What is Psychology and learn about it.pptx

The science of psychology

1. What is Psychology ? Important events Significant Areas Various Methods in Psychology

2. What is Psychology? The science of behavior and mental processes. Psychology is a science. Because psychology is a science, psychologists use scientific principles, carefully defined methods, and precise procedures to present an organised body of knowledge and to draw inferences, or make predictions, about how people will behave in future. Predicting behaviour is important, for it enables psychologists to help people anticipate their reactions to certain situations and learn how to express themselves in manageable and reasonable ways. Three Principles of Scientific Endeavor Objectivity: for psychologists it means evaluating research and the theory on their merits, without preconceived ideas. Accuracy: psychologists are concerned with gathering data from the laboratory and the real world in precise ways- that is with accuracy. Healthy Scepticism: psychologists maintain a healthy scepticism: a cautious view of data, hypotheses, and theory until results are repeated, verified, and proved over time.

3. The Scientific Method in Psychology Stating the problem: The question a psychologist asks must be stated in such a way that it can be answered; that is it must be stated in such a way that lends itself to investigation. Forming a theory: After stating the problem, psychologists develop a theory from their current knowledge and past research. A theory is a collection of interrelated ideas and facts put forward to explain and predict behavior and mental processes. Developing hypotheses: Educated guesses, tentative statements, or ideas expressing a causal relationship between two events or variables. Observation: Replicating results: all-too-human tendency to bias, or subtly predetermine the results. (reliability)

4. Important events Two figures who helped to found psychology as a formal discipline and science in the 19th century were  Wilhelm Wundt   in Germany and  William James  in the  United States . Wundt perceived the subject as the study of human  consciousness  and sought to apply  experimental methods  to studying internal mental processes. While his use of a process known as  introspection  is seen as unreliable and unscientific today, his early work in psychology helped set the stage for future experimental methods. James’s  The Principles of Psychology  (1890) defined psychology as the science of mental life and provided insightful discussions of topics and challenges that anticipated much of the field’s research agenda a century later.

5. Structuralism: Psychology’s First School of Thought Edward B. Titchener , one of Wundt’s most famous students, would go on to found psychology’s first major  school of thought . According to the  structuralists , human consciousness could be broken down into smaller parts. Using a process known as introspection, trained subjects would attempt to break down their responses and reactions to the most basic sensations and perceptions. The Functionalism of William James The focus of functionalism was about how behavior actually works to help people live in their environment. Functionalists utilized methods such as direct observation to study the human mind and behavior. The Emergence of Psychoanalysis The psychoanalytic theory proposed by Sigmund Freud had a tremendous impact on 20th-century thought, influencing the mental health field as well as other areas including art, literature, and popular culture. While many of his ideas are viewed with skepticism today, his influence on psychology is undeniable.

6. The Rise of Behaviorism Psychology changed dramatically during the early 20 th century as another school of thought known as  behaviorism  rose to dominance. Behaviorism was a major change from previous theoretical perspectives, rejecting the emphasis on both the  conscious and unconscious mind . Instead, behaviorism strove to make psychology a more scientific discipline by focusing purely on observable behavior . The Third Force in Psychology While the first half of the 20th century was dominated by psychoanalysis and behaviorism, a new school of thought known as humanistic psychology emerged during the second half of the century. Often referred to as the "third force" in psychology, this theoretical perspective emphasized conscious experiences. American psychologist  Carl Rogers  is often considered to be one of the founders of this school of thought. Rogers believed strongly in the power of free will and self-determination. Psychologist  Abraham Maslow  also contributed to humanistic psychology with his famous  hierarchy of needs  theory of human motivation.

7. Cognitive Psychology During the 1950s and 1960s, a movement known as the cognitive revolution began to take hold in psychology. During this time, cognitive psychology began to replace psychoanalysis and behaviorism as the dominant approach to the study of psychology. Psychologists were still interested in looking at observable behaviors, but they were also concerned with what was going on inside the mind. Since that time, cognitive psychology has remained a dominant area of psychology as researchers continue to study things such as perception, memory , decision-making, problem-solving, intelligence, and language. The introduction of brain imaging tools such as MRI and PET scans have helped improve the ability of researchers to more closely study the inner workings of the human brain.

8. Research methods include observational research, case studies, surveys, correlational designs, and experiments . In terms of  naturalistic observation , the scientist studies human or animal behavior in its natural environment which could include the home, school, or a forest. The researcher counts, measures, and rates behavior in a systematic way and at times uses multiple judges to ensure accuracy in how the behavior is being measured. This is called  inter-rater reliability   Laboratory observation  involves observing people or animals in a laboratory setting. The researcher might want to know more about parent-child interactions and so bring a mother and her child into the lab to engage in preplanned tasks such as playing with toys, eating a meal, or the mother leaving the room for a short period of time. The advantage of this method over the naturalistic method is that the experimenter can use sophisticated equipment and videotape the session to examine it at a later time. The problem is that since the subjects know the experimenter is watching them, their behavior could become artificial from the start.

