!of!the!Euphrates!
river!into!Syria!and!Iraq!was!interrupted!for!a!month!to!partially!fill!the!
reservoir,!the!power!implications!and!potential!for!conflict!immediately!became!
apparent:!Turkey!had!a!water!‘weapon’!that!could!be!used!against!Syria!and!Iraq!
(Gleick,!2003,!p.!89).!Indeed,!the!site!manager!of!the!dam!claimed!the!water!flow!
could!be!used!to!regulate!the!behaviour!of!these!countries!(Kaplan,!2000,!p.!37).!
Furthermore,!the!cross!border!relationship!between!source!and!recipient!is!
common!between!states.!‘Thirty!nations!receive!more!than!oneKthird!of!their!
surface!water!from!across!national!borders’!(Gleick,!1993,!p.!102).!In!the!
example!of!Syria!and!Iraq,!the!security!of!Iraq!is!particularly!vulnerable!due!to!
70%!of!Iraq’s!water!supply!being!controlled!by!Turkey,!Iran,!and!Syria!(Partow,!
cited!in!Richardson,!2006,!p.!487).!!!
!
Conversely,!ten!million!Kurds!threaten!Turkey!due!to!their!need!for!water!
resources!(Kaplan,!2000,!p.!41).!And,!in!line!with!the!claims!of!state!power!by!the!
dam’s!site!manager,!Turkey!has!used!the!threat!of!restricting!water!flow!to!Syria!
to!force!Syrian!withdrawal!of!support!for!the!Kurds!(Gleick,!2003,!p.!89).!The!
behaviour!of!the!Turkish!government!can!be!explained!through!realist!concepts.!

10. ! 10!
For!example,!the!nationalist!nature!of!the!Ataturk!Dam!project!is!thought!to!be!
important!to!the!state!as!the!geopolitical!and!identityKrelated!sense!of!isolation!
due!to!the!location!of!Turkey!between!Christian!Europe!and!the!Arab!Muslim!
MiddleKEast!(McDonald,!2010,!pp.!285K286).!Not!only!does!the!potential!for!
military!conflict!hinge!on!water,!so!does!the!displacement!of!populations!of!
neighbouring!countries.!This!may!give!rise!to!the!‘formless!battlefield’!
envisioned!by!Kaplan!(2000,!p.!8),!which!is!defined!more!so!by!resources!and!
displaced!persons!than!the!era!of!nationKstates!precipitated!by!the!1648!Peace!of!
Westphalia.!A!prime!example!of!water!being!used!as!a!weapon!and!resulting!in!
population!displacement!is!that!of!the!southern!marshes!of!Iraq.!!
!
The!Marsh!Arabs,!disliked!by!Saddam!Hussein,!were!sustained,!and!protected!
from!the!Iraqi!military,!by!water!(Fawcett!and!Tanner,!2002,!p.!29K30).!The!
draining!of!the!southern!marshes!was!undertaken!by!Iraq!in!order!to!accomplish!
military!and!political!goals!with!an!added!benefit!due!to!the!presence!of!oil!under!
the!marshes!(Fawcett!and!Tanner,!2002,!p.!1).!In!the!1980’s!this!resulted!in!the!
displacement!of!up!to!a!million!people!in!this!‘evisceration’!of!rural!Kurdistan!
with!the!intent!to!break!the!independent!spirit!of!the!Kurds,!forcing!the!
population!to!rely!on!Iraqi!authorities!for!water!and!staples!(Fawcett!and!
Tanner,!2002,!p.!10).!Though!a!significant!part!of!the!offensive!was!undertaken!
via!conventional!military!applications!in!the!region,!water!was!also!a!tactical!
component!of!military!operations.!
!
By!the!early!1990’s,!Iraq!attempted!to!completely!drain!the!marshes!in!an!effort!
to!subdue!the!Marsh!Arabs!(Fawcett!and!Tanner,!2002,!p.!30).!In!addition!to!

