Writing research paper-Major Neamatullah.ppt

Essential for Writing Research Paper.

1. Writing
a Scientific Paper
Major Dr. Neamatullah Ahmed,PBGMS,MBBS,MPH,MCPS

2. What is a Scientific Paper ?
Ascientificpaperisa
writtenandpublishedreport
describingoriginalresearch
results

3. Scientific writing should be:
Reader-Based
Purposeful
Accurate
Clear
Concise
Precise
Simple
and contain:
•No invented words
•No laboratory jargon
•Few abbreviations if any

4. Understanding the Scientific Paper
Requires :
Proficiencyin English language
Writing skilland environment
Knowledge and understanding on
epidemiology of the problem
concerned
Knowledge about research
methodology, biostatistics
Own contribution in the field of
research and knowledge about the
area of research
Understanding the Scientific Paper

5. Writing Environment
Writingenvironmentshouldbe:
Supportive
Motivating
Challenging
Nonthreatening

6. Clear Purpose And Outcome
GuidelinePrinciples:
Thewritingexperiencemusthavea
clearpurposewithstronglyfocused
objectivesandoutcomes

7. Before Begining To Write
Analyzetheproblemandask
yourselfwith:
–WhatinformationdoIwishtopresent
–WhatspecificgroupofreadersIam
writingfor
–Whatbackgroundinformationreaders
have
–WhatlogicalsequenceinwhichI
shouldpresenttheinformationtothe
readers

8. Aspects Of Scientific Writing
Thewritersusuallyworkswithfive
constantstages:
–Thinkingandplanningthestructure
–Thinkingaboutthereaders
–Choosingwords
–Formingthesentences
–Buildingtheparagraphs

9. Thinking-Knowledge -Writing
Thinkingisessentialtoknowledge
andknowledgeisessentialto
thinking.Therefore,attentionshould
begivenforthinkingskillswhile
writingamanuscripts.
–Scientificbackground
–Reasoning
–Creativethinking

10. Thoughtful Planning
Thoughtfulplanningisthemost
importantstepinscientificwritingand
writershouldidentify:
–Mainmessage
–TargetJournal
–Audience

11. Manuscript Writing
Think
Write
Stop
Review
Think again

12. Think & Write
Thisstepshouldprecede,followandbe
interspersedwiththeothers
•Donottrytorushthroughthe
entireprocessinoncontinuous
effort,butcontinually
–Stop(Whatyouhavewritten)
–Review(Whatyouhavedone)
–Thinkagain(Whatistocome)

13. First Draft
–Write as quickly as possible
–Get everything down
–Ignore spelling, grammar, style
–Skip troublesome words
–Correct and rewrite only when the
whole text is on paper
–Do not split the manuscript among the
co-authors

14. Good Writing
–Content, accuracy
–Clarity
–Precision
–Logic
–Order of presentation

15. Clarity
–Clear
–Exact
•Ambiguity, inconsistency
•Wooly words
–Concise
•Least words
•Short words
•One word vs many

16. Simplify
•a majority of = most
•at the present time = now
•give rise to = cause
•in some cases = sometimes
•is defined as = is
•it is believed that = I think
•on the basis of = by
•pooled together = pooled
•subsequent to = after
•with the result that = so that

17. Use and Misuse of English
Tense
•Previously published work: present tense
•Your own work: past tense
Voice
•Active more precise and less wordy than
passive
•Name the agent, even “I” or “we”

18. Writing
Reshape, refine, tighten up
Juggle words, change sentences
around
Strengthen transition between
sentences
Check narrative flow
After several drafts ask for a second
opinion

19. Writing: Clutter
All first drafts have too many words
Successive drafts: prune vigorously
Strip every sentence
Look for excessive adverbs, adjectives
Writing improves in proportion to
deletion of unnecessary words