9. Case Studies Psychology can also utilize a detailed description of one person or a small group based on careful observation. This was the approach the founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, took to develop his theories. The advantage of this method is that you arrive at a rich description of the behavior being investigated but the disadvantage is that what you are learning may be unrepresentative of the larger population and so lacks  generalizability .

10. Surveys/Self-Report Data A  survey  is a questionnaire consisting of at least one scale with some number of questions that assess a psychological construct of interest such as parenting style, depression, locus of control, attitudes, or sensation-seeking behavior. It may be administered by paper and pencil or computer. Surveys allow for the collection of large amounts of data quickly but the actual survey could be tedious for the participant and  social desirability , when a participant answers questions dishonestly so that he/she is seen in a more favorable light, could be an issue.

11. Correlational Research This research method examines the relationship between two variables or two groups of variables. A numerical measure of the strength of this relationship is derived, called the  correlation coefficient , and can range from -1.00, a perfect inverse relationship meaning that as one variable goes up the other goes down, to 0 or no relationship at all, to +1.00 or a perfect relationship in which as one variable goes up or down so does the other. In terms of a negative correlation we might say that as a parent becomes more rigid, controlling, and cold, the attachment of the child to the parent goes down. In contrast, as a parent becomes warmer, more loving, and provides structure, the child becomes more attached. The advantage of correlational research is that you can correlate anything. The disadvantage is that you can correlate anything. Variables that really do not have any relationship to one another could be viewed as related. Yes.

12. What is a Spurious Correlation ? A spurious  correlation  occurs when two variables are correlated but don’t have a causal relationship. In other words, it appears that the values of one variable cause changes in the other variable, but that’s not actually happening. If you look up the definition of spurious, you’ll see explanations about something being fake or having a deceitful nature. It has the outward appearance of genuineness, but it’s an imitation. With this definition in mind, spurious correlations look like causal relationships in both their statistical measures and in graphs, but it’s not real. For example, ice cream sales and shark attacks correlate positively at a beach. As ice cream sales increase, there are more shark attacks. However, common sense tells us that ice cream sales do not cause shark attacks. Hence, it’s a spurious correlation.

13. Experiments An  experiment  is a controlled test of a hypothesis in which a researcher manipulates one variable and measures its effect on another variable. The variable that is manipulated is called the  independent variable (IV)  and the one that is measured is called the  dependent variable (DV) . A common feature of experiments is to have a  control group  that does not receive the treatment or is not manipulated and an  experimental group  that does receive the treatment or manipulation. If the experiment includes  random assignment  participants have an equal chance of being placed in the control or experimental group. The control group allows the researcher to make a  comparison  to the experimental group, making a causal statement possible, and stronger. https://helpfulprofessor.com/experimental-psychology/#:~:text=Pavlov's%20Dog%20Study%20(Pavlov%2C%201927)&text=Pavlov%20noticed%20that%20dogs%20would,principle%20of%20%E2%80%9Cclassical%20conditioning.%E2%80%9D

14. Perception Nature, the relation between sensation and perception, the concept of Illusion and hallucination Definition of Sensation and Perception Sensation Process by which the sense organ receptor cells are stimulated and relay their initial information to higher brain centers for further processing Perception Process by which an organism selects and interprets sensory input so that it acquires meaning.

15. Nature of perception “Perception refers to the interpretation of sensory data. In other words, sensation involves detecting the presence of a stimulus whereas perception involves understanding what the stimulus means. For example, when we see something, the visual stimulus is the light energy reflected from the external world and the eye becomes the sensor. This visual image of the external thing becomes perception when interpreted in the brain’s visual cortex. Thus, visual perception refers to interpreting the image of the external world projected on the retina of the eye and constructing a model of the three-dimensional world.” From the above explanation, perception is something more than sensation. It correlates, integrates, and comprehends diverse sensations and information from many organs of the body utilizing which a person identifies things and objects, the sensations refer to.

16. Nature of perception Perception is determined by both physiological and psychological characteristics of the human being whereas sensation is conceived with only the physiological features. Thus, perception is not just what one sees with the eyes it is a much more complex process by which an individual selectively absorbs or assimilates the stimuli in the environment, cognitively organizes the perceived information in a specific fashion, and then interprets the information to assess what is going on in one’s environment. Perception is a subjective process, therefore, different people may perceive the same environment differently based on what particular aspects of the situation they choose to selectively absorb, how they organize this information and the manner in which they interpret it to obtain a grasp of the situation.

17. https://tyonote.com/illusion/

18. What are hallucinations? Hallucinations are sensory experiences that appear real but are created by your mind. They can affect all five of your senses. For example, you might hear a voice that no one else in the room can hear or see an image that isn’t real. These symptoms may be caused by mental illnesses, the side effects of medications, or physical illnesses like  epilepsy  or  alcohol use disorder . You may need to visit a psychiatrist, a neurologist, or a general practitioner depending on the cause of your hallucinations. Treatment may include taking medication to treat a health condition. Your doctor may also recommend adopting different behaviors like drinking less alcohol and getting more sleep to improve your hallucinations.