11. ! 11!
being!drained,!the!water!was!purposefully!contaminated,&displacing!upwards!of!
100,000!people!(Fawcett!and!Tanner,!2002,!p.!31).!This!was!a!factor!in!forcing!
migration!due!to!environmental!scarcity!envisioned!by!Kaplan!!(2000,!p.!20).!
Migration!which!results!from!water!and!environmental!factors!is!accepted!by!the!
DoD!(2014)!as!a!state!security!issue.!!
!
Following!the!2003!Invasion!of!Iraq!by!the!United!States,&local!Iraqi!populations!
began!destroying!the!system!of!dykes!and!dams!in!order!to!reflood!the!marshes!
(Richardson!and!Hussain,!2006,!p.!480).!However,!questions!remain!about!the!
effects!on!viability,!the!loss!of!biodiversity,!contamination!from!chemical!residue!
and!military!ordnance,!and!the!control!of!water!by!Turkey!(Fawcett!and!Tanner,!
2002,!p.!40).!Furthermore,!conflicting!environmental!and!economic!interests!are!
now!at!play!in!attempts!to!reestablish!wetlands!where!oil!is!now!being!extracted!
(Fawcett!and!Tanner,!2002,!p.!41).!Put!simply,!extraction!of!oil!where!there!is!
water!is!problematic,!and!the!area!may!remain!permanently!changed.!The!
number!of!people!who!have!returned!to!the!region!is!thought!to!be!under!
10,000,!with!less!than!10%!of!the!original!population!expected!to!follow!because!
of!poor!fishing!and!contaminated!drinking!water!(Richardson!and!Hussain,!2006,!
p.!487).!The!map!and!interests!of!this!region!could!well!be!redefined!by!this!
event.!The!issues!emanating!from!reflooding!are!critical!to!the!authority!of!the!
state!(Fawcett!and!Tanner!2002,!p.!52).!The!displaced!people!are!central!to!any!
new!order!in!the!Iraq,!and!there!are!ramifications!for!the!security!of!
neighbouring!states!(Fawcett!and!Tanner!2002,!p.!52).!Water!could!be!
considered!a!critical!factor!in!conflict,!state!power,!and!security.!
&

12. ! 12!
Conclusion&
!
Conflict,!anarchy,!threat,!fear,!and!selfK!interest!are!everKpresent!in!the!world!as!
argued!by!Kaplan!(2000),!and!realism!should!be!considered!an!appropriate!
theory!to!analyse!contemporary!security.!However,!realism!can!be!a!victim!of!its!
own!focus!and!ignore!important!and!pertinent!factors!to!state!conflict!such!as!
water.!Inclusion!of!water!security!will!develop!the!theory!to!be!more!effective!in!
the!current!environment.!The!presence!or!absence!of!water!potable!water!
presents!numerous!security!challenges!ranging!from!instability!between!nations,!
to!increased!dust!from!desertification!affecting!military!operations!(DoD,!2014,!
pp.!5K6).!Accepting!water!part!of!security!may!not!result!in!an!extended!list!of!
concerns!under!the!paradigm!of!human!security.!Rather,!it!allows!a!more!
thorough!examination!of!an!anarchical!environment!where!the!realist!paradigm!
remains!relevant.!Security,!under!realism,!remains!in!large!part!defined!by!war!
and!the!state,!and!water!is!an!integral!component!of!the!relationship.!!
!
In!examining!the!Middle!East!water!can!be!seen!as!a!national!concern!that!
defines!state!power.!Water!and!conflict!are!historically!linked,!and!recent!events!
in!the!region!continue!to!demonstrate!the!relationship.!Water!can!be!used!by!the!
state!as!a!weapon,!for!leverage,!and!even!potentially!to!redefine!borders.!The!
recent!acceptance!of!environmental!aspects!by!the!U.S.!Department!of!Defense!
(2014)!emphasises!the!centrality!of!water!to!the!security!concerns!of!the!state.!
Realism!should!not!overlook!the!opportunity!to!follow!suit,!and!improve!the!
theory!for!application!in!contemporary!global!politics.!
&

13. ! 13!
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