20. Writing:
Abbreviations and Acronyms
Liked by authors, hated by readers
Reading should not require a
glossary

21. Writing: Sentences
Only one idea in a sentence
Keep short: <20 words
Vary length
Long sentences: greater risk of
grammatical error

22. Writing: Paragraph
The unit of thought in a group of
sentences
Not too long (<125words)
Long paragraph: bad

23. Rewriting
Secret of writing is rewriting
Secret of rewriting is re-thinking

24. Typing
Clean
Wide margins (2.5 cm)
On one side of the sheet only
Adherence to the style of the journal
Proofread, proofread, proofread

25. Authorship
Decided as early as possible
Should include persons who:
•Can defend the intellectual content,
including data analysis,interpretation
and conclusions
•Must be willing to concede publicly any
errors
•In the case of fraud be willing to state
publicly the nature and extent, and
account for its occurrence

26. Authorship Order
Thefirstauthorprimarilyresponsible
forcollectingandanalyzingdataand
writingthemanuscript
Themiddleauthorlistedaccording
totheirorderofimportancetothe
study
Thelastauthorwhoisalso
establishedinvestigator,assumes
theoverallresponsibilityforthe
study

27. Authorship: Criteria
All the following criteria should be met :
–Generateatleastpartoftheintellectual
content(conceptionordesign,data
analysisandinterpretation)
–Drafting,reviewingorrevisingcritically
forimportantintellectualcontent
–Finalapprovaloftheversiontobe
published

28. Authorship: Responsibilities
The authors must comply with the following rules
when submitting the manuscript for publication:
•Themanuscriptis not under consideration elsewhere
and the research will not be submitted elsewhereuntil a
final decision has been made by the journal
•The manuscript is a trustful, original work without
fabrication, fraud or plagiarism
•The authorshave made an important scientific
contribution and are familiar with the primary data
•The authors have read the manuscript and take
responsibility for its content, and understand that if the
paper, or part of it, is found to be faulty or fraudulent,
they share responsibility

29. Authorship: Conflict of Interest
–Allfundingsourcessupportingthe
workandallinstitutionalorcorporate
affiliationsoftheauthorsmustbe
acknowledged
–Theauthorsmustcertifythattheyhave
nocommercialassociationthatmight
poseaconflictofinterestinconnection
withthesubmittedpaper

30. Guideline for scientific paper
•Haveacleartopic
•Organizedyourthoughtandmaterialbeforeyouwrite.Be
certaintoprovidereaderwithnecessaryinformation;avoid
providingunnecessaryinformation
•Writeforyourintendedaudiencenotforyourself
•Organizeyourpaper,aswellaseachsectionandparagraph
sothatyoudevelopmaterialinorderlyfashion
•Analysisandconclusionarethecriticalelementsofany
researchpaper.Analysisisnotthesameasthingasopinion

31. Don’t duck with hard issues, conflicting authority or things
you don’t know; this only erodes your readers confidence
Always identify and attribute text and ideas that are not
yours
Get the point quickly and stick into it; less wind up and
more pitch
Tone is very important; be clear and confident, without
being argumentative. Avoid being too formal ( don’t ever
use a word you are not sure of) and all “legalese” but also
avoid first person and colloquial writing.
Shorten and sharpen your words, your sentences, your
paragraphs, and your argument at each revision. Excessive
adjective or flamboyant words undermine good writing
Demonstrate care in your writing. This requires careful
reading. Typographical or grammatical errors, missing
words etc, demonstrate that you didn’t think much of your
work or of your reader.
Revise, revise and revise.Nothing is more essential to good
writing. As you revise, be willing to trim or prune material or
rewrite sections entirely.

32. Format of Scientific Paper
Mostcommonformatare:
Title
Abstract
Introduction
Methodsandmaterial
Results
Discussions
Tables&Figures
Referencesorliteraturecited

33. •What question (problem) was
studied ?
•The answer is the introduction.
•Howwastheproblemstudied?
•Theansweristhemethods.
•Whatwerethefindings?
•TheansweristheResults.
•Whatdothesefindingsmean?
•TheansweristheDiscussion.