19. Types of hallucinations Hallucinations may affect your vision, sense of smell, taste, hearing, or bodily sensations. Visual hallucinations Visual hallucinations involve seeing things that aren’t there. The hallucinations may be of objects, visual patterns, people, or lights. For example, you might see a person who’s not in the room or flashing lights that no one else can see. Olfactory hallucinations Olfactory hallucinations involve your sense of smell. You might smell an unpleasant odor when waking up in the middle of the night or feel that your body smells bad when it doesn’t. This type of hallucination can also include scents you find enjoyable, like the smell of flowers.

20. Gustatory hallucinations Gustatory hallucinations are similar to olfactory hallucinations, but they involve your sense of taste instead of smell. These tastes are often strange or unpleasant. Gustatory hallucinations (often with a metallic taste) are a relatively common symptom for people with  epilepsy . Auditory hallucinations Auditory hallucinations are among the most common type of hallucination. You might hear someone speaking to you or telling you to do certain things. The voice may be angry, neutral, or warm. Other examples of this type of hallucination include hearing sounds, like someone walking in the attic or repeated clicking or tapping noises. Tactile hallucinations Tactile hallucinations involve the feeling of touch or movement in your body. For example, you might feel that bugs are crawling on your skin or that your internal organs are moving around. You might also feel the imagined touch of someone’s hands on your body.

21. What causes hallucinations? Mental health conditions Mental illnesses are among the most common causes of hallucinations.  Schizophrenia ,  dementia , and  delirium  are a few examples. Substance use Substance use is another fairly common cause of hallucinations. Some people see or hear things that aren’t there after drinking too much alcohol or taking drugs like cocaine. Hallucinogenic drugs like LSD and PCP can also cause you to hallucinate. Lack of sleep Not getting enough sleep  can also lead to hallucinations. You may be more prone to hallucinations if you haven’t slept in multiple days or don’t get enough sleep over long periods of time. It’s also possible to experience hallucinations right before falling asleep, known as  hypnagogic hallucinations , or right before waking up from sleep, known as hypnopompic hallucinations.

22. Medications Certain medications taken for mental and physical health conditions can also cause hallucinations. Parkinson’s disease, depression, psychosis, and epilepsy medications may sometimes trigger hallucination symptoms. Other conditions Other conditions can also cause hallucinations. These can include: high fevers, especially in children and the elderly migraine social isolation, particularly in older adults seizures deafness, blindness, or vision problems epilepsy  (in some cases, epileptic seizures can cause you to see flashing shapes or bright spots) terminal illnesses, such as  stage 3 HIV (AIDS) ,  brain cancer , or kidney and liver failure

23. How are hallucinations diagnosed? The best thing to do is call your doctor right away if you suspect that your perceptions aren’t real. Your doctor will ask about your symptoms and perform a physical exam. Additional tests might include a blood or urine test and perhaps a brain scan. If you know someone who’s hallucinating, don’t leave them alone. In some severe cases, fear and paranoia triggered by hallucinations can lead to dangerous actions or behaviors. Stay with the person at all times and go with them to the doctor for emotional support. You may also be able to help answer questions about their symptoms and how often they occur.

24. Medications Treatment for your hallucinations will depend entirely on their underlying cause. For example, if you’re hallucinating due to severe  alcohol withdrawal , your doctor might prescribe medication that helps calm down your nervous system. However, if hallucinations are caused by Parkinson’s disease in a person with dementia, this same type of medication may not be beneficial, and other medications may be used. An accurate diagnosis is very important for treating the condition effectively. Counseling Counseling might also be part of your treatment plan. This is particularly true if the underlying cause of your hallucinations is a mental health condition. Speaking with a counselor can help you get a better understanding of what’s happening to you. A counselor can also help you develop coping strategies, particularly for when you’re feeling scared or paranoid.

25. Learning: Meaning, Nature, Types, and Theories of Learning Learning is defined as “any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of practice and experience”. This definition has three important elements. a. Learning is a change in behaviour —better or worse. b. It is a change that takes place through practice or experience, but changes due to growth or maturation are not learning. c. This change in behaviour must be relatively permanent, and it must last a fairly long time.

26. Types of Learning: 1. Motor learning: Most of our activities in our day-to-days life refer to motor activities. The individual has to learn them in order to maintain his regular life, for example walking, running, skating, driving, climbing, etc. All these activities involve the muscular coordination. 2. Verbal learning: This type of learning involves the language we speak, the communication devices we use. Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds, etc , are the tools used in such activities. We use words for communication. 3. Concept learning: It is the form of learning which requires higher order mental processes like thinking, reasoning, intelligence, etc. we learn different concepts from childhood. For example, when we see a dog and attach the term ‘dog’, we learn that the word dog refers to a particular animal. Concept learning involves two processes, viz. abstraction and generalisation . This learning is very useful in recognising , identifying things.

27. 4. Discrimination learning: Learning to differentiate between stimuli and showing an appropriate response to these stimuli is called discrimination learning. Example, sound horns of different vehicles like bus, car, ambulance, etc. 5. Learning of principles: Individuals learn certain principles related to science, mathematics, grammar, etc. in order to manage their work effectively. These principles always show the relationship between two or more concepts. Example: formulae, laws, associations, correlations, etc. 6. Problem solving: This is a higher order learning process. This learning requires the use of cognitive abilities-such as thinking, reasoning, observation, imagination, generalization, etc. This is very useful to overcome difficult problems encountered by the people. 7. Attitude learning: Attitude is a predisposition which determines and directs our behaviour . We develop different attitudes from our childhood about the people, objects and everything we know. Our behaviour may be positive or negative depending upon our attitudes. Example: attitudes of nurse towards her profession, patients, etc.

