XII Psychology ch: 1 revision notes.docx

psychology chapter 1

1. Chapter 1:Variations in Psychological Attributes
Introduction Intelligence is a key psychological attribute that interests psychologists, as people
vary in their abilities to comprehend complex concepts, adapt to their surroundings, learn from
experiences, engage in reasoning, and overcome challenges.
Individual Differences in Human Functioning
Every person is unique, as they possess a specific blend of various traits that exist within them
in varying degrees or intensities.
Individual differences refer to the uniqueness and variations in people's behavior patterns and
characteristics.
 Situationism proposes that the behavior of an individual is influenced by the circumstances
and situations they are placed in
At times, situational factors are dominant to the extent that people with different personality
traits exhibit similar responses.
The situationist perspective places more emphasis on the influence of external factors on
human behavior rather than individual differences in traits and personality.
Assessment of Psychological Attributes
To comprehend the characteristics of an individual, the initial stage is to conduct an
assessment. This involves measuring and evaluating the psychological attributes of a person
using multiple methods as standards of comparison. The assessment process can be
categorized as either Formal or Informal:
An informal assessment, such as when we say "Ritesh is dominant", is based on our
perception and evaluation of dominance without using any defined technique to measure it.
As a result, this type of assessment can vary significantly between assessors due to subjective
interpretation.
In contrast, a formal assessment involves using a specific technique or measuring standards to
evaluate an attribute. It is objective, standardized, and organized. Formal assessment also
involves measuring an attribute in relation to its practical application in a given situation. For
example, if Ritesh is formally assessed as dominant, interventions may be necessary to modify
his behavior when working with his team at work, and so on.
Some of the domains of these attributes
 Psychological attributes are multi-dimensional, requiring assessment in cognitive, emotional,
and social domains for a comprehensive understanding.

2. 1. Intelligence  It refers to a person's overall capacity to comprehend, reason logically, and
effectively utilize available resources when facing a challenge or situation.  It indicates a
person's general cognitive ability and competence.
2. Aptitude It refers to an individual's inherent potential to acquire skills.  Aptitude
assessment helps predict a person's ability to perform in a specific role if provided with the
appropriate environment and training.  For instance, training a person with good language
aptitude could lead to them becoming an accomplished writer.
3. Interest  It is an individual's preference or inclination towards engaging in a particular
activity.  Assessing a person's interests can aid in determining which occupation or activity
would make them feel comfortable and satisfied.
4. Personality  It refers to a person's relatively consistent and enduring traits that set them
apart from others.  A personality test can provide insight into how an individual is likely to
behave in the future, such as whether they are dominant, submissive, moody, withdrawn, or
emotional.
5. Values They are an individual's lasting beliefs about an ideal mode of behavior.  It includes
a set of standard rules and guidelines that a person adheres to when living their life.
Understanding a person's values can help determine the kind of decisions they are likely to
make in specific situations, such as those involving politics, religion, social issues, or
economics.

Assessment Methods
Several methods are used for psychological assessment:

3. 1. Psychological Test  It is an objective and standardized method of measuring an individual's
psychological attributes, such as mental capacity, behavior, and aptitude, among others. 
These tests are used in various fields, such as clinical diagnosis, guidance, personnel selection,
placement, and training.
2. Interview  It is a one-on-one conversation in which a counselor or interviewer seeks
information from the client.  This method is often used by door-to-door salesmen to survey
individuals about a product, journalists interviewing important political figures, or employers
assessing potential employees.
3. Case Study  It involves conducting a detailed examination of an individual's psychological
attributes by collecting information through interviews, observation, and questionnaires.  This
method is used to assess various attributes and draw learnings. For instance, studying an
eminent leader's case study to learn about their personality, aptitude, and values.
4. Observation  It involves employing a systematic and objective procedure to record
behavioral phenomena occurring naturally in real-time.  Observation methods are useful in
studying real events and situations. However, their interpretation can be subjective and
controlled by the observer to some extent.  For example, studying the mother-child
relationship by objectively observing them for a specific duration.
5. Self-report  It is a method in which an individual provides factual information about
themselves or their opinions, beliefs, and attitudes.
Intelligence
Intelligence is a crucial attribute used to distinguish individuals from each other. However, the
psychological definition of intelligence differs greatly from its common definition. The
common definition of intelligence includes qualities such as mental alertness, quickness to
learn and understand relationships, and having a sharp wit. On the other hand, the Oxford
definition characterizes intelligence as the ability to perceive, learn, understand and acquire
knowledge.
Theories of Intelligence Psychologists have suggested various intelligence
theories, which can be categorized as psychometric/structural or information-processing
approaches.