34. General Style
To make a paper readable
Print or type using a 12 point standard font, such as Times,
Geneva, Bookman, Helvetica, etc.
Text should be double spaced on 8 1/2" x 11" paper with 1
inch margins, single sided
Number pages consecutively
Start each new section on a new page
Adhere to recommended page limits
Mistakes to avoid
Placing a heading at the bottom of a page with the following
text on the next page (insert a page break!)
Dividing a table or figure -confine each figure/table to a
single page
Submitting a paper with pages out of order

35. In all sections of paper
Use normal prose including articles ("a", "the,"
etc.)
Stay focused on the research topic of the paper
Use paragraphs to separate each important point
(except for the abstract)
Indent the first line of each paragraph
Present your points in logical order
Use present tense to report well accepted facts -
for example, 'the grass is green'
Use past tense to describe specific results -for
example, 'When weed killer was applied, the grass
was brown'
Avoid informal wording, don't address the reader
directly, and don't use jargon, slang terms, or
superlatives
Avoid use of superfluous pictures -include only
those figures necessary to presenting results

36. How To Prepare The Title
TheTitleshouldsummarizethemain
ideaofaPaper.Itshouldbeconcise
statementofthemaintopicandshould
identifytheactualvariablesor
theoreticalissuesunderinvestigation.
e.g,.”EffectofTransformedLetterson
ReadingSpeed”

37. Right Title
Titleisthefirstpartofthejournala
readerlookat
Agoodtitleislikeanhonest
advertisement,thereaderwillbe
attractedtothemanuscript
Apoortitleislikeaquarantinesign,
thereaderwillapproachonlyclose
enoughtoreadthesignandthen
hurryaway

38. Title should have
Good test
Fascinate the reader
Same tone as the essay
Should be
Specificenoughtodescribetheextentofthepaper
Notsotechnicalthatonlyspecialistunderstand
Appropriateforthetargetedaudiences
Lessthan12wordsand100characters
Nevercontainabbreviations

39. Length Of The Title
•Titleshouldneitherbetoolongnor
tooshort
•Wastewordsshouldbeavoided
e.g.studieson,observationon,
investigationson,etc.
•OpeningasA,ANandTHEfallinthe
categoryofwasteword.

40. Elements of a title
The title should contain three elements:
The name of the organism studied
The particular system or aspect studied
The variables manipulated
The title may be:
“ THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON GERMINATION OF
CORN”
“DOES TEMPARETURE AFFECT GERMINATION OF CORN”
“TEMPARETURE AND CORN GERMINATION: IMPLICATION
FOR AGRICULTURE”
“HIGH TEMPARETURES REDUCES GERMINATION OF CORN”

41. Abstract
How to prepare an abstract
•Abstractprovidebriefsummaryofthe
mainsectionsofthepaper:Introduction,
material,methods,resultsanddiscussions.
•Anabstractisaconcisesingleparagraph
summaryofcompletedworkorworkin
progress.Inaminuteorless,areadercan
learntherationalebehindthestudy,
generalapproachtotheproblem,pertinent
results,andimportantconclusionsornew
questions.

42. •Statethepurposeorprincipleobjectives
andscopeoftheinvestigations.
•Describethemethodsemployed.
•Describetheresults.
•Statethediscussionand principal
conclusion.
Theabstractisaoneortwoparagraph
condensation(150to200words)and
shouldbeaselfcontainedunitcapable
ofbeingunderstoodwithoutthebenefit
ofthetext;itshouldcontainthe
followingelements:

43. •Abstractshouldbewritteninthepast
tense,becauseitreferstothework
done.
•Preferablywritethepaperbefore
abstract
•Abstractshouldnevergiveany
informationorconclusionthatisnot
statedinthepaper.