28. https://www.psychologydiscussion.net/learning/learning-meaning-nature-types-and-theories-of-learning/652

29. Chapter 4 Memory: Definition, types and factors affecting memory.

30. “Memory Conceptualized in Terms of Types, Stages, and Processes,” psychologists conceptualize memory in terms of  types , in terms of  stages , and in terms of  processes . In this section we will consider the two  types of memory ,  explicit memory  and  implicit memory , and then the three major  memory stages :  sensory ,  short-term , and  long-term  (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968). Then, in the next section, we will consider the nature of long-term memory, with a particular emphasis on the cognitive techniques we can use to improve our memories. Our discussion will focus on the three processes that are central to  long-term memory :  encoding ,  storage , and  retrieval .

31. Memory Conceptualized in Terms of Types, Stages, and Processes. As types Explitit Implicit As stages * Sensory memory Short-term memory Long-term memory As processes Encoding Storage Retrival

32. Explicit Memory : refers to knowledge or experiences that can be consciously remembered.  T here are two types of explicit memory:  episodic  and  semantic .   Episodic memory  refers to  the firsthand experiences that we have had  (e.g., recollections of our high school graduation day or of the fantastic dinner we had in New York last year).  Semantic memory  refers to  our knowledge of facts and concepts about the world  (e.g., that the absolute value of −90 is greater than the absolute value of 9 and that one definition of the word “affect” is “the experience of feeling or emotion”).

33. Explicit memory is assessed using measures in which the individual being tested must consciously attempt to remember the information . A  recall memory  test is  a measure of explicit memory that involves bringing from memory information that has previously been remembered . We rely on our recall memory when we take an essay test because the test requires us to generate previously remembered information. A multiple-choice test is an example of a  recognition memory test ,  a measure of explicit memory that involves determining whether information has been seen or learned before .

34. Implicit Memory refers to  the influence of experience on behavior, even if the individual is not aware of those influences .  there are three general types of implicit memory: procedural memory, classical conditioning effects, and priming. Procedural memory  refers to  our often unexplainable knowledge of how to do things . When we walk from one place to another, speak to another person in English, dial a cell phone, or play a video game, we are using procedural memory. Procedural memory allows us to perform complex tasks, even though we may not be able to explain to others how we do them.  A second type of implicit memory is  classical conditioning effects , in which  we learn, often without effort or awareness, to associate neutral stimuli (such as a sound or a light) with another stimulus (such as food), which creates a naturally occurring response, such as enjoyment or salivation . The memory for the association is demonstrated when the conditioned stimulus (the sound) begins to create the same response as the unconditioned stimulus (the food) did before the learning.

35. The final type of implicit memory is known as  priming , or  changes in behaviour as a result of experiences that have happened frequently or recently . Priming refers both to the activation of knowledge (e.g., we can prime the concept of kindness by presenting people with words related to kindness) and to the influence of that activation on behaviour (people who are primed with the concept of kindness may act more kindly). _ i b _ a _ y _ h _ s _ _ i _ n _ o _ k _ h _ i s _ Now read the following sentence carefully: “He got his materials from the shelves, checked them out, and then left the building.”Then try again to make words out of the word fragments.

36. Stages of Memory: Sensory, Short-Term, and Long-Term Memory Another way of understanding memory is to think about it in terms of stages that describe the length of time that information remains available to us. According to this approach, information begins in  sensory memory , moves to  short-term memory , and eventually moves to  long-term memory . But not all information makes it through all three stages; most of it is forgotten.  Sensory memory  refers to  the brief storage of sensory information . Sensory memory is a memory buffer that lasts only very briefly and then, unless it is attended to and passed on for more processing, is forgotten. The purpose of sensory memory is to give the brain some time to process the incoming sensations and to allow us to see the world as an unbroken stream of events rather than as individual pieces. https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontopsychology/wp-content/uploads/sites/9/2013/11/a74de49aa1281b2a68a59837b882d879.jpg

37. Visual sensory memory  is known as  iconic memory . Iconic memory was first studied by the psychologist George Sperling (1960).  Auditory sensory memory  is known as  echoic memory . In contrast to iconic memories, which decay very rapidly, echoic memories can last as long as four seconds. This is convenient as it allows you — among other things — to remember the words that you said at the beginning of a long sentence when you get to the end of it, and to take notes on your psychology professor’s most recent statement even after he or she has finished saying it. In some people iconic memory seems to last longer, a phenomenon known as  eidetic imagery  (or  photographic memory ) in which  people can report details of an image over long periods of time . These people, who often suffer from psychological disorders such as autism, claim that they can “see” an image long after it has been presented, and can often report accurately on that image. There is also some evidence for eidetic memories in hearing; some people report that their echoic memories persist for unusually long periods of time. The composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart may have possessed eidetic memory for music, because even when he was very young and had not yet had a great deal of musical training, he could listen to long compositions and then play them back almost perfectly

