WEEK-4-FOUNDATIONS-OF-CURRICULUM ( a comprehensive discussion

Curriculum

1. FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

2. LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1 2 Describe the foundations of curriculum development; and Explain how each foundation influences the curriculum development. At the end of the discussion, students should be able to achieve the following with at least 75% proficiency level:

3. 3 4 1 PHILOSOPHICAL 2 HISTORICAL PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

4. 1 PHILOSOPHICAL Philosophy of the curriculum answers the questions like: What are schools for? What subjects are important? How should students learn? What methods should be used? What outcomes should be achieved? Why?

5. A. Perennialism B. Essentialism C. Progressivism D. Reconstructionalism There are many philosophies in education but we will illustrate only those as presented by Ornstein and Hunkins in 2004.

6. Perenialism Aim: To educate the rational person: cultivate intellect Role: Teachers assist students to think with reason (critical thinking: HOTS) Focus: Classical subjects, literary analysis. Curriculum is enduring. Trends: Use of great books (Bible, Koran, Classics) and Liberal Arts Plato, Aristotle or Thomas Aquinas

7. Essentialism Aim: To promote intellectual growth of learners to become competent Role: Teachers are sole authorities in the subject area Focus: Essential skills of the 3Rs; essential subjects Trends: Back to basics, Excellence in education, cultural literacy Wiliam Bagley (1874-1946)

8. Progressivism Aim: Promote democratic social living Role: Teacher leads for growth and development of lifelong learners Focus: Interdisciplinary subjects. Learner-centered. Outcomes-based Trends: Equal opportunities for all, Contextualized curriculum, Humanistic education John Dewey (1859-1952)

9. Reconstructionalism Aim: To improve and reconstruct society. Education for change Role: Teacher acts as agent of change and reforms Focus: Present and future educational landscape Trends: School and curricular reform, Global education, Collaboration and Convergence, Standards and Competencies. Theodore Brameld (1904-1987)

10. Where is curriculum development coming from? The historical foundations will show to us chronological development along a time line. Reading materials would tell us that curriculum development started when Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956) wrote the book “The Curriculum.” 2 HISTORICAL

11. He started the curriculum development movement. Curriculum as a science that emphasizes students’ needs. Curriculum prepares learners for adult life. Objectives and activities should group together when tasks are clarified. 1876-1956 Franklin Bobbit

12. Like Bobbit, he posited that curriculum is science and emphasizes students' needs. Objectives and activities should match. Subject mattrr or content relates to objectives. 1875-1952 Werret Charters

13. Curicula are purposeful activities which are child-centered. The purpose of the curriculumn is child development and growth. He introduced this project method where teacher and student plan the activities. Curriculum develops social relationships and small group instruction. 1875-1952 William Kilpatrick

14. Curriculum should develop the whole child. It is child-centered. With the statement of objectives and related learning activities, curriculum should produce outcomes. He emphasized social studies and suggested that the teacher plans curriculum in advance. 1886-1960 Harold Rugg

15. Curriculum is organized around social functions, organized knowledge and learner's interest. Curriculum, instruction and learning are interrelated. Curriculum is a set of experiences. Subject matter is developed around social functions and learners interests. 1901-1989 Hollis Caswell

16. Curriculum is a science and an extension of school's philosophy. It is based on students needs and interest. Curriculum is always related to instruction. Subject matter is organized in terms of knowledge, skills and values. The process emphasizes problem solving. Curriculum aims to educate generalists and not specialists. 1902-1994 Ralph Tyler

17. She contributed to the theoretical and pedagogical foundations of concepts development and critical thinking in social studies curriculum. She helped lay the foundation for diverse student population. 1902-1967 Hilda Taba

18. He described curriculum change as a cooperative endeavor. Teachers and curriculum specialist constitute the professional core of planners. Signíficant improvement is achieved through group activity. 1992-2012 Peter Oliva

19. 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL Questions which can be addressed by psychological foundations of education are: How should curriculum be organized to enhanced learning? What is the optimal level of students’ participation in learning the various contents of the curriculum?

20. In this module, we shall consider three groups of learning theories: behaviorism or association theories; cognitive-information processing theories; and humanities theories (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004).