44. Abstract
An abstract is a brief, comprehensive
summery of the content of the paper. It
can be the most important paragraph of the
paper. The abstract needs to be very
informative but also readable, well
organized and brief. A well written abstract
follows the point below:
Accurate:It correctly reflect the purpose
and content of the paper… nothing not
included in the paper present.
Self contained:All abbreviations, unique
terms and acronyms should be defined.
Paraphrase rather than quote.
Concise & Specific:Be brief but
informative…begin with most important
information but do not repeat the title.

45. Contd-
Nonevaluative:only report; do not add
to or comment what is in the body.
Coherent & Readable:use verbs rather
than nouns equivalents; active rather
than passive voice-use present tense
for the results-use third person rather
than first person.
Informative:state the problem under
investigation in one sentence if possible.

46. Contd-
Identifytheparticipantsorsubjectof
study,revealtheexperimental
methods,identifythefindings;Tell
theconclusions,implicationsor
applications.
“Theabstractisaccurate,succinct,quickly
comprehensibleandinformative”

47. Commonproblem in Abstract
Too long
Too much detail
Too short
Fail to include important
information

48. Introduction
3~4paragraphsabout450word
FirstParagraph-Introducebroad
area
SecondParagraph-Highlightthe
rationale
LastParagraph-Dealswith
hypothesis,objectivesandvariables
ofstudy

49. Muchoftheintroductionshouldbe
writteninthepresenttense.
Suggestedrulesforagood
introductionare:
Introductionshouldpresentfirstwithall
possibleclarity,thenatureandscopeof
theprobleminvestigated.
Thereasonforthisruleistoavoidthe
wastageoftimeofthereader.Reader
afterlookingattheintroductionmay
continuereadingitorskipitifitisnot
ofhisinterest.

50. Writing an introduction
•Describetheimportance(significance)ofthestudy-
whywasthisworthdoinginthefirstplace?Providea
broadcontext.
•Defendthemodel-whydidyouusethisparticular
organismorsystem?Whatareitsadvantages?
Providearationale.
•Stateyourspecifichypothesis(es)orobjective(s),
anddescribethereasoningthatledyoutoselect
them.
•Verybrieflydescribetheexperimentaldesignand
howitaccomplishedthestatedobjectives.

51. Style (Introduction):
•Usepasttenseexceptwhenreferringto
establishedfacts.
•Organizeyourideas,makingonemajor
pointwitheachparagraph.
•Presentbackgroundinformationonlyas
neededinordersupportaposition.
•Always,payattentiontospelling,clarity
andappropriatenessofsentencesand
phrases.

52. Materials and method -(General
principle)
Includes:
Studydesign/types/consent
Studyprotocol/inclusionandexclusion
criteria
Referencetostandardprocedures/
techniques
Innovativetechniques/equipments/
materialsused
Datacollectionprocedure/analysis/
statisticalmethod
Strength/limitation

53. Things to be done in methods and material sec
•Explain why each procedure was done; what variable were you
measuring and why?
•Experimental procedures and results are narrated in the past
tense ( what you did and what you found, etc) whereas
conclusions from results are given in the present tense.
•Mathematical equations and statistical tests are considered
mathematical methods and should be described in this section
along with the actual experimental works
•Use active rather than passive voice when possible. Always
use singular than plural (I rather than we). Avoid contractions,
e,g,. Did not vs didn’t
•If any of the methods is fully described in the previous
publication (yours or someone else), cite that instead of
describing the procedure again

54. Materials and Methods
Thereisnospecificpagelimit,butakey
conceptistokeepthissectionasconcise
asyoupossiblycan.Peoplewillwantto
readthismaterialselectively.Thereader
mayonlybeinterestedinoneformulaor
partofaprocedure.