38. Short-Term Memory Most of the information that gets into sensory memory is forgotten, but information that we turn our attention to, with the goal of remembering it, may pass into  short-term memory .  Short-term memory (STM)  is  the place where small amounts of information can be temporarily kept for more than a few seconds but usually for less than one minute  (Baddeley, Vallar , & Shallice, 1990). Information in short-term memory is not stored permanently but rather becomes available for us to process, and  the processes that we use to make sense of, modify, interpret, and store information in STM  are known as  working memory . One way to prevent the decay of information from short-term memory is to use working memory to rehearse it.  Maintenance rehearsal  is  the process of repeating information mentally or out loud with the goal of keeping it in memory . We engage in maintenance rehearsal to keep something that we want to remember (e.g., a person’s name, email address, or phone number) in mind long enough to write it down, use it, or potentially transfer it to long-term memory.

39. One way we are able to expand our ability to remember things in STM is by using a memory technique called  chunking .  Chunking  is  the process of organizing information into smaller groupings (chunks), thereby increasing the number of items that can be held in STM . If information makes it past short-term memory it may enter  long-term memory (LTM) ,  memory storage that can hold information for days, months, and years . The capacity of long-term memory is large, and there is no known limit to what we can remember (Wang, Liu, & Wang, 2003). Although we may forget at least some information after we learn it, other things will stay with us forever.

40. Memory enhancing technique https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/techniques-to-improve-memory

41. Defining Emotions Emotions are often confused with feelings and moods, but the three terms are not interchangeable. According to the American Psychological Association (APA), emotion is  defined  as “a complex reaction pattern, involving experiential, behavioral, and physiological elements.” Emotions are how individuals deal with matters or situations they find personally significant. Emotional experiences have three components: a subjective experience, a physiological response, and a behavioral or expressive response. The Process Of Emotion While there is debate about the sequence, there is general agreement that emotions, as mentioned earlier, are made up of three parts: subjective experiences, physiological responses, and behavioral responses. Let’s look at each of these parts in more detail. Subjective Experiences All emotions begin with a subjective experience, also referred to as a stimulus, but what does that mean? While basic emotions are expressed by all individuals regardless of culture or upbringing, the experience that produces them can he highly subjective. Subjective experiences can range from something as simple as seeing a color to something as major as losing a loved one or getting married. No matter how intense the experience is, it can provoke many emotions in a single individual and the emotions each individual feel may be different. For example, one person may feel anger and regret at the loss of a loved one while another may experience intense sadness.

42. Physiological Responses We all know how it feels to have our hearts beat fast with fear. This physiological response is the result of the autonomic nervous system’s reaction to the emotion we’re experiencing. The autonomic nervous system controls our involuntary bodily responses and regulates our fight-or-flight response. According to many psychologists, our physiological responses are likely how emotion helped us evolve and survive as humans throughout history. Interestingly, studies have shown autonomic  physiological responses  are strongest when a person’s facial expressions most closely resemble the expression of the emotion they’re experiencing. In other words, facial expressions play an important role in responding accordingly to an emotion in a physical sense. Behavioral Responses The behavioral response aspect of the emotional response is the actual expression of the emotion. Behavioral responses can include a smile, a grimace, a laugh, or a sigh, along with many other reactions depending on societal norms and personality. Behavioral responses are important to signal to others how we’re feeling, but research shows that they’re also vital to individuals’ well-being. A study in the  Journal of Abnormal Psychology  found that while watching negative and positive emotional films,  suppression of behavioral responses  to emotion had physical effects on the participants. The effects included elevated heart rates. This suggests that expressing behavioral responses to stimuli, both positive and negative, is better for your overall health than holding those responses inside. Thus, there are benefits of smiling, laughing, and expressing negative emotions in a healthy way.

43. Theories Of Emotion Many theories of emotion exist. While some theories directly refute others, many build upon each other. Here are some common theories of emotional psychology that have helped shape the field and how humans view emotions. James-Lange Theory The James-Lange Theory of Emotion is one of the earliest emotion theories of modern psychology. Developed by William James and Carl Lange in the 19th century, the theory hypothesizes that physiological stimuli (arousal) cause the autonomic nervous system to react which in turn causes individuals to experience emotion. The reactions of the nervous system could include a fast heartbeat, tensed muscles, sweating, and more. According to this theory, the physiological response comes before the emotional behavior. Over time, the James-Lange theory has been challenged, as well as expanded upon in other theories, suggesting that emotion is the mix of physiological and psychological responses.