21. He is the father of the classical conditioning theory, the S-R theory. The key to learning is early years of life is to train them what you want them to become. S-R Theory is a foundation of learning practice called indoctrination. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1946) Association and Behaviorism

22. He championed the connectionism theory. He proposed the three laws of learming: Law of Readiness; Law of Exercise; and Law of Effect. Specific stimulus has specific response. Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) Association and Behaviorism

23. He proposed the hierarchical learning theory Learning follows a hierarchy. Behavior is based on prerequisite conditions. He introduced tasking in the formulation of objectives. Robert Gagne (1916-2002) Association and Behaviorism

24. Theories of Jean Piaget Cognitive development has stages from birth to maturity. Sensorimotor stage (0-2), preoperational stage (2-7), concrete operations stage (7-11), and formal operations (11-onwards) Jean Piaget (1896-1980) Cognitive & Information Processing

25. Keys to learning Assimilation Accommodation (learming modification and adaptation) Equilibration (balance between previous and later learning

26. Theories of Vygotsky Cultural transmission and development stage. Children could, as a result of their interaction with society, actually perform certain cognitive actions prior to arriving at developmental stage. Learning precedes development Sociocultural development theory Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934 Cognitive & Information Processing

27. Keys to learning Pedagogy creates learning processes that lead to development The child is an active agent in his or her educational process

28. Gardner’s multiple intelligences Humans have several different ways of processing information and these ways are relatively independent of one another. There eight intelligences: linguistic, logico-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic. Howard Gardner Cognitive & Information Processing

29. Gestalt Theory Learning is explained in terms of “wholeness" of the problem Human beings do not respond to isolated stimuli but to an organization or pattern of stimuli Keys to learning Learning is a complex and abstract Learners analyze the problem, discriminate, between essential and nonessential data, and perceive relationships Learners will perceive something in relation to the whole. What/ how they perceive is related to their previous experiences Humanistic Psychology Gestalt

30. He advanced the Self-Actualization Theory Classic theory of human needs A child whose basic needs are not met will not be interested in acquiring knowledge of the world Key to learning Produce a healthy and happy learner who can accomplish, grow and actualize his or her human self. Abraham Maslow Humanistic Psychology

31. Nondirective and therapeutic learning He established counselling procedures and methods for facilitating learning Children’s perceptions, which are highly individualistic, influence their learning and behaviour in class Key to learning Curriculum is concerned with process, not product; personal needs, not subject matter, psychological meaning, not cognitive scores Carl Rogers (1902-1987) Humanistic Psychology

32. 4 SOCIOLOGICAL Society as a source of change Schools as agents of change Knowledge as agent of change School and Society

33. Influence of society and social context in education Things that surround individuals can change, develop their behavior Considered two fundamental elements which are schools and civil society 1858-1917 Emile Durkheim

34. Believed that knowledge should prepare students for the future Suggested that in the future, parents might have the resources to teach prescribed curriculum from home as a result of technology, not in spite of it. (Home Schooling) Foresaw schools and students worked creatively, collaboratively, and independent of their age 1858-1917 Alvin Toffler

35. Paolo Freire (1921-1997) John Goodland (1920-2014) William Pinar Other Theories

36. LESSON 3.1 Fundamentals of Curriculum Design

37. INTRODUCTION Curriculum design is at the heart of effective teaching and learning. It serves as a structured framework that guides educators in planning, implementing, and evaluating instruction to ensure meaningful student learning. A well-designed curriculum reflects the dynamic nature of education, adapting to societal changes, advancements in knowledge, and evolving student needs.

38. OBJECTIVES ✓ Identify the fundamentals of curriculum designing ✓ Appreciate the task of designing a curriculum At the end of the discussion , students should be able to achieve the following with at least 75% proficiency level:

39. PETER OLIVIA'S 10 AXIOMS That teachers need as reminders

40. 1 2 Curriculum change is inevitable, necessary, and desirable . One of the characteristics of curriculum is its being dynamic. Because of this, teachers should respond to the changes that occur in schools and in their context. Societal development and knowledge revolution come so fast that the need to address the changing condition requires new curriculum designs. Curriculum is a product of its time. A relevant curriculum should respond to changes brought about by current social forces, philosophical positions, psychological principles, new knowledge, and educational reforms. This is also called timeliness.