55. Results
Thepagelengthofthissectionissetbythe
amountandtypesofdatatobereported.Continueto
beconcise,usingfiguresandtables,ifappropriate,to
presentresultsmosteffectively.
Writing a results section
Thepurposeofaresultssectionistopresentand
illustrateyourfindings.Makethissectiona
completelyobjectivereportoftheresults,andsave
allinterpretationforthediscussion

56. Content
•Summarizefindingsintextandillustrate
them,ifappropriate,withfiguresandtables.
•Intext,describeeachresults,pointingthe
readertoobservationsthataremostrelevant.
•Provideacontext,suchasbydescribingthe
questionthatwasaddressedbymakinga
particularobservation.
•Describeresultsofcontrolexperimentsand
includeobservationsthatarenotpresentedin
aformalfigureortable,ifappropriate.
•Analyzedata,thenpreparetheanalyzed
(converted)dataintheformofafigure
(graph),table,orintextform.

57. Style (results)
As always, use past tense when you refer to your results,
and put everything in a logical order.
In text, refer to each figure as "figure 1," "figure 2," etc. ;
number your tables as well (see the reference text for
details)
Place figures and tables, properly numbered, in order at
the end of the report (clearly distinguish them from any
other material such as raw data, standard curves, etc.)
If you prefer, you may place your figures and tables
appropriately within the text of your results section.

58. Figures and tables
Eitherplacefiguresandtableswithinthetextoftheresult,
orincludetheminthebackofthereport(following
LiteratureCited)-dooneortheother
Ifyouplacefiguresandtablesattheendofthereport,
makesuretheyareclearlydistinguishedfromany
attachedappendixmaterials,suchasrawdata
Regardlessofplacement,eachfiguremustbenumbered
consecutivelyandcompletewithcaption(captiongoes
underthefigure)
Regardlessofplacement,eachtablemustbetitled,
numberedconsecutivelyandcompletewithheading(title
withdescriptiongoesabovethetable)
Eachfigureandtablemustbesufficientlycompletethatit
couldstandonitsown,separatefromtext

59. What to avoid
Do not discuss or interpret your results,
report background information, or attempt
to explain anything.
Never include raw data or intermediate
calculations in a research paper.
Do not present the same data more than
once.
Text should complement any figures or
tables, not repeat the same information.
Please do not confuse figures with tables -
there is a difference.

60. Discussion –Usually Consists :
FirstParagraph
•Statethemajorfindings
•Paraphrasesabstract
MiddleParagraph(4-6paragraph)
•Discusstheresultwiththefindingsof
other
•Focusonyourresults.Neverdiscussprior
workwithoutreferencetoyourwork
•Refertablesandgraphs
LastParagraph
•Insummary(oneparagraph)
•Inconclusion…mainmessage(1-2
paragraph)

61. Discussion
The function of this section is to analyze the data and relate
them to other studies. To “analyze” to evaluate the meaning
of your results in terms of original question or hypothesis
and point out their biological significance.
The objective here is to provide an interpretation of your
results and support for all of your conclusions, using
evidence from your experiment and generally accepted
knowledge, if appropriate. The significance of findings
should be clearly described.

62. Discussion should contain :
Relationship between the results and the original hypothesis,
i,e,. whether they support the hypothesis or cause it to be
rejected.
An integration of your result with those of previous studies in
order to arrive at explanations for the observed phenomenon
Possible explanations for unexpected results and observations,
phrased as hypothesis that can be tested be realistic
experimental procedures, which you should describe.
Trends that are not statistically significant can still be discussed
if they are suggestive or interesting, but can not be made the
basis for conclusions as if they were significant.
Avoid redundancy between results and the discussion section.
Do not repeat detailed descriptions of the data and results in
discussion section.
End the discussion with a summary of the principal points you
want the reader to remember.
This is also appropriate place to propose specific further study if
that will serve some purpose.

63. Writing a discussion
Interpret your data in the discussion in
appropriate depth. This means that when
you explain a phenomenon you must
describe mechanisms that may account for
the observation. If your results differfrom
your expectations, explain why that may
have happened. If your results agree,then
describe the theory that the evidence
supported. It is never appropriate to
simply state that the data agreed with
expectations, and let it drop at that.