44. Facial-Feedback Theory The Facial-Feedback Theory of Emotion suggests that facial expressions are crucial to experiencing emotion. This theory is connected to the work of Charles Darwin and William James who hypothesized that facial expressions impact emotion as opposed to their being a response to an emotion. This theory holds that emotions are directly tied to physical changes in the facial muscles. Thus, someone who forced himself to smile would be happier than someone who wore a frown. Cannon-Bard Theory Developed by Walter Cannon and Philip Bard in the 1920s, the Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion was developed to refute the James-Lange theory. This theory posits that bodily changes and emotions occur simultaneously instead of one right after the other. This theory is backed by neurobiological science that says that once a stimulating event is detected, the information is relayed to both the amygdala and the brain cortex at the same time. If this holds true, arousal and emotion are simultaneous events. Schachter-Singer Theory This theory, developed by Stanley Schachter and Jerome E. Singer, introduces the element of reasoning into the process of emotion. The theory hypothesizes that when we experience an event that causes physiological arousal, we try to find a reason for the arousal. Then, we experience the emotion. Cognitive Appraisal Theory Richard Lazarus pioneered this theory of emotion. According to the Cognitive Appraisal Theory, thinking must occur before experiencing emotion. Thus, a person would first experience a stimulus, think, and then simultaneously experience a physiological response and the emotion.

45. When a person is exposed to a stimulus or an emotional trigger, a certain emotion is generated. The psychological regulatory process often involves  three components : Initiating actions Modulating responses Inhibiting actions Emotional control can be seen as a modifier. It helps us filter the most important information and allows us to attend to or interact with it in a way that doesn’t provoke  negative emotions , like   stress . Researchers believe that the way we feel and interpret our emotions affects the way we think, our decision-making skills, and how we generally coordinate our day-to-day lives. A well-regulated individual is likely to have  better balance, judgment, and control over their emotions  and therefore their actions. They will be able to more accurately judge which situations to embrace and which to avoid.   Emotional control   is the ability to identify and  regulate your emotions  and respond in a  socially tolerable and flexible way  and also have a certain level of control over  spontaneous reactions . Emotional control encompasses both positive and negative emotions, however, it usually refers to attempts by an individual to manage the generation, expression, or experience of particularly  disruptive emotions and impulses  that can have negative consequences. This is thought to be done through the use of cognitive or behavioral strategies.

46. How can we practice better emotional control? Taking time to  reflect on situations , in between feeling and reacting, is one way to begin improving your emotional control. There are many ways to be more aware of your emotions and reactions and some of these include: Becoming more self-aware Practising   mindful approaches and exercises Altering the way we think  and being more flexible Being more  adaptable to change  by employing effective coping mechanisms Being more  positive and compassionate   towards yourself Getting the right emotional support around you

47. NATURE OF THINKING : Thinking is the base of all cognitive activities or processes and is unique to human beings. It involves the manipulation and analysis of information received from the environment. For example, while seeing a painting, you are not simply focusing on the color of the painting or the lines and strokes, rather you are going beyond the given text in interpreting its meaning and you are trying to relate the information to your existing knowledge. Understanding the painting involves creating new meaning that is added to your knowledge. Thinking, therefore, is a higher mental process through which we manipulate and analyze the acquired or existing information. Such manipulation and analysis occur by means of abstracting, reasoning, imagining, problem-solving, judging, and decision-making. Thinking is mostly organized and goal-directed. All daily activities, ranging from cooking to solving math problems, have a goal. Definition: Thinking is a mental process mental representations newly formed through the transformation of information by interaction, attributes such as the assessment of mental abstraction, logic, imagination, and problem-solving. TYPES OF THINKING : Thinking can be classified as follows: Perceptual or Concrete Thinking: This is the simplest form of thinking the basis of this type is perception, i.e. interpretation of sensation according to one’s experience. It is also called concrete thinking as it is carried out on the perception of actual or concrete objects and events. 2. Conceptual or Abstract Thinking: Here one makes use of concepts, generalized objects and languages, it is regarded as being superior to perceptual thinking as it economizes efforts in understanding and problem-solving

48. 3. Reflective Thinking: This type of thinking aims to solve complex problems, thus it requires reorganization of all the relevant experiences to a situation or removing obstacles instead of relating with those experiences or ideas. This is an insightful cognitive approach in reflective thinking as the mental activity here does not involve the mechanical trial and error type of effort. In this type, thinking processes take all the relevant facts arranged in a logical order into account in order to arrive at a solution to the problem. 4. Creative Thinking: This type of thinking is associated with one’s ability to create or construct something new, novel, or unusual. It looks for new relationships and associations to describe and interpret the nature of things, events, and situations. Here the individual himself usually formulates the pieces of evidence and tools for its solution. For example; scientists, artists, or inventors. Skinner, the famous psychologist says creative thinking means that the prediction and inferences for the individual are new, original, ingenious, and unusual. The creative thinker is one who expresses new ideas and makes new observations, new predictions, and new inferences. 5. Critical Thinking: It is a type of thinking that helps a person in stepping aside from his own personal beliefs, prejudices, and opinions to sort out the faiths and discover the truth, even at the expense of his basic belief system. Here one resorts to set higher cognitive abilities and skills for the proper interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as explanation of the gathered or communicated information resulting in a purposeful unbiased, and self-regulatory judgment 6. Non-directed or Associative Thinking: There are times when we find ourselves engaged in a unique type of thinking that is non-directed and without a goal. It is reflected through dreaming and other free-flowing uncontrolled activities. Psychologically these forms of thought are termed as associative thinking. Here daydreaming, fantasy, and delusions all fall in the category of withdrawal behavior that helps an individual to escape from the demands of the real world by making his thinking face non-directed and floating, placing him somewhere, ordering something unconnected with his environment.

49. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY In modern times Sigmund Freud is the first psychologist to put forth the Psychoanalytic theory of personality. Freud developed this theory of personality out of his observations of patients over a period of forty years. He had deterministic and pessimistic view of human nature. Psychoanalytic approach can be divided into three parts: i ) Structure of personality: It has two dimensions – topographical and dynamic. Topographical is further subdivided into: a) conscious, b) subconscious; and c) unconscious. Conscious includes in it all those experiences and activities which have to do with present. Subconscious includes all those experiences, desires, thoughts, feelings which are not available at the level of conscious but can be easily accessed through deliberate effort. For example, if someone ask you the name of the city you lived in during childhood. You will readily recall it. Unconscious represents our sexual, immoral, antisocial and hateful desires which we can’t afford to express in our daily life. Therefore such desire are repressed and relegated to unconscious. ii) Dynamic model or dimension represents those aspects of personality which are instrumental in resolution of mental conflicts arising from basic instincts. It has agents or instruments at its disposal to accomplish this task and these are: a) Id, b) ego and c) superego. Id is biological in nature and represents those instincts which are innate, unorganised , sexual and unlawful. It operates on pleasure principle. Ego, though develops out of Id, is reality oriented. Ego remains at the driving seat of personality and functions at all three levels i.e. conscious, subconscious and unconscious. Super Ego is the moral aspect of personality and operates on idealistic principle. It represents the dos and don’ts of behaviour . It grows out of process of socia lisation

50. iii) Dynamics of personality: It contains: a) instincts, b) anxiety, and c) mental mechanisms. Instincts refer to innate bodily energy or excitation and guide all our behavior. They are of two types, life instinct or Eros and death instincts or Thanatos. Anxiety is an affective, unpleasant state that warns the ego of impending danger so that the individual can adapt to the environment. Freud mentioned three types of anxiety – realistic anxiety, neurotic anxiety, and moral anxiety. Mental mechanisms are activated to protect the ego the core of personality. Mental mechanisms are self-deceptive and operate at the level of the unconscious. These distort the perception of reality thereby reducing the degree of anxiety. iv) Development of personality: Freud delineated five stages of personality development. These stages are: Oral  (0 – 1.5 years of age): Fixation on all things oral. Negative oral habits or behaviors are likely to develop if not satisfactorily met. Anal  (1.5 to 3 years of age): As indicated this stage is primarily related to developing healthy toilet training habits. Phallic  (3 – 5 year of age): The development of healthy substitutes for the sexual attraction boys and girls have toward a parent of the opposite gender. Latency  (5 – 12 years of age): The development of healthy dormant sexual feelings for the opposite sex. Genital  (12 – adulthood): All tasks from the previous four stages are integrated into the mind allowing for the onset of healthy sexual feelings and behaviors

51. Trait Approach: The Trait approach tries to explain personality on the basis of certain characteristics. These traits are used to explain the why of behavior and consistency in behavior. Allport and Cattell are the two main proponents of the trait approach. Allport mentioned two types of traits namely; common traits and personal traits. Common traits are those found in the majority of persons of a culture while personal traits are specific to a person and not found in other members of a culture. Allport further divided personal traits into three categories – a) cardinal dispositions, it has an overwhelming influence on the behavior of a person and is manifested in all the activities a person does. For example, peace and non-violence were cardinal traits of Mahatma Gandhi. His entire life is woven around these traits, b) central disposition, these are of much importance but do not parallel cardinal traits. For example, some people are very social and fun-loving. Central traits may number five to ten in a person, c) secondary traits, though prominent in a person’s behavior do not help much in explaining the basic nature of a person. For example, hairstyle, eating habits, or dressing style of a person. Another important trait theory is given by Cattell. He mentioned two types of traits namely; source traits and surface traits. Source traits underlie the personality and are not reflected in day to day interaction of a person. They are observable only when we try to organize surface traits. For example, unselfishness, humor, and gregariousness took together point to friendliness (a source trait) in the personality of a person. Surface traits are observable characteristics of a person. For example, cheerfulness, and integrity may easily be discerned in the behavior of a person. Cattell

52. Constitutional Approach This approach tries to explain personality in terms of the physical constitution of a person and the related temperament. Sheldon and Kretschmer are the two pioneers of this approach. Sheldon on the basis of physical structure classified people in three personality types: a) endomorphic, such persons are fatty, round, and short-heighted. They are happy-go-lucky and social by nature, b) mesomorphy , they have a well-built body, and their muscles are strong and shapely. They are assertive, tough minded, and risk taking by nature, c) ectomorphy , persons of this type are long, slender and thin. they solitude loving, do not approach people as they are shy and reluctant. Kretschmer classified people into four types: a) pyknic, these are short heighted fat people and enjoy mixing with people, are found of eating and drinking, b) asthenic type, such persons are tall and thin with underdeveloped muscles. By nature they are irritable, shirk away from responsibility. These people are often lost in daydreaming, c) athletic type, they have well developed muscles and good physique. They are neither short nor very tall. These people manifest a balanced temperament and adjust well with environment, d) dysplastic type, this category include those people who manifest a mix of the characteristics found in above three types.

53. Life-span Approach This approach explains personality in terms of changes in behaviour that take place throughout life i.e. from birth to death. Personality is explained in terms of solutions to problems arising during the turning points or crisis periods at each of the eight stages in which life has been divided. Erickson mentioned eight psychosocial stages of personality; infancy, early childhood, play age, school stage, adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood, and maturity. Erickson laid emphasis on holism, environmentalism, and changeability in human nature. He stressed the development of Ego in his theory.

54. Humanistic Approach This theory revolves round the subjective experiences of a person. It states that each person has a unique frame of reference which develops out of his experiences with the environment. This frame of reference develops as the person tries to make sense out of things and events in his environment. Further that this frame of reference determines how a person perceives the world around him. Thus perceptual attitude is central to the development of personality, for this reason this approach is also known as phenomenological. According to this point of view human beings are positive by nature and individuals strive for growth, in order to self actualise themselves. Maslow and Rogers are prominent humanistic psychologists. Maslow gave the growth theory of personality.

55. David Wechsler (1896-1981), PhD, who pioneered the field of cognitive psychology, was one of the most renowned psychologists of the 20th century. Wechsler viewed intelligence as an effect rather than a cause and asserted that non-intellective factors, such as personality, contribute to the development of each person’s intelligence. He described intelligence as “the global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.” Although many different definitions exist today, most experts believe intelligence includes mental talents such as logic, reasoning, problem-solving, and planning. The current definitions of intelligence tend to imply that it is the capacity to: Learn from your mistakes: Knowledge acquisition, retention, and application are crucial aspects of intelligence Recognise issues: To use knowledge, individuals must first recognize the issues they can help with People must then apply what they’ve learned to come up with solutions to problems.

56. Historical Perspective Of Theories Of Intelligence The history dates back to the 20th century. In the early twentieth century, German psychologist William Stern created the “intelligence quotient” (IQ). Psychologist Alfred Binet created the first IQ tests to aid the French government in identifying students who required extra help in school. Since then, IQ testing has become a frequently utilized instrument that has spawned a slew of additional skill and aptitude tests. On the other hand, IQ testing continues to spark controversy about its usage, cultural biases, impacts on intellect, and even the definition of intelligence itself. Theories Of General Intelligence  The theory of general intelligence is the cognitive theory. British scientist Charles Spearman (1863–1945) created the term “general intelligence” or “g factor.” After using factor analysis in these examinations, Spearman noticed that the results were remarkably similar. Those who performed well on one cognitive exam were more likely to do well on others, whereas those who performed poorly on one test were more likely to perform poorly. He discovered that intelligence is a general cognitive ability that researchers can measure and represent mathematically

57. Primary Mental Abilities  Psychologist Louis L. Thurstone (1887–1955) proposed a different theory of intelligence; in his theory, he argues that intelligence is not subjected to one individual factor. He argues that intelligence depends on multiple abilities. These are some of them: The capacity to learn and recall information through associative memory. The capacity to solve mathematical problems is referred to as numerical ability Perceptual quickness refers to the capacity to recognize differences and similarities between items quickly The reasoning is the capacity to identify and apply rules The capacity to visualize relationships in space is referred to as spatial visualization The capacity to define and comprehend words is known as verbal comprehension Word fluency is defined as the capacity to form words quickly. The Triarchic Intelligence Approach As per Robert Sternberg, intelligence is mental activity oriented toward purposeful adaptation to, selection, and structuring of real-world surroundings important to one’s existence. He suggests the triarchic approach to intelligence. Although he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much more than a single, generic ability, he claimed that certain aspects of Gardner’s intelligence should be considered particular skills rather than types of intelligence. Sternberg introduced the concept of “successful intelligence,” which entails three elements: 6 Analytical intelligence refers to the capacity to analyze data and solve issues The capacity to come up with fresh ideas is referred to as creative intelligence The capacity to adapt to a changing environment is known as practical intelligence.

58. Gardner's Revolutionary Perspective Howard Gardner's theory  of multiple intelligences has revolutionized the way we think about intelligence and its role in education. According to Gardner, traditional views of intelligence, which focused solely on cognitive abilities measured by IQ tests, were too limited. He proposed that there are actually distinct, independent multiple intelligences, each representing unique skills and talents. Gardner initially identified seven intelligences: linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, spatial intelligence, musical intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, and intrapersonal intelligence. Each of these intelligences encompasses different ways of understanding and interacting with the world. For example, linguistic intelligence involves  skilled use of language , while logical-mathematical intelligence involves reasoning and problem-solving abilities. As Gardner's theory evolved, he later added an eighth intelligence: naturalist intelligence. This intelligence pertains to a person's ability to recognize and categorize patterns in nature and to understand the natural world. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/assessment-of-intelligence#:~:text=It%20combines%20cognitive%20abilities%20such,assess%20an%20individual's%20cognitive%20abilities .