41. 3 4 Curriculum changes made earlier can exist concurrently with newer curriculum changes . A revision in a curriculum starts and ends slowly. More often, curriculum is gradually phased in and phased out, thus the changes that occur can coexist and oftentimes overlap for long periods of time. Curriculum change depends on people who will implement the change . Teachers who will implement the curriculum should be involved in its development, hence should know how to design a curriculum. Because the teachers are the implementers of the curriculum, it is best that they should design and own the changes. This will ensure an effective and long lasting change.

42. 5 6 Curriculum development is a cooperative group activity. Group decisions in some aspects of curriculum development are suggested. Consultations with stakeholders when possible will add to a sense of ownership. Even learners should participate in some aspect of curriculum designing. Any significant change in the curriculum should involve a broad range of stakeholders to gain their understanding, support, and input. Curriculum development is a decision-making process made from choices of alternatives. A curriculum developer or designer must decide what contents to teach, philosophy or point of view to support, how to provide for multicultural groups, what methods or strategies, and what type of evaluation to use.

43. 7 8 Curriculum development is an ongoing process . Continuous monitoring, examination, evaluation, and improvement of curricula are to be considered in the design of the curriculum. As the needs of learners change, as society changes, and as new knowledge and technology appear, the curriculum must change. Curriculum development is more effective if it is a comprehensive process, rather than a “piecemeal” . A curriculum design should be based on a careful plan, should clearly establish intended outcomes, support resources and needed time available and should equip teaching staff pedagogically.

44. 9 10 Curriculum development is morective when it follows a systematic process. A curriculum design is composed of desired outcomes, subject matter content complemented with references, set of procedures, needed materials and resources and evaluation procedure which can be placed in a matrix. Curriculum development starts from where the curriculum is . Curriculum planners and designers should begin with existing curriculum. An existing design is a good starting point for any teacher who plans to enhance and enrich a curriculum.

45. BUILDING UPON THE IDEAS OF OLIVA, LET US CONTINUE LEARNING HOW TO DESIGN A CURRICULUM BY IDENTIFYING ITS COMPONENTS. FOR MOST CURRICULA THE MAJOR COMPONENTS OR ELEMENTS ARE ANSWERS TO THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:

46. What learning outcomes need to be achieved? (Intended Learning Outcomes) What content should be included to achieve the learning outcomes? (Subject Matter) What learning experiences and resources should be employed? (Teaching-Learning Methods) How will the achieved learning outcomes be measured? (Assessment of Achieved Learning Outcomes) 1 2 3 4

47. ELEMENTS OR COMPONENTS OF A CURRICULUM DESIGN

48. CURRICULUM DESIGN GOES BY VARIOUS NAMES, SUCH AS A SYLLABUS, LESSON PLAN, UNIT PLAN, OR COURSE DESIGN. DESPITE THE DIFFERENT LABELS, THEY SHARE COMMON COMPONENTS. SOME INSTITUTIONS MAY INCLUDE ADDITIONAL ELEMENTS TO SUIT THEIR SPECIFIC NEEDS.

49. LET US TAKE THE LESSON PLAN AS A MINISCULE CURRICULUM. A LESSON PLAN OR TEACHING GUIDE INCLUDES 1 Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO) or the Desired Learning Outcome (DLO) formerly labelled as behavioral objectives, Subject Matter or Content Teaching and Learning Methods Assessment Evaluation 4 3 2

50. Learning objectives or intended learning outcomes guide both students and teachers in achieving specific educational goals. These outcomes should be SMART (Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Result-oriented, and Time-bound) and framed using action words from Bloom’s Taxonomy (cognitive domain), Krathwohl’s taxonomy (affective domain), and Simpson’s taxonomy (psychomotor domain). I. Behavioral Objectives or Intended Learning Outcomes

51. The content of a lesson or unit should align with the intended learning outcomes and be carefully selected based on key principles. It must be relevant to the curriculum's goals, appropriate to the learners' developmental level, up-to-date with current knowledge, and structured progressively to build on prior lessons. Additionally, content selection should follow the principle of BASICS to ensure clarity, engagement, and effectiveness in learning. II. Content/Subject Matter

52. The reference follows the content. It tells where the content or subject matter has been taken. The may be a book, a module or any publication. It must bear the author of the material and if possible, the publications. Example: • Project Wild (1992) K to 12 Activity Guide, An Interdisciplinary, Supplementary Conservation and Environmental Education Program. Council of Environmental Education, Bethesda, MD lll. References