64. Decide if each hypothesis is supported, rejected, or if you
cannot make a decision with confidence. Do not simply dismiss
a study or part of a study as "inconclusive."
Research papers are not accepted if the work is incomplete.
Draw what conclusions you can based upon the results that
you have, and treat the study as a finished work
You may suggest future directions, such as how the
experiment might be modified to accomplish another
objective.
Explain all of your observations as much as possible, focusing
on mechanisms.
Decide if the experimental design adequately addressed the
hypothesis, and whether or not it was properly controlled.
Try to offer alternative explanations if reasonable alternatives
exist.
One experiment will not answer an overall question, so
keeping the big picture in mind, where do you go next? The
best studies open up new avenues of research. What questions
remain?
Recommendations for specific papers will provide additional
suggestions.

65. Significance of the Paper.
Thediscussionshouldendwithashort
summaryorconclusionregardingthe
significanceofthework.

66. Conclusion.
The conclusion should
convey how you have
responded to the problem
stated at the start of your
introduction, and identify
what your investigation, test
and analyses show, the
most effective conclusion
serve as candid critique of
your own work, in which you
point out what is important.

67. Referencing
•Numbering system (Vancouver
system)-common use:
science/medicine
•Author date (Harvard system)-
common use: social
science/arts/education

68. Examples
Book with one author
Knowels,M.S; The Adult Learner: A
Neglected Species, 4
th
edn (Houston,
Texas, Gulf Publishing Company, 1990).
Book with three authors
Stener, J.A.F; Collins,R.R. and Yetton,
P.W; Management in Australia (Sydney,
Prentice Hall of Australia, 1985).

69. Contd.
Chapters in edited books
Powel, J.P; Reducing Teacher
Control, in Boud, D. (ed.),
Developing Student Anatomy in
Learning (London, Kogan Page,
1981), 71-80.
Monograph (published report on particular report)
Bretos, C.T; Women in the Medical
Profession, Research and
Development Monograph No. 1
(Kensington, The University of New
South Wales, 1980).

70. Contd.
Report
World Health Organization, Ottawa Charter for
Health promotion: An International Conference on
Health Promotion (Ottawa, World Health
Organization, 1986).
Doctoral Thesis
Hammond, M; Self-directed Learning for primary
health care educators: rationale, implementation,
formative evaluation and implications, Ph D
thesis, University of the Witwatersand,
Johansburg (1988).

71. Contd.
Journal Article
Brown, V.A; Ritche, J.E; and Rotem, V;
Health promotion and environmental
management : a partnership for the
future, Health Promotion International
7(3): 219-230(1992).
Government Publications ( follow
procedure described for books)
Commonwealth Department of Health, Housing
and Community Service, Towards Health for All
and Health Promotion, The evaluation of the
National Better Health Program (Canberra,
Australlian GovernmentPublishing Service,1993).

72. Quality Control Exercise
PeerReview
Theprocessforcertifyingthe
legitimacyofwrittenmanuscript
Purposeistopickupthepublishable
manuscriptandpruneitpriortoprint

73. Peer Review Process
Theprocessofcertifyingthe
legitimacyofwrittenmanuscriptand
typicallyconsistsofthreemain
actors:
•Authors
•Editors
•Referees(reviewers)
Theotheractorexists,butarenot
directlyinvolvedinthepeerreview
process(Publisher&Audience)

74. Peer Review
Aonetimepassthat
Helps&improvethepoorpapers
Filtersoutterriblepaper
PowerofPeerReview
Reviewer–1
–Ifoundthismanuscriptextremely
muddledwithmanydeficits…
Reviewer–2
–Themanuscriptiswritteninclear
stylewithnovelideasandwouldbe
consideredbymanyreaders…