4. The Psychometric or Structural approach 
It views intelligence as a collection of abilities and measures an individual's performance
through a single cognitive ability index.
1. Uni or One Factor Theory  By Alfred Binet Intelligence comprises a single set of abilities that
are applicable to any problem an individual may face in their environment.
2. Two Factor Theory  By Charles Spearman Proposes that intelligence consists of a general
factor (g-factor) comprising mental operations that are fundamental and universal to all
performances, and specific factors (s-factors) consisting of domain-specific abilities that
enable individuals to excel in their respective fields such as singing, dancing, or cooking.  
3. The Theory of Primary Mental Abilities Developed by Louis Thurstone Proposes that
intelligence comprises seven independent primary abilities, which are:
(a) Verbal Comprehension: The ability to understand the meaning of words, concepts, and
ideas.
(b) Numerical Abilities: The skill to perform numerical and computational tasks with speed
and accuracy.
(c) Spacial Relations: The ability to visualize patterns and forms.
(d) Perceptual Speed: The speed of perceiving details.
(e) Word Fluency: The ability to use words fluently and flexibly.
(f) Memory: The ability to recall information accurately.
(g) Inductive Reasoning: The skill to derive general rules from presented facts.
4. The Hierarchical Model of Intelligence Proposed by Arthur Jensen Operates at two levels:
Level I:   Associative learning , where the output is similar to the input, such as rote learning and
memory. Level II: Cognitive competence, which involves higher-order skills that transform the
input to produce an effective output.
5. The Structure of Intellect model  By J.P. Guilford  Classifies intellectual traits into three
dimensions:
i. Operations: what the respondent does, including cognition, memory recording, memory
retention, divergent production, convergent production, and evaluation.

5. ii. Contents: the nature of materials or information on which intellectual operations are
performed, including visual, auditory, symbolic (letters and numbers), semantic (words), and
behavioral (information about people's behavior, attitudes, needs).
iii. Products: the form in which information is processed by the respondent, classified into
units, classes, relations, systems, transformations, and implications.
The Information-Processing Approach 
It involves studying the cognitive functions that underlie intelligent behavior, with a focus on
how intelligent individuals reason and solve problems. It seeks to describe the processes
involved in such activities.
1.Theory of Multiple Intelligence Howard Gardner proposed that
intelligence is not a singular entity, but rather, that distinct types of intelligences exist.
These intelligences are independent of one another, but may work together at times to
find solutions to problems. To help remember these types of intelligences, Gardner
developed the acronym MISLLB. Through his studies of exceptionally talented individuals,
Gardner identified eight types of intelligences:
People with Linguistic intelligence (word smart, articulate, poets, writers) excel in the
production and use of language skills.
Logical-Mathematical intelligence (scientific thinking, problem solving) is characterized
by the ability to think logically, critically, abstractly, and solve mathematical problems
using symbols. Examples include Nobel Prize-winning scientists and mathematicians.
Spatial intelligence (visual images, patterns) involves forming, using, and transforming
mental images. Examples of those with spatial intelligence include pilots, sailors,
sculptors, painters, architects, interior decorators, and surgeons.
Musical intelligence (sensitivity to rhythm, sound patterns) allows individuals to produce,
create, and manipulate music patterns.
Bodily-Kinaesthetic intelligence (using the body flexibly and creatively) is seen in athletes,
dancers, sportsmen, gymnasts, and surgeons, among others.

6. Interpersonal intelligence (an ability to understand to subtle aspects of others’
behaviours) : This is the ability to understand the motives, feelings and behaviours of
other people so as to bond into a comfortable relationship with others. 
Intrapersonal (an ability to understand of one’s own feelings, motives, and desires): This
refers to the knowledge of one’s internal strengths and limitations and using that
knowledge to effectively relate to others. 
 Naturalist intelligence (sensitivity towards the natural world) involves an awareness of
one's relationship with the natural world, including the beauty of flora, fauna, and
ecology. Examples include hunters, farmers, tourists, botanists, environmentalists, and
animal activists.
2.Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Robert Sternberg (1985) proposed
that intelligence is the ability to adapt, shape, and select the environment to achieve
personal goals as well as those of society and culture. He classified intelligence into three
basic types:
A.Componential Intelligence: Analyzing information to solve problems. These individuals
think analytically and critically. Componential intelligence has three components, each
serving a different function:
1.Knowledge acquisition: Learning, encoding, combining, and comparing information
(Find stage).
2.Metacomponents: Controlling, evaluating, monitoring, and planning (Cognitive
processing-analyze and solve stage).
3. Performance components: Taking action and actually executing the planned task
(Operational skill-transfer stage).
B.Experiential Intelligence: Using past experiences creatively to solve new problems.
These individuals make new discoveries and inventions. They have the ability to filter
crucial information for a given situation.
C.Contextual Intelligence: This intelligence involves the ability to deal with environmental
demands and adjust to the situation. Street smarts and business sense are some of the
manifestations of this intelligence. Those who possess this intelligence can adapt to the
environment or modify it according to their needs, and are hence more successful.

7. 3. PASS Model of Intelligence: (Planning, Attention Arousal and
Simultaneous- Successive model) Given By J.P. Das, Jack Naglieri, Kirby. According to this
model, intellectual activity involves the interdependent functioning of three neurological
systems, called the functional units of brain.
 These units are responsible for the following: 
Arousal and Attention: Arousal plays a role in attention by helping individuals focus on
stimuli. However, too much or too little arousal can interfere with attention. For example,
when a teacher informs you about an upcoming test, this stimulates you to pay attention
to the relevant chapters, and arousal helps you focus on reading, learning, and revising.
Simultaneous and Successive Processing: Simultaneous processing allows individuals to
perceive relationships between different concepts and integrate them into meaningful
patterns, such as understanding relationships among abstract figures or solving jigsaw
puzzles. On the other hand, successive processing occurs when individuals remember
things sequentially, such as learning digits and alphabets.
Planning: Planning is an essential component of intelligence. After information is
attended to and processed, planning is activated to think of possible courses of action to
reach the goal and evaluate their effectiveness. Additionally, this aspect of intelligence
helps review gaps in the plan and develop alternative plans if necessary.

Individual Differences in Intelligence The study of identical or
fraternal twins, siblings raised together or apart in different environments helps us
understand that intelligence is influenced by two factors: Nature - Heredity, genes
Nurture - Environment, nutrition
Intelligence: Interplay of Nature and Nurture Research findings show that the correlation
of intelligence in different samples is as follows:
Identical twins raised together show a correlation of almost 0.9
 Identical twins separated in childhood show a correlation of 0.72
Fraternal twins raised together show a correlation of 0.6 Siblings raised together show a
correlation of 0.5
 Siblings raised apart show a correlation of about 0.25
 Moreover, studies reveal that adopted children tend to display intelligence more similar to
their biological parents than their adoptive ones. However, as they grow older, their
intelligence moves closer to that of their adoptive parents. Hence, psychologists generally
agree that intelligence is a result of the complex interaction between heredity (nature)
and environment (nurture).

8. Hence, psychologists generally agree that intelligence is a result of the complex interaction
between heredity (nature) and environment (nurture).
Assessment of Intelligence
In 1905, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon made the first successful attempt to measure
intelligence.
Mental Age (MA) is a measure of intellectual development relative to people of the same
age, while Chronological Age (CA) is the biological age from birth.
 If a person's MA is higher than their CA, they are considered bright and more intelligent.  If
their MA equals their CA, they are considered to have average intelligence.
  If their MA is lower than their CA, according to Binet and Simon, the person is called
"retarded". In 1912, William Stern, a German psychologist, introduced the Intelligence
Quotient (IQ), which is calculated as the person's Mental Age divided by their Chronological
Age and multiplied by 100. The multiplier of 100 is used to avoid decimal values. An IQ
score of 100 is obtained when the MA equals the CA.
  If the IQ is higher than 100, the child's mental age is considered to be higher by that
number of points compared to their chronological age. 
If the IQ is lower than 100, the child is considered to have a low IQ.
IQ scores tends to approximate a bellshaped curve, called the normal curve. 
Variations of Intelligence
1.Intellectual Deficiency The definition of intellectual disability is having
significantly below average intellectual functioning along with deficits in adaptive
behavior, which is evident during the developmental period. This definition covers three
main features:
Below average intellectual functioning, resulting in slower comprehension
compared to peers of the same age.
Difficulties with adaptability and effectively coping with the environment, which
may hinder the ability to hold a job or manage a family independently.

9. Manifestation during the developmental period.
The severity of intellectual disability varies based on the level of IQ deficiency:
Mild: IQ 55-70
Moderate: IQ 35-55
Severe: IQ 20-35
Profound: IQ < 20
Individuals with mild to moderate intellectual disability can often benefit from special
education and training, whereas those with severe to profound intellectual disability may
require more long-term support and assistance throughout their lives.
2.Intellectual Giftedness Exceptional performance resulting from exceptional potential
with an IQ score of more than 130 can be identified through the concepts of talent and
giftedness. While these terms are often used interchangeably, they have distinct
meanings. Giftedness refers to exceptional overall ability and superior performance in
diverse areas, while talent pertains to exceptional ability in a particular domain such as
social, spiritual or aesthetic. Highly talented individuals are sometimes called prodigies.
Talent is a combination of high ability, high creativity, and high commitment.
Important characteristics of gifted children:
Advanced logical thinking, questioning and problem solving.
High speed in processing information.
 Superior generalization and discrimination ability
 Advance original and creative thinking
High level intrinsic motivation, self esteem.
Independent and non-conformist thinking
Preference for solitary academic activities.
Type of Intelligence Tests
1.Individual or Group tests
2.Verbal, Non-verbal or performance tests Intelligence tests can be entirely verbal,
entirely written, entirely performance-based, or a combination of all three.
Verbal tests require test-takers to provide verbal responses, either orally or in written
form. These tests can only be administered to people who are literate.
 Non-verbal tests use pictures or illustrations, where subjects examine an incomplete
pattern and choose figures to complete the pattern. These tests can be administered to

10. individuals of any culture group or literacy level. One example of a non-verbal test is
Raven's Progressive Matrices (RPM).
Performance tests require test-takers to manipulate objects and other materials to
perform a task, and written language is not necessary. Therefore, these tests can be
administered to individuals with low literacy and of any culture. An example of a
performance test is Koh's Block Design, which contains wooden blocks.
3.Culture-Fair or Culture-Biased Tests Culture-fair or culturally appropriate tests are
designed to avoid discrimination against individuals from different cultures. These tests
evaluate experiences that are common across all cultures or do not require the use of
language. Non-verbal and performance tests are helpful in reducing the cultural bias that
is often present in verbal tests.
In contrast, culture-biased tests are intended for a particular population and produce
results that are biased towards a specific group, culture, or population due to cultural
factors.
Intelligence Testing in India
If a child performs poorly on an intelligence test, it could result in feelings of shame,
which can have a negative impact on their performance and self-esteem. 
Moreover, the test results could lead to discriminatory treatment by parents, teachers,
and other members of society. Intelligence tests do not measure creative abilities or
practical intelligence, and they may not be strongly associated with success in life.
  Additionally, administering a test that favors high or middle-class populations could
underestimate the intelligence quotient of children from disadvantaged backgrounds.