53. Learning activities should provide meaningful experiences for students through various teaching strategies such as lectures, laboratory classes, and fieldwork. Effective methods should promote cooperation, competition, and independent learning. Cooperative learning encourages teamwork, problem-solving, and peer learning, with teachers acting as guides. Independent learning fosters responsibility and self-directed learning, benefiting fast learners. Competitive activities challenge students to perform at their best, preparing them for real-world competition. Different delivery modes, including online learning, should be carefully planned to enhance the learning experience. lV. 1 Teaching and Learning Methods some behaviorist teaching learning methods next sildes

54. The Direct Instruction Model by Barak Rosenshine emphasizes structured teaching through reviewing prior knowledge, presenting material in small steps, guided practice, feedback, independent practice, and regular reviews to ensure mastery and retention. lV. 2 Behaviorist Teaching Learning Methods

55. The Guided Instruction Model by Madeline Hunter follows a structured approach to teaching, including clear objectives, effective lesson delivery, guided practice with feedback, independent practice, and assessment to ensure mastery and student success. lV. 3 Behaviorist Teaching Learning Methods

56. The Mastery Learning Model by J.H. Block and Lorin Anderson focuses on ensuring students achieve a high level of understanding before moving forward. It involves clear learning objectives, formative assessments, corrective instruction, and enrichment activities, allowing students to progress at their own pace until mastery is achieved. lV. 4 Behaviorist Teaching Learning Methods

57. The Systematic Instruction Model by Thomas Good and Jere Brophy emphasizes a structured, step-by-step teaching approach. It includes clear objectives, sequenced instruction, active student engagement, guided practice, feedback, and regular assessments to ensure effective learning and retention. lV. 5 Behaviorist Teaching Learning Methods

58. The teaching-learning environment is crucial in selecting teaching methods. Brian Castaldi (1987) proposed four criteria for designing learning spaces: 1. Adequacy – Ensures classrooms are spacious, well-lit, ventilated, and equipped with technology for 21st-century learning. 2. Suitability – Considers learners' age, socio-cultural, economic, and religious backgrounds in planning activities. 3. Efficiency – Focuses on operational and instructional effectiveness. 4. Economy – Evaluates cost-effectiveness in providing instructional ma terials. V. Teaching-Learning Environment

59. Learning occurs effectively when students receive feedback, i.e. when they receive information on what they have already (and have not) learned. The process of which this information is generated is assessment. Vl. 1 Evaluation/Assessment

60. 1 2 3 Self-assessment , through which students learn to monitor and evaluate their own learning. This should be a significant element in the curriculum because we aim to produce graduates who are appropriately reflective and self-critical. Peer assessment , in which students provide feedback on each other’s learning. This can be viewed as an extension of self-assessment and presupposes trust and mutual respect. Research suggests that students can learn to judge each other’s work as reliably as staff. Teacher assessment , in which a teacher prepares and administers tests and gives feedback on the student's performance. Vl. 2 Evaluation/Assessment

61. Assessment can be formative (providing feedback for learning) or summative (evaluating achievement based on set criteria). Many tasks combine both, such as graded assignments with feedback. Summative assessments typically assign marks or grades to track student progress. However, students learn more from understanding their strengths and weaknesses than from grades alone. Therefore, even summative assessments should include formative feedback when possible. Vl. 3 Evaluation/Assessment

62. APPLICATION OF THE FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENTS TO OTHER CURRICULUM DESIGNS

63. WHILE OUR EXAMPLE REFERS ONLY TO DESIGNING A LESSON PLAN WHICH IS A MINI CURRICULUM, SIMILAR COMPONENTS WILL ALSO BE USED IN MAKING A SYLLABUS FOR TEACHING IN HIGHER EDUCATION COURSES OR OTHER CURRICULAR PROJECTS. BASED ON THE CURRICULUM MODELS WE HAVE LEARNED, THE FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENTS INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING:

64. MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A COURSE DESIGN OR SYLLABUS 1. Intended Outcomes (or Objectives) 2. Content/Subject Matter (with references) 3. Methods/Strategies (with needed resources) 4. Evaluation (means of assessment)

65. SIMPLY PUT, Simply put, curriculum design is the organization of curriculum components. All other additional components are trimmings that each designer may add. This may be institutional template or suggested by other curriculum experts or required by educational agencies like the Department of Education, Commission on Higher Education, Accrediting Agencies, Professional Regulation Commission to achieve a specific purpose of such agency.

66. THANK YOU