75. Problem with Peer Review
Slow
Expensive
Lottery
Ineffective
Biased
Easily abused
Can not detect the fraud

76. Receiving the Reviews
Re-readthearticle
Trytounderstandwhatthereviewers
arereallysaying
Ifreviewersdidnotunderstandwhat
youaretryingtosay,discussthe
issuewiththecolleagues
Lookforthecluesintheeditors
coveringletter
Considerwhichissuesarereally
critical

77. Contd.-
Don’thesitatetostandfirmifthatis
therightthingtodo
Makealistofthepointsineach
critiqueandstarttodraftresponse
Responseshouldbethoughtfuland
clear
Omittheemotion
Undereachpoint,detailexactlywhat
changesaremadeinthemanuscript
andquoteanytextthathasbeen
addedoraltered

78. Reply to Reviewers Comments
Stepwisereplytheeachquestion
Politelyandtactfully
Useflexiblewords
Trytothroughtheballinhiscourt
Iagreebut…
Youarerightalthough…
Trytostrengthenyourreplywith
refrees

79. Reason for Rejection
Inappropriateforthejournal
Poorhomeworkbeforesubmission
Added abbreviationswithout
descriptions
Poorlydesignedstudies
Inconclusivestudies
Poorlywritten
Greatsciencebutonlypackage

80. Conclusion
Scientificmanuscriptwritingmusthaveaclear
purposewithstronglyfocusedoutcomesand
objectives
Thewritingenvironmentshouldbesupportive,
motivating,challengingandnonthreatening
Scientistwhilewriting,shouldselectthe
appropriatejournalandconsiderthecore
messageofthemanuscriptoftheresearchwork,
typeofreadersandprestigeofthejournal
Institutionshouldprovidetrainingforimprovingthe
scientificwritingskills

81. CONCLUSION
“ Write with precision, clarity and
economy. Every sentence should
convey the exact truth as simply as
possible."
( Instructions to Authors, Ecology
1964)
Scientific research demands precision.
Scientific writing should reflect this
precision in the form of clarity.

83. THANKS

84. Abstract
Summary of Manuscript (200-300
Words)
•Problem investigated
•Purpose of Research
•Methods
•Results
•Conclusion

85. Abstract
Common Mistakes
–Too much background or methods
information
–Figures or images
–References to other literature, figures or
images
–Abbreviations or acronyms

86. Introduction
Broad information on topic
–Previous research
Narrower background information
–Need for study
Focus of paper
–Hypothesis
Summary of problem (selling point)
Overall 300-500 words

87. Methods and Materials
Provides instruction on exactly how to
repeat experiment
–Subjects
–Sample preparation techniques
–Sample origins
–Field site description
–Data collection protocol
–Data analysis techniques
–Any computer programs used
–Description of equipment and its use

88. Methods and Materials
Common Mistakes
–Too little information
–Information from Introduction
–Verbosity
–Results/ sources of error reported

89. Results
Objective presentation of experiment
results
–Summary of data
NOT a Discussion!

90. Results
Common mistakes
–Raw data
–Redundancy
–Discussion and interpretation of data
–No figures or tables
–Methods/materials reported

91. Discussion
Interpret results
–Did the study confirm/deny the hypothesis?
–If not, did the results provide an alternative
hypothesis? What interpretation can be made?
–Do results agree with other research? Sources of
error/anomalous data?
–Implications of study for field
–Suggestions for improvement and future research?
Relate to previous research

92. Discussion
Common Mistakes
–Combined with Results
–New results discussed
–Broad statements
–Incorrectly discussing inconclusive results
–Ambiguous data sources
–Missing information

93. Figures and Tables
Tables
–Presents lists of numbers/ text in columns
Figures
–Visual representation of results or
illustration of concepts/methods (graphs,
images, diagrams, etc.)
Captions
–Must be stand-alone

94. References
Check specific referencing style of
journal
Should reference:
–Peer-reviewed journal articles, abstracts,
books
Should not reference:
–Non-peer-reviewed works, textbooks,
personal communications