17313005-Copper tembaga bahan galian ekonomis.ppt

MEPS 531MEPS 531
INDUSTRIAL INDUSTRIAL
PROCESSESPROCESSES

COPPERCOPPER

INTRODUCTION/ INTRODUCTION/
HISTORYHISTORY

CopperCopper is a is a chemical elementchemical element in the in the periodic tableperiodic table
that has the symbol that has the symbol CuCu ( (LatinLatin: : cuprumcuprum) and ) and
atomic numberatomic number 29. It is a 29. It is a ductileductile metalmetal with with
excellent excellent electrical conductivityelectrical conductivity, and finds extensive , and finds extensive
use as an electrical conductor, heat conductor, as a use as an electrical conductor, heat conductor, as a
building material, and as a component of various building material, and as a component of various
alloysalloys. .
Copper is an essential nutrient to all high plants and Copper is an essential nutrient to all high plants and
animals. In animals, including humans, it is found animals. In animals, including humans, it is found
primarily in the primarily in the bloodstreambloodstream, as a co-factor in , as a co-factor in
various various enzymesenzymes, and in copper-based , and in copper-based pigmentspigments. In . In
sufficient amounts, copper can be poisonous and sufficient amounts, copper can be poisonous and
even fatal to organisms.even fatal to organisms.

Copper has played a significant part in the history of Copper has played a significant part in the history of
mankind, which has used the easily accessible mankind, which has used the easily accessible
uncompounded metal for nearly 10,000 years. uncompounded metal for nearly 10,000 years.
Civilizations in places like Civilizations in places like IraqIraq, , ChinaChina, , EgyptEgypt, ,
GreeceGreece and the and the SumerianSumerian cities all have early cities all have early
evidence of using copper. During the Roman evidence of using copper. During the Roman
Empire, copper was principally mined on Empire, copper was principally mined on CyprusCyprus, ,
hence the origin of the name of the metal as hence the origin of the name of the metal as
Cyprium, "metal of Cyprus", later shortened to Cyprium, "metal of Cyprus", later shortened to
Cuprum. A number of countries, such as Cuprum. A number of countries, such as ChileChile and and
the the United StatesUnited States, still have sizeable reserves of the , still have sizeable reserves of the
metal which are extracted through large open pit metal which are extracted through large open pit
mines.mines.

Nevertheless, the price of copper rose rapidly, increasing Nevertheless, the price of copper rose rapidly, increasing
500% from a 60-year low in 1999, largely due to 500% from a 60-year low in 1999, largely due to
increased demand. This metal has come into the increased demand. This metal has come into the
limelight on account of high volatility in prices. limelight on account of high volatility in prices.
According to According to New ScientistNew Scientist (May 26, 2007) the earth has (May 26, 2007) the earth has
an estimated 61 years supply of copper left.an estimated 61 years supply of copper left.
Copper is a reddish-colored Copper is a reddish-colored metalmetal, with a high , with a high electricalelectrical
and thermal conductivity (and thermal conductivity (silversilver is the only pure metal is the only pure metal
to have a higher electrical conductivity at room to have a higher electrical conductivity at room
temperature). In temperature). In oxidationoxidation copper is mildly copper is mildly basicbasic. .
Copper has its characteristic color because it reflects Copper has its characteristic color because it reflects
red and orange light and absorbs other frequencies in red and orange light and absorbs other frequencies in
the visible spectrum, due to its the visible spectrum, due to its band structureband structure. This . This
can be contrasted with the optical properties of can be contrasted with the optical properties of silversilver, ,
goldgold and and aluminiumaluminium. .

Copper occupies the same family of the periodic table Copper occupies the same family of the periodic table
as silver and gold, since they each have one s-orbital as silver and gold, since they each have one s-orbital
electron on top of a filled electron on top of a filled electron shellelectron shell. This . This
similarity in electron structure makes them similar in similarity in electron structure makes them similar in
many characteristics. All have very high thermal and many characteristics. All have very high thermal and
electrical conductivity, and all are malleable metals.electrical conductivity, and all are malleable metals.
In its liquified state, a pure copper surface without In its liquified state, a pure copper surface without
ambient light appears somewhat greenish, another ambient light appears somewhat greenish, another
characteristic shared with gold. Silver does not have characteristic shared with gold. Silver does not have
this property, so it is not a complementary color for this property, so it is not a complementary color for
the orange incandescence color. When liquid copper the orange incandescence color. When liquid copper
is in bright ambient light, it retains some of its is in bright ambient light, it retains some of its
pinkish luster.pinkish luster.

Due to its high surface tension, the liquid metal does not Due to its high surface tension, the liquid metal does not
wet surfaces but instead forms spherical droplets wet surfaces but instead forms spherical droplets
when poured on a surface.when poured on a surface.
Copper is insoluble in water (H2O) as well as in Copper is insoluble in water (H2O) as well as in
isopropanolisopropanol..
There are two stable There are two stable isotopesisotopes, 63Cu and 65Cu, along , 63Cu and 65Cu, along
with a couple dozen with a couple dozen radioisotopesradioisotopes. The vast majority . The vast majority
of radioisotopes have half lives on the order of of radioisotopes have half lives on the order of
minutes or less; the longest lived, 67Cu, has a half life minutes or less; the longest lived, 67Cu, has a half life
of 61.8 hours.of 61.8 hours.
Numerous Numerous copper alloyscopper alloys exist, many with important exist, many with important
historical and contemporary uses. historical and contemporary uses. Speculum metalSpeculum metal and and
bronzebronze are alloys of copper and are alloys of copper and tintin..

BrassBrass is an alloy of copper and is an alloy of copper and zinczinc. . MonelMonel metal, also metal, also
called called cupronickelcupronickel, is an alloy of copper and , is an alloy of copper and nickelnickel. .
While the metal "bronze" usually refers to copper-tin While the metal "bronze" usually refers to copper-tin
alloys, it also is a generic term for any alloy of copper, alloys, it also is a generic term for any alloy of copper,
such as such as aluminiumaluminium bronze bronze, silicon bronze, and , silicon bronze, and
manganese bronze.manganese bronze.
Copper is germicidal, via the Copper is germicidal, via the oligodynamicoligodynamic effect effect. For . For
example, brass doorknobs disinfect themselves of example, brass doorknobs disinfect themselves of
many bacteria within eight hours. This effect is useful many bacteria within eight hours. This effect is useful
in many applications. in many applications.
The purity of copper is expressed as 4N for 99.99% pure The purity of copper is expressed as 4N for 99.99% pure
or 7N for 99.99999% pure. The numeral gives the or 7N for 99.99999% pure. The numeral gives the
number of nines after the decimal point when number of nines after the decimal point when
expressed as a decimal (eg 4N means 0.9999, or expressed as a decimal (eg 4N means 0.9999, or
99.99%).99.99%).

Copper, as Copper, as native coppernative copper, is one of the few metals to , is one of the few metals to
naturally occur as an uncompounded mineral. Copper naturally occur as an uncompounded mineral. Copper
was known to some of the oldest civilizations on was known to some of the oldest civilizations on
record, and has a history of use that is at least 10,000 record, and has a history of use that is at least 10,000
years old. A copper pendant was found in what is now years old. A copper pendant was found in what is now
northern northern IraqIraq that dates to 8700 BCE. By 5000 BCE, that dates to 8700 BCE. By 5000 BCE,
there are signs of copper there are signs of copper smeltingsmelting, the refining of , the refining of
copper from simple copper compounds such as copper from simple copper compounds such as
malachitemalachite or or azuriteazurite. Among archaeological sites in . Among archaeological sites in
Anatolia, Anatolia, ÇatalÇatal HöyükHöyük (~6000 BCE) features native (~6000 BCE) features native
copper artifacts and smelted lead beads, but no copper artifacts and smelted lead beads, but no
smelted copper. But smelted copper. But Can Can HasanHasan (~5000 BCE) had (~5000 BCE) had
access to smelted copper; this site has yielded the access to smelted copper; this site has yielded the
oldest known cast copper artifact, a copper oldest known cast copper artifact, a copper macemace
head.head.

Copper smelting appears to have been developed Copper smelting appears to have been developed
independently in several parts of the world. In independently in several parts of the world. In
addition to its development in Anatolia by 5000 addition to its development in Anatolia by 5000
BCE, it was developed in China before 2800 BCE, BCE, it was developed in China before 2800 BCE,
in the Andes around 2000 BCE, in Central in the Andes around 2000 BCE, in Central
America around 600 AD, and in West Africa America around 600 AD, and in West Africa
around 900 AD. Copper is found extensively in the around 900 AD. Copper is found extensively in the
Indus Valley CivilizationIndus Valley Civilization by the 3rd millennium by the 3rd millennium
BC. In Europe, BC. In Europe, ÖtziÖtzi the Iceman the Iceman, a well-preserved , a well-preserved
male dated to male dated to 3200 BC3200 BC, was found with a copper-, was found with a copper-
tipped axe whose metal was 99.7% pure. High tipped axe whose metal was 99.7% pure. High
levels of levels of arsenicarsenic in his hair suggest he was involved in his hair suggest he was involved
in copper smelting.in copper smelting.

There are copper and There are copper and bronzebronze artifacts from artifacts from
SumerianSumerian cities that date to 3000 BC, and cities that date to 3000 BC, and
EgyptianEgyptian artifacts of copper and copper- artifacts of copper and copper-tintin
alloys nearly as old. In one pyramid, a copper alloys nearly as old. In one pyramid, a copper
plumbing system was found that is 5000 years plumbing system was found that is 5000 years
old. The Egyptians found that adding a small old. The Egyptians found that adding a small
amount of tin made the metal easier to cast, so amount of tin made the metal easier to cast, so
bronze alloys were found in Egypt almost as bronze alloys were found in Egypt almost as
soon as copper was found. In the Americas soon as copper was found. In the Americas
production in the production in the Old Copper ComplexOld Copper Complex, located , located
in present day Michigan and Wisconsin, was in present day Michigan and Wisconsin, was
dated back to between 6000 to 3000 BC.dated back to between 6000 to 3000 BC.

The use of The use of bronzebronze became so pervasive in a certain became so pervasive in a certain
era of civilization that it has been named the era of civilization that it has been named the
Bronze AgeBronze Age. The transitional period in certain . The transitional period in certain
regions between the preceding regions between the preceding NeolithicNeolithic period period
and the Bronze Age is termed the and the Bronze Age is termed the ChalcolithicChalcolithic
("copper-stone"), with some high-purity copper ("copper-stone"), with some high-purity copper
tools being used alongside stone tools. tools being used alongside stone tools. BrassBrass was was
known to the Greeks, but only became a significant known to the Greeks, but only became a significant
supplement to bronze during the Roman empire. supplement to bronze during the Roman empire.
In Greek the metal was known by the name In Greek the metal was known by the name chalkoschalkos. .
Copper was a very important resource for the Copper was a very important resource for the
Romans, Greeks and other ancient peoples. Romans, Greeks and other ancient peoples.

In Roman times, it became known as In Roman times, it became known as aes Cypriumaes Cyprium ( (aesaes
being the generic Latin term for copper alloys such being the generic Latin term for copper alloys such
as as bronzebronze and other metals, and and other metals, and CypriumCyprium because so because so
much of it was mined in much of it was mined in CyprusCyprus). From this, the ). From this, the
phrase was simplified to phrase was simplified to cuprumcuprum and then eventually and then eventually
Anglicized into the English Anglicized into the English coppercopper. Copper was . Copper was
associated with the goddess associated with the goddess AphroditeAphrodite//VenusVenus in in
mythology and mythology and alchemyalchemy, owing to its lustrous , owing to its lustrous
beauty, its ancient use in producing mirrors, and its beauty, its ancient use in producing mirrors, and its
association with association with CyprusCyprus, which was sacred to the , which was sacred to the
goddess. In goddess. In alchemyalchemy the symbol for copper was the symbol for copper was
also the symbol for the planet also the symbol for the planet VenusVenus..

Mining for copper in the Philippines dates back to Mining for copper in the Philippines dates back to
the 14th century when crudely smelted copper was the 14th century when crudely smelted copper was
traded by the Chinese. Significant production did traded by the Chinese. Significant production did
not start until 1842 when the San Remegio Copper not start until 1842 when the San Remegio Copper
Mines, Inc. opened the Carawisan Mine in Antique. Mines, Inc. opened the Carawisan Mine in Antique.
This was followed by Mankayan Mine in Benguet This was followed by Mankayan Mine in Benguet
that was operated by the Contrabro-Filipino Co. that was operated by the Contrabro-Filipino Co.
from 1864 to 1874.from 1864 to 1874.
The American took little interest in the metal up until The American took little interest in the metal up until
1936 when the Mankayan Mine was reopened. 1936 when the Mankayan Mine was reopened.
Soon in 1939, the Hixbar Mine in Rapu-Rapu Soon in 1939, the Hixbar Mine in Rapu-Rapu
Island, Albay was put into production. These two Island, Albay was put into production. These two
mines accounted for all the copper produced in the mines accounted for all the copper produced in the
Philippines before World War II.Philippines before World War II.

The years after the war saw a rapidly emerging The years after the war saw a rapidly emerging
interest in copper and other base metals, almost at interest in copper and other base metals, almost at
the expense of gold, which was plagued with the expense of gold, which was plagued with
depressed prices and mine rehabilitation problems. depressed prices and mine rehabilitation problems.
For its high-grade copper ore, the Lepanto For its high-grade copper ore, the Lepanto
Consolidated Mining Company reopened Consolidated Mining Company reopened
Mankayan Mine in 1948. New technologies were Mankayan Mine in 1948. New technologies were
introduced for the economic extraction of large introduced for the economic extraction of large
low-grade porphyry copper deposits. Thus, Atlas low-grade porphyry copper deposits. Thus, Atlas
Mine in Cebu started production in 1955, followed Mine in Cebu started production in 1955, followed
by the Sipalay Mine in Negros in 1957, and Sto. by the Sipalay Mine in Negros in 1957, and Sto.
Tomas II Mine in Benguet in 1958.Tomas II Mine in Benguet in 1958.

By the 1960s, a full-blown copper boom dominated the By the 1960s, a full-blown copper boom dominated the
mining industry. The boom was accompanied by mining industry. The boom was accompanied by
extensive exploration activities, which led to the extensive exploration activities, which led to the
discovery and opening of new porphyry copper mines discovery and opening of new porphyry copper mines
such as Sto. Nino Mine in 1971 and Boneng-Lobo such as Sto. Nino Mine in 1971 and Boneng-Lobo
Mine in 1974. By 1974, 18 copper producing mines Mine in 1974. By 1974, 18 copper producing mines
were in operation.were in operation.
The latter part of the 1970?s saw some of the newly The latter part of the 1970?s saw some of the newly
opened copper mines struggling against high opened copper mines struggling against high
inflationary trends, high cost of money, and marginal inflationary trends, high cost of money, and marginal
ores. Ino-Capayang and the nearby Mogpog Mine of ores. Ino-Capayang and the nearby Mogpog Mine of
Consolidated Mines Inc. in Marinduque were thus Consolidated Mines Inc. in Marinduque were thus
forced to stop operation in 1978 and 1981. This was forced to stop operation in 1978 and 1981. This was
followed suit by the closure of Boneng-Lobo and Sto. followed suit by the closure of Boneng-Lobo and Sto.
Ni?o Mines in Benguet.Ni?o Mines in Benguet.

Despite these indications of trouble, however, several Despite these indications of trouble, however, several
new mines managed to start operation. Basay Mine in new mines managed to start operation. Basay Mine in
Negros, Dizon Mine in Zambales, Sabena and North Negros, Dizon Mine in Zambales, Sabena and North
Davao Mines in Davao del Norte, and Hercules Mine Davao Mines in Davao del Norte, and Hercules Mine
in Ilocos Norte opened between 1979 and 1981. in Ilocos Norte opened between 1979 and 1981.
During the early 1980?s the Philippines had 20 During the early 1980?s the Philippines had 20
primary and secondary copper producers. However, primary and secondary copper producers. However,
due to the sluggish economic and political condition due to the sluggish economic and political condition
in the country, coupled with the outdated mining in the country, coupled with the outdated mining
laws and regulations, most companies were forced to laws and regulations, most companies were forced to
either scale down or shutdown its mining operations. either scale down or shutdown its mining operations.
At the turn of the decade only seven (7) copper At the turn of the decade only seven (7) copper
mining companies operated in the Philippines. Finally mining companies operated in the Philippines. Finally
in 1999 only three (3) were left in operation. in 1999 only three (3) were left in operation.

USES AND USES AND
ECONOMICSECONOMICS

Copper is Copper is malleablemalleable and and ductileductile, a good , a good
conductor of heatconductor of heat and, when very pure, a good and, when very pure, a good
conductor of electricityconductor of electricity..
It is used extensively, in products such as:It is used extensively, in products such as:

PipingPiping, including, but not limited to, domestic , including, but not limited to, domestic waterwater
supply supply

Electronics:Electronics:

Copper wireCopper wire. .

ElectromagnetsElectromagnets. .

Printed circuit boardsPrinted circuit boards. .

Electrical machinesElectrical machines, especially electromagnetic , especially electromagnetic
motors, generators and transformers.motors, generators and transformers.


Electrical Electrical relaysrelays, electrical , electrical busbarsbusbars and electrical and electrical
switchesswitches. .

Vacuum tubesVacuum tubes, , cathode ray tubescathode ray tubes, and the , and the
magnetronsmagnetrons in in microwave ovensmicrowave ovens..

Wave guidesWave guides for microwave radiation. for microwave radiation.

Integrated circuitsIntegrated circuits, increasingly replacing , increasingly replacing
aluminiumaluminium because of its superior electrical because of its superior electrical
conductivity. conductivity.

As a material in the manufacture of computer As a material in the manufacture of computer
heat sinksheat sinks, as a result of its superior heat , as a result of its superior heat
dissipation capacity to dissipation capacity to aluminiumaluminium. .


Structural Engineering:Structural Engineering:

Copper has been used as water-proof Copper has been used as water-proof roofingroofing
material since ancient times, giving many old material since ancient times, giving many old
buildings their greenish roofs and domes. buildings their greenish roofs and domes.

StatuaryStatuary: The : The Statue of LibertyStatue of Liberty, for example, , for example,
contains 179,220 pounds (81.3 contains 179,220 pounds (81.3 tonnestonnes) of ) of
copper. copper.

Alloyed with Alloyed with nickelnickel, e.g. , e.g. cupronickelcupronickel and and MonelMonel, ,
used as corrosive resistant materials in used as corrosive resistant materials in
shipbuildingshipbuilding. .

WattWatt's 's steam enginesteam engine..


Household Products:Household Products:

Copper Copper plumbingplumbing fittings and compression fittings and compression
tubes. tubes.

Doorknobs and other fixtures in houses. Doorknobs and other fixtures in houses.

RoofingRoofing, guttering, and rainspouts on buildings. , guttering, and rainspouts on buildings.

In In cookwarecookware, such as , such as frying pansfrying pans. .

Most Most flatwareflatware ( (knivesknives, , forksforks, , spoonsspoons) contains ) contains
some copper (some copper (nickel silvernickel silver). ).

Sterling silverSterling silver, if it is to be used in dinnerware, , if it is to be used in dinnerware,
must contain a few percent copper. must contain a few percent copper.

Copper water heating cylinders.Copper water heating cylinders.


Coinage:Coinage:

As a component of As a component of coinscoins, often as cupronickel alloy. , often as cupronickel alloy.

Coins in the following countries all contain copper: Coins in the following countries all contain copper:
European Union (Euro), United States, United Kingdom European Union (Euro), United States, United Kingdom
(sterling) and Australia. (sterling) and Australia.

Ironically, Ironically, U.S. NickelsU.S. Nickels are 75.0% copper by weight and are 75.0% copper by weight and
only 25.0% only 25.0% nickelnickel..

Biomedical applications:Biomedical applications:

As a As a biostaticbiostatic surface in hospitals, and to line parts of surface in hospitals, and to line parts of
shipsships to protect against to protect against barnaclesbarnacles and and musselsmussels, originally , originally
used pure, but superseded by used pure, but superseded by MuntzMuntz Metal Metal. . BacteriaBacteria will will
not grow on a copper surface because it is biostatic. not grow on a copper surface because it is biostatic.
Copper Copper doorknobsdoorknobs are used by are used by hospitalshospitals to reduce the to reduce the
transfer of disease, and transfer of disease, and Legionnaires' diseaseLegionnaires' disease is is
suppressed by copper tubing in suppressed by copper tubing in air-conditioningair-conditioning systems. systems.


Copper(IICopper(II) sulfate) sulfate is used as a is used as a fungicidefungicide and as algae and as algae
control in domestic lakes and ponds. It is used in control in domestic lakes and ponds. It is used in
gardening powders and sprays to kill gardening powders and sprays to kill mildewmildew. .

Copper-62-PTSMCopper-62-PTSM, a complex containing radioactive , a complex containing radioactive
copper-62copper-62, is used as a , is used as a
Positron emission tomographyPositron emission tomography radiotracer for heart radiotracer for heart
blood flow measurements. blood flow measurements.

Copper-64Copper-64 can be used as a can be used as a
Positron emission tomographyPositron emission tomography radiotracer for radiotracer for
medical imagingmedical imaging. When complexed with a chelate it . When complexed with a chelate it
can be used to treat cancer through can be used to treat cancer through
radiation therapyradiation therapy..


Chemical applications:Chemical applications:

Compounds, such as Compounds, such as Fehling'sFehling's solution solution, have , have
applications in chemistry. applications in chemistry.

As a component in As a component in ceramic glazesceramic glazes, and to color , and to color glassglass. .

Others:Others:

Musical instrumentsMusical instruments, especially , especially brass instrumentsbrass instruments and and
cymbalscymbals. .

Class D Fire ExtinguisherClass D Fire Extinguisher, used in powder form to , used in powder form to
extinguish lithium fires by covering the burning metal extinguish lithium fires by covering the burning metal
and performing similar to a heat sink. and performing similar to a heat sink.

Textile fibers to create Textile fibers to create antimicrobialantimicrobial protective protective
fabrics.fabrics.

PRODUCTION PRODUCTION
STATISTICSSTATISTICS

America is noted to have the richest mineable copper America is noted to have the richest mineable copper
deposit in the world recorded at 7.68 million metric deposit in the world recorded at 7.68 million metric
tons (MT), which is more than 62% of the total mine tons (MT), which is more than 62% of the total mine
production for 1999. Leading producers like Chile and production for 1999. Leading producers like Chile and
U.S.A at 4.38 million MT and 1.59 million MT, U.S.A at 4.38 million MT and 1.59 million MT,
respectively were also noted in the same region. respectively were also noted in the same region.
Combined mine production of Europe, Asia, Africa Combined mine production of Europe, Asia, Africa
and Oceana accounts for about 48% for the same year and Oceana accounts for about 48% for the same year
which is minimal compared to that of Americas annual which is minimal compared to that of Americas annual
contribution. Mine production has been growing contribution. Mine production has been growing
annually at an average growth rate of 3.3% for the past annually at an average growth rate of 3.3% for the past
ten (10) years from 1990 to 1999. The highest annual ten (10) years from 1990 to 1999. The highest annual
growth was noted in 1996 at 9.1% or 11.1 million MT.growth was noted in 1996 at 9.1% or 11.1 million MT.

This was followed by 1998 at 6.9% growth, or 12.3 This was followed by 1998 at 6.9% growth, or 12.3
million MT. The highest mine production was million MT. The highest mine production was
recorded in 1999 at 12.36 million MT. recorded in 1999 at 12.36 million MT.

In terms of world production of refined copper by In terms of world production of refined copper by
region, America ranks the highest at 4.0 million metric region, America ranks the highest at 4.0 million metric
tons or 44.9% of the world total for 1999. Chile and tons or 44.9% of the world total for 1999. Chile and
U.S.A are the top producers from the same region, U.S.A are the top producers from the same region,
contributing 2.7 million metric tons and 2.1 million contributing 2.7 million metric tons and 2.1 million
metrics tons, respectively. Likewise, top producers metrics tons, respectively. Likewise, top producers
from Asia, such as Japan and China, posted as much from Asia, such as Japan and China, posted as much
as 1.3 million metric tons and 1.0 million metric tons, as 1.3 million metric tons and 1.0 million metric tons,
respectively.respectively.
Production of refined copper grew at an annual average Production of refined copper grew at an annual average
growth rate of 2.9% from 1990 to 1999. The highest growth rate of 2.9% from 1990 to 1999. The highest
growth periods were noted in 1996 at 7.8% and in growth periods were noted in 1996 at 7.8% and in
1997 at 6.7%. The highest refined copper production 1997 at 6.7%. The highest refined copper production
was recorded in 1999 at 14.3 million metric tons (MT). was recorded in 1999 at 14.3 million metric tons (MT).

Consumption of refined copper grew at an annual Consumption of refined copper grew at an annual
average growth rate of 2.8% from 1990 to 1999. The average growth rate of 2.8% from 1990 to 1999. The
highest annual growth was noted in 1996 at 6.4% highest annual growth was noted in 1996 at 6.4%
and lowest in 1991 at a negative annual growth of and lowest in 1991 at a negative annual growth of
0.9%. The major consumer of refined copper in 0.9%. The major consumer of refined copper in
1999 was noted in Asia at 5.2 million metric tons, or 1999 was noted in Asia at 5.2 million metric tons, or
37.4% of the world consumption. This was followed 37.4% of the world consumption. This was followed
by America at 4.2 million metric tons, or 30.5% and by America at 4.2 million metric tons, or 30.5% and
Europe at 30.1%, or at 4.1 million metric tons. The Europe at 30.1%, or at 4.1 million metric tons. The
top four (4) countries comprising the leading top four (4) countries comprising the leading
consumers of refined copper in 1999 were U.S.A. at consumers of refined copper in 1999 were U.S.A. at
3.0 million metric tons, China and Japan both at 1.3 3.0 million metric tons, China and Japan both at 1.3
million metric tons, and Federal Republic of million metric tons, and Federal Republic of
Germany at 1.2 million metric tons.Germany at 1.2 million metric tons.

World copper prices for the past ten (10) years from 1990 to World copper prices for the past ten (10) years from 1990 to
1999 were basically at a declining trend. This was reversed 1999 were basically at a declining trend. This was reversed
in 1995 when world price posted a 24.6% increase from in 1995 when world price posted a 24.6% increase from
111.0 5c/lb in 1994 to 138.33 c/lb in 1995. The highest 111.0 5c/lb in 1994 to 138.33 c/lb in 1995. The highest
decline in world copper price was noted between 1997 and decline in world copper price was noted between 1997 and
1998, from 103.22 c/lb to 74.97 c/lb or a negative growth 1998, from 103.22 c/lb to 74.97 c/lb or a negative growth
of 27.4%. This negative trend was due to the economic of 27.4%. This negative trend was due to the economic
recession that hounded most economies throughout the recession that hounded most economies throughout the
nineties. The prolonged depressed state has played havoc nineties. The prolonged depressed state has played havoc
to the supply and demand pattern. The gap in supply and to the supply and demand pattern. The gap in supply and
demand occurred during the period since there was an demand occurred during the period since there was an
increase in mineral production as major markets were increase in mineral production as major markets were
contracting. Mining firms all over the world started contracting. Mining firms all over the world started
adopting new technologies that increased capacity adopting new technologies that increased capacity
utilization rates resulting to the surplus.utilization rates resulting to the surplus.

Copper reserve was estimated at 4.79 million metric tons in Copper reserve was estimated at 4.79 million metric tons in
1996. The biggest deposit was found in Cordillera 1996. The biggest deposit was found in Cordillera
Autonomous Region that is estimated at 1.83 million metric Autonomous Region that is estimated at 1.83 million metric
tons followed by Region 7 at 1.15 million metric tons. tons followed by Region 7 at 1.15 million metric tons.

Production of copper decreased from 698.17 dry metric Production of copper decreased from 698.17 dry metric
tons (DMT) in 1990 to 151.22 dry metric tons (DMT) tons (DMT) in 1990 to 151.22 dry metric tons (DMT)
in 1999. The years 1992 and 1993 posted an increase in 1999. The years 1992 and 1993 posted an increase
in volume from 491.75 dry metric tons (DMT) to in volume from 491.75 dry metric tons (DMT) to
526.22 dry metric tons (DMT), or at a rate of 8.0%, 526.22 dry metric tons (DMT), or at a rate of 8.0%,
due to the increase in production of Marcopper due to the increase in production of Marcopper
Mining Corporation?s San Antonio Project and Mining Corporation?s San Antonio Project and
Maricalum Mining Corporation. Maricalum Mining Corporation.
As of 1999, there were three (3) remaining primary As of 1999, there were three (3) remaining primary
producers, namely: Philex Mining Corp., Maricalum producers, namely: Philex Mining Corp., Maricalum
Mining Corp. and Manila Mining Corp. Of the three Mining Corp. and Manila Mining Corp. Of the three
(3) producers, Philex Mining Corp. ? Padcal Project (3) producers, Philex Mining Corp. ? Padcal Project
located at Benguet, contributed 64.44% to the total located at Benguet, contributed 64.44% to the total
copper production amounting to 1,382.62 million copper production amounting to 1,382.62 million
pesos or 82.294 dry metric tons (DMT).pesos or 82.294 dry metric tons (DMT).

The price of Philippine copper (metal) had been fluctuating The price of Philippine copper (metal) had been fluctuating
between a low of P44,793/DMT in 1993 to a high of between a low of P44,793/DMT in 1993 to a high of
P66,803/DMT in 1995. In terms of year-to-year growth, the P66,803/DMT in 1995. In terms of year-to-year growth, the
highest was recorded between 1994 to1995 at an increase of highest was recorded between 1994 to1995 at an increase of
27.99%. Likewise, a negative growth of 14.27% was noted 27.99%. Likewise, a negative growth of 14.27% was noted
between 1995 to 1996. between 1995 to 1996.

RAW MATERIALRAW MATERIAL

Any mineral from which copper is extracted, including Any mineral from which copper is extracted, including
native copper, Cu; chalcocite, Cu2S; chalcopyrite, native copper, Cu; chalcocite, Cu2S; chalcopyrite,
CuFeS2; bornite, Cu5FeS4; azurite, CuFeS2; bornite, Cu5FeS4; azurite,
Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2; malachite, Cu2CO3(OH)2; and Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2; malachite, Cu2CO3(OH)2; and
chrysocolla, CuSiO3.2H2O. Native copper and the chrysocolla, CuSiO3.2H2O. Native copper and the
copper sulphides are usually found in veins associated copper sulphides are usually found in veins associated
with igneous intrusions. Chrysocolla and the with igneous intrusions. Chrysocolla and the
carbonates are products of the weathering of copper-carbonates are products of the weathering of copper-
bearing rocks. Copper was one of the first metals to bearing rocks. Copper was one of the first metals to
be worked, because it occurred in native form and be worked, because it occurred in native form and
needed little refining. Today the main producers are needed little refining. Today the main producers are
the USA, Russia, Kazakhstan, Georgia, Uzbekistan, the USA, Russia, Kazakhstan, Georgia, Uzbekistan,
Armenia, Zambia, Chile, Peru, Canada, and the Armenia, Zambia, Chile, Peru, Canada, and the
Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire).Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire).


Copper oresCopper ores may refer to: may refer to:

BorniteBornite

ChalcociteChalcocite

CupriteCuprite

TennantiteTennantite

TetrahedriteTetrahedrite

MalachiteMalachite

BorniteBornite is a is a sulfide mineralsulfide mineral with chemical composition Cu5FeS4 with chemical composition Cu5FeS4
that crystallizes in the that crystallizes in the orthorhombicorthorhombic system. It has a brown to system. It has a brown to
copper-red color on fresh surfaces that tarnishes to an copper-red color on fresh surfaces that tarnishes to an
iridescent purple. Its purple to bronze iridescence gives it the iridescent purple. Its purple to bronze iridescence gives it the
nickname nickname peacock copperpeacock copper or or peacock orepeacock ore..

Bornite is an important copper ore mineral and occurs Bornite is an important copper ore mineral and occurs
widely in widely in porphyry copperporphyry copper deposits along with the deposits along with the
more common more common chalcopyritechalcopyrite. Chalcopyrite and bornite . Chalcopyrite and bornite
are both typically replaced by are both typically replaced by chalcocitechalcocite and and covellitecovellite
in the in the supergenesupergene enrichment zone of copper deposits. enrichment zone of copper deposits.
Bornite is also found as disseminations in Bornite is also found as disseminations in maficmafic
igneous rocksigneous rocks, in , in contact metamorphiccontact metamorphic skarnskarn deposits, deposits,
in in pegmatitespegmatites and in and in sedimentarysedimentary cupriferous cupriferous shalesshales. It . It
is important for its is important for its coppercopper content of about 63 content of about 63
percent by mass and is found in percent by mass and is found in ArizonaArizona, ,
Butte, MontanaButte, Montana, and , and MexicoMexico..
It has been reported since 1725, but in 1845 it was It has been reported since 1725, but in 1845 it was
named for named for AustrianAustrian mineralogistmineralogist IgnazIgnaz EdlerEdler
von Born von Born (1742–1791). (1742–1791).

ChalcociteChalcocite, copper(I) sulfide (Cu2S), is an important , copper(I) sulfide (Cu2S), is an important coppercopper oreore
mineral. It is opaque, being colored dark-gray to black with a mineral. It is opaque, being colored dark-gray to black with a
metallic metallic lusterluster. It has a hardness of 2½ - 3. It is a . It has a hardness of 2½ - 3. It is a sulfidesulfide with with
an an orthorhombicorthorhombic crystal system. crystal system.

Chalcocite is sometimes found as a primary Chalcocite is sometimes found as a primary veinvein mineral in mineral in
hydrothermalhydrothermal veins. However, most chalcocite occurs in the veins. However, most chalcocite occurs in the
supergenesupergene enriched environment below the oxidation zone of enriched environment below the oxidation zone of
copper deposits as a result of the leaching of copper from the copper deposits as a result of the leaching of copper from the
oxidized minerals. It is also often found in oxidized minerals. It is also often found in sedimentary rockssedimentary rocks..
It has been mined for centuries and is one of the most profitable It has been mined for centuries and is one of the most profitable
copper ores. The reasons for this is its high copper content copper ores. The reasons for this is its high copper content
(67% atomic ratio and nearly 80% by weight) and the ease at (67% atomic ratio and nearly 80% by weight) and the ease at
which copper can be separated from which copper can be separated from sulfursulfur. Still, it is not . Still, it is not
considered a primary source of copper ore due to its scarcity. considered a primary source of copper ore due to its scarcity.
Fine crystals of chalcocite are quite uncommon and are much Fine crystals of chalcocite are quite uncommon and are much
sought after. The now depleted mines at sought after. The now depleted mines at CornwallCornwall, ,
Great BritainGreat Britain and and Bristol, ConnecticutBristol, Connecticut have produced the have produced the
most famous clusters of wonderfully formed chalcocite most famous clusters of wonderfully formed chalcocite
crystals. crystals.

Since chalcocite is a secondary mineral that forms from Since chalcocite is a secondary mineral that forms from
the alteration of other minerals, it has been known to the alteration of other minerals, it has been known to
form form pseudomorphspseudomorphs of many different minerals. A of many different minerals. A
pseudomorph is a mineral that has replaced another pseudomorph is a mineral that has replaced another
mineral atom by atom, but it leaves the original mineral atom by atom, but it leaves the original
mineral's crystal shape intact. Chalcocite has been mineral's crystal shape intact. Chalcocite has been
known to form pseudomorphs of the minerals known to form pseudomorphs of the minerals bornitebornite
, , covellitecovellite, , chalcopyritechalcopyrite, , pyritepyrite, , enargiteenargite, millerite, , millerite,
galenagalena and and sphaleritesphalerite..
The term chalcocite comes from the alteration of the The term chalcocite comes from the alteration of the
obsolete name obsolete name chalcosinechalcosine, from the , from the GreekGreek khalkoskhalkos, ,
meaning copper. It is also known as redruthite, meaning copper. It is also known as redruthite,
vitreous copper and copper-glance.vitreous copper and copper-glance.

CupriteCuprite is a is a mineralmineral composed of composed of copper(Icopper(I) oxide) oxide Cu2O, and is Cu2O, and is
a minor a minor oreore of copper. of copper.

Its dark crystals with red internal reflections are in the Its dark crystals with red internal reflections are in the isometricisometric
system hexoctahedral class, appearing as cubic, octahedral, or system hexoctahedral class, appearing as cubic, octahedral, or
dodecahedral forms, or in combinations. Penetration dodecahedral forms, or in combinations. Penetration twinstwins
frequently occur. In spite of its nice color it is rarely used for frequently occur. In spite of its nice color it is rarely used for
jewelryjewelry because of its low because of its low MohsMohs hardness hardness of 3.5 to 4. It has a of 3.5 to 4. It has a
relatively high relatively high specific gravityspecific gravity of 6.1, imperfect cleavage and a of 6.1, imperfect cleavage and a
brittle to conchoidal fracture. The luster is sub-metallic to brittle to conchoidal fracture. The luster is sub-metallic to
brilliant adamantine. The "chalcotrichite" variety typically brilliant adamantine. The "chalcotrichite" variety typically
shows greatly elongated capillary or needle like crystals forms.shows greatly elongated capillary or needle like crystals forms.
It is a secondary mineral which forms in the oxidized zone of It is a secondary mineral which forms in the oxidized zone of
copper sulfide deposits. It frequently occurs in association copper sulfide deposits. It frequently occurs in association
with with native coppernative copper, , azuriteazurite, , chrysocollachrysocolla, , malachitemalachite, , tenoritetenorite
and a variety of and a variety of iron oxideiron oxide minerals. It is known as minerals. It is known as ruby copperruby copper
due to its distinctive red color.due to its distinctive red color.
Cuprite was first described in 1845 and the name derives from Cuprite was first described in 1845 and the name derives from
the the LatinLatin cuprumcuprum for its copper content. for its copper content.

TennantiteTennantite is a is a coppercopper arsenicarsenic sulfosaltsulfosalt mineralmineral. Its . Its
chemical formula is Cu12As4S13. It is found in chemical formula is Cu12As4S13. It is found in
hydrothermalhydrothermal veins and contact veins and contact metamorphicmetamorphic
deposits. It is grey-black, steel-gray, iron-gray or black deposits. It is grey-black, steel-gray, iron-gray or black
in color. A closely related mineral, in color. A closely related mineral, tetrahedritetetrahedrite
(Cu12Sb4S13) has (Cu12Sb4S13) has antimonyantimony substituting for arsenic substituting for arsenic
and the two form a solid solution series. The two have and the two form a solid solution series. The two have
very similar properties and is often difficult to very similar properties and is often difficult to
distinguish between tennantite and tetrahedrite. distinguish between tennantite and tetrahedrite. IronIron, ,
zinczinc, and , and silversilver substitute up to about 15% for the substitute up to about 15% for the
copper site.copper site.
The mineral was named after the English chemist The mineral was named after the English chemist
Smithson TennantSmithson Tennant (1761-1815). (1761-1815).

is a copper antimony is a copper antimony sulfosaltsulfosalt mineral with formula: . mineral with formula: .
It is the antimony endmember of the continuous It is the antimony endmember of the continuous
solid solutionsolid solution series with arsenic bearing series with arsenic bearing tennantitetennantite. .
Pure endmembers of the series are seldom if ever Pure endmembers of the series are seldom if ever
seen in nature. Of the two, the antimony rich phase seen in nature. Of the two, the antimony rich phase
is more common. Other elements also substitute in is more common. Other elements also substitute in
the structure, most notably iron and zinc along the structure, most notably iron and zinc along
with less common silver, mercury and lead. with less common silver, mercury and lead.
Bismuth also substitutes for the antimony site and Bismuth also substitutes for the antimony site and
bismuthian tetrahedritebismuthian tetrahedrite or or anniviteannivite is a recognized is a recognized
variety. The releated, silver dominant, mineral variety. The releated, silver dominant, mineral
species species freibergitefreibergite, although rare, is notable in that , although rare, is notable in that
it can contain up to 18% silver.it can contain up to 18% silver.

Tetrahedrite gets its name from the distinctive Tetrahedrite gets its name from the distinctive
tetrahedrontetrahedron shaped shaped cubiccubic crystals. The mineral crystals. The mineral
usually occurs in massive form, it is a steel grey usually occurs in massive form, it is a steel grey
to black metallic mineral with to black metallic mineral with MohsMohs hardness hardness of of
3.5 to 4 and 3.5 to 4 and specific gravityspecific gravity of 4.6 to 5.2. of 4.6 to 5.2.
It occurs in low to moderate temperature It occurs in low to moderate temperature
hydrothermalhydrothermal veins and in some veins and in some
contact metamorphiccontact metamorphic deposits. It is a minor deposits. It is a minor oreore
of copper and associated metals. It was first of copper and associated metals. It was first
described in 1845 for occurrences in Freiberg, described in 1845 for occurrences in Freiberg,
SaxonySaxony, , GermanyGermany..

MalachiteMalachite is a is a carbonate mineralcarbonate mineral, , copper(IIcopper(II) carbonate) carbonate
hydroxidehydroxide Cu2CO3(OH)2. It crystallizes in the Cu2CO3(OH)2. It crystallizes in the monoclinicmonoclinic
crystal system, and most often forms crystal system, and most often forms botryoidalbotryoidal, fibrous, or , fibrous, or
stalagmiticstalagmitic masses. Individual crystals are rare, but do occur masses. Individual crystals are rare, but do occur
as slender to acicular prisms. as slender to acicular prisms. PseudomorphsPseudomorphs after more after more
tabular or blocky azurite crystals also occur. Malachite often tabular or blocky azurite crystals also occur. Malachite often
results from weathering of results from weathering of coppercopper oresores and is often found and is often found
together with together with azuriteazurite (Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2), (Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2), goethitegoethite, and , and
calcitecalcite. Except for the vibrant green colour, the properties . Except for the vibrant green colour, the properties
of malachite are very similar to those of azurite and of malachite are very similar to those of azurite and
aggregates of the two minerals together are frequently aggregates of the two minerals together are frequently
found, although malachite is more common than azurite. found, although malachite is more common than azurite.
Typically associated with copper deposits associated with Typically associated with copper deposits associated with
limestoneslimestones, the source of the carbonate., the source of the carbonate.

The stone's name derives (via The stone's name derives (via LatinLatin and and FrenchFrench) from ) from
GreekGreek molochitismolochitis, ", "mallowmallow-green stone", from -green stone", from molochēmolochē, ,
variant of variant of malachēmalachē, "mallow". Malachite was used as a , "mallow". Malachite was used as a
mineral pigment in green paints from antiquity until mineral pigment in green paints from antiquity until
about about 18001800. The pigment is moderately lightfast, . The pigment is moderately lightfast,
very sensitive to very sensitive to acidsacids and varying in colour. The and varying in colour. The
natural form was being replaced by its synthetic natural form was being replaced by its synthetic
form, form, verditerverditer amongst other synthetic greens. It is amongst other synthetic greens. It is
also used for decorative purposes, such as in the also used for decorative purposes, such as in the
Malachite Room in the Malachite Room in the HermitageHermitage which features a which features a
huge huge malachite vasemalachite vase. "The . "The TazzaTazza", one of the largest ", one of the largest
pieces of malachite in North America and a gift pieces of malachite in North America and a gift
from from Tsar Nicholas IITsar Nicholas II, stands as the focal point in , stands as the focal point in
the center of the room of the center of the room of Linda Hall LibraryLinda Hall Library..

Large quantities of malachite have been mined in the Large quantities of malachite have been mined in the
UralsUrals. It is found in the . It is found in the
Democratic Republic of CongoDemocratic Republic of Congo; ; TsumebTsumeb, , NamibiaNamibia; ;
Ural mountains, Ural mountains, RussiaRussia; ; MexicoMexico; ;
Broken Hill, New South WalesBroken Hill, New South Wales; ; EnglandEngland; ; LyonLyon; and ; and
in the Southwestern in the Southwestern United StatesUnited States especially in especially in
ArizonaArizona at at BisbeeBisbee and and MorenciMorenci..
In In IsraelIsrael, malachite is extensively mined at , malachite is extensively mined at TimnaTimna, ,
often called often called King Solomon's MinesKing Solomon's Mines. Archeological . Archeological
evidence indicates that the mineral has been mined evidence indicates that the mineral has been mined
and smelted at the site for over 3,000 years. Most of and smelted at the site for over 3,000 years. Most of
Timna's current production is also smelted, but the Timna's current production is also smelted, but the
finest pieces are worked into silver jewelry.finest pieces are worked into silver jewelry.

PROCESS DIAGRAMPROCESS DIAGRAM


The process of extracting copper from copper The process of extracting copper from copper
ore varies according to the type of ore and the ore varies according to the type of ore and the
desired purity of the final product. Each process desired purity of the final product. Each process
consists of several steps in which unwanted consists of several steps in which unwanted
materials are physically or chemically removed, materials are physically or chemically removed,
and the concentration of copper is progressively and the concentration of copper is progressively
increased. Some of these steps are conducted at increased. Some of these steps are conducted at
the mine site itself, while others may be the mine site itself, while others may be
conducted at separate facilities.conducted at separate facilities.

Here are the steps used to process the sulfide Here are the steps used to process the sulfide
ores commonly found in the western United ores commonly found in the western United
States.States.

MiningMining

1 Most sulfide ores are taken from huge open-pit 1 Most sulfide ores are taken from huge open-pit
mines by drilling and blasting with explosives. In this mines by drilling and blasting with explosives. In this
type of mining, the material located above the ore, type of mining, the material located above the ore,
called the overburden, is first removed to expose the called the overburden, is first removed to expose the
buried ore deposit. This produces an open pit that buried ore deposit. This produces an open pit that
may grow to be a mile or more across. A road to may grow to be a mile or more across. A road to
allow access for equipment spirals down the interior allow access for equipment spirals down the interior
slopes of the pit. slopes of the pit.

2 The exposed ore is scooped up by large power 2 The exposed ore is scooped up by large power
shovels capable of loading 500-900 cubic feet (15-25 shovels capable of loading 500-900 cubic feet (15-25
cubic meters) in a single bite. The ore is loaded into cubic meters) in a single bite. The ore is loaded into
giant dump trucks, called haul trucks, and is giant dump trucks, called haul trucks, and is
transported up and out of the pit.transported up and out of the pit.

ConcentratingConcentrating

The copper ore usually contains a large amount of The copper ore usually contains a large amount of
dirt, clay, and a variety of non-copper bearing dirt, clay, and a variety of non-copper bearing
minerals. The first step is to remove some of this minerals. The first step is to remove some of this
waste material. This process is called concentrating waste material. This process is called concentrating
and is usually done by the flotation method.and is usually done by the flotation method.

3 The ore is crushed in a series of cone crushers. A 3 The ore is crushed in a series of cone crushers. A
cone crusher consists of an interior grinding cone cone crusher consists of an interior grinding cone
that rotates on an eccentric vertical axis inside a that rotates on an eccentric vertical axis inside a
fixed outer cone. As the ore is fed into the top of fixed outer cone. As the ore is fed into the top of
the crusher, it is squeezed between the two cones the crusher, it is squeezed between the two cones
and broken into smaller pieces.and broken into smaller pieces.

4 The crushed ore is then ground even smaller by a 4 The crushed ore is then ground even smaller by a
series of mills. First, it is mixed with water and series of mills. First, it is mixed with water and
placed in a rod mill, which consists of a large placed in a rod mill, which consists of a large
cylindrical container filled with numerous short cylindrical container filled with numerous short
lengths of steel rod. As the cylinder rotates on its lengths of steel rod. As the cylinder rotates on its
horizontal axis, the steel rods tumble and break up horizontal axis, the steel rods tumble and break up
the ore into pieces about 0.13 in (3 mm) in the ore into pieces about 0.13 in (3 mm) in
diameter. The mixture of ore and water is further diameter. The mixture of ore and water is further
broken up in two ball mills, which are like a rod broken up in two ball mills, which are like a rod
mill except steel balls are used instead of rods. The mill except steel balls are used instead of rods. The
slurry of finely ground ore that emerges from the slurry of finely ground ore that emerges from the
final ball mill contains particles about 0.01 in (0.25 final ball mill contains particles about 0.01 in (0.25
mm) in diameter.mm) in diameter.

5 The slurry is mixed with various chemical 5 The slurry is mixed with various chemical
reagents, which coat the copper particles. A reagents, which coat the copper particles. A
liquid, called a frother, is also added. Pine oil or liquid, called a frother, is also added. Pine oil or
long-chain alcohol are often used as frothers. long-chain alcohol are often used as frothers.
This mixture is pumped into rectangular tanks, This mixture is pumped into rectangular tanks,
called flotation cells, where air is injected into called flotation cells, where air is injected into
the slurry through the bottom of the tanks. The the slurry through the bottom of the tanks. The
chemical reagents make the copper particles chemical reagents make the copper particles
cling to the bubbles as they rise to the surface. cling to the bubbles as they rise to the surface.
The frother forms a thick layer of bubbles, The frother forms a thick layer of bubbles,
which overflows the tanks and is collected in which overflows the tanks and is collected in
troughs.troughs.

The bubbles are allowed to condense and the water is The bubbles are allowed to condense and the water is
drained off. The resulting mixture, called a copper drained off. The resulting mixture, called a copper
concentrate, contains about 25-35% copper along with concentrate, contains about 25-35% copper along with
various sulfides of copper and iron, plus smaller various sulfides of copper and iron, plus smaller
concentrations of gold, silver, and other materials. The concentrations of gold, silver, and other materials. The
remaining materials in the tank are called the gangue or remaining materials in the tank are called the gangue or
tailings. They are pumped into settling ponds and allowed tailings. They are pumped into settling ponds and allowed
to dry. to dry.
SmeltingSmelting

Once the waste materials have been physically removed Once the waste materials have been physically removed
from the ore, the remaining copper concentrate must from the ore, the remaining copper concentrate must
undergo several chemical reactions to remove the iron and undergo several chemical reactions to remove the iron and
sulfur. This process is called smelting and traditionally sulfur. This process is called smelting and traditionally
involves two furnaces as described below. Some modern involves two furnaces as described below. Some modern
plants utilize a single furnace, which combines both plants utilize a single furnace, which combines both
operations.operations.

6 The copper concentrate is fed into a furnace along with 6 The copper concentrate is fed into a furnace along with
a silica material, called a flux. Most copper smelters a silica material, called a flux. Most copper smelters
utilize oxygen-enriched flash furnaces in which utilize oxygen-enriched flash furnaces in which
preheated, oxygen-enriched air is forced into the furnace preheated, oxygen-enriched air is forced into the furnace
to combust with fuel oil. The copper concentrate and to combust with fuel oil. The copper concentrate and
flux melt, and collect in the bottom of the furnace. flux melt, and collect in the bottom of the furnace.
Much of the iron in the concentrate chemically Much of the iron in the concentrate chemically
combines with the flux to form a slag, which is skimmed combines with the flux to form a slag, which is skimmed
off the surface of the molten material. Much of the off the surface of the molten material. Much of the
sulfur in the concentrate combines with the oxygen to sulfur in the concentrate combines with the oxygen to
form sulfur dioxide, which is exhausted from the form sulfur dioxide, which is exhausted from the
furnace as a gas and is further treated in an acid plant to furnace as a gas and is further treated in an acid plant to
produce sulfuric acid. The remaining molten material in produce sulfuric acid. The remaining molten material in
the bottom of the furnace is called the matte.the bottom of the furnace is called the matte.

It is a mixture of copper sulfides and iron sulfides and It is a mixture of copper sulfides and iron sulfides and
contains about 60% copper by weight.contains about 60% copper by weight.
7 The molten matte is drawn from the furnace and poured 7 The molten matte is drawn from the furnace and poured
into a second furnace called a converter. Additional into a second furnace called a converter. Additional
silica flux is added and oxygen is blown through the silica flux is added and oxygen is blown through the
molten material. The chemical reactions in the converter molten material. The chemical reactions in the converter
are similar to those in the flash furnace. The silica flux are similar to those in the flash furnace. The silica flux
reacts with the remaining iron to form a slag, and the reacts with the remaining iron to form a slag, and the
oxygen reacts with the remaining sulfur to form sulfur oxygen reacts with the remaining sulfur to form sulfur
dioxide. The slag may be fed back into the flash furnace dioxide. The slag may be fed back into the flash furnace
to act as a flux, and the sulfur dioxide is processed to act as a flux, and the sulfur dioxide is processed
through the acid plant. After the slag is removed, a final through the acid plant. After the slag is removed, a final
injection of oxygen removes all but a trace of sulfur. injection of oxygen removes all but a trace of sulfur.
The resulting molten material is called the blister and The resulting molten material is called the blister and
contains about 99% copper by weight.contains about 99% copper by weight.

RefiningRefining

Even though copper blister is 99% pure copper, it still Even though copper blister is 99% pure copper, it still
contains high enough levels of sulfur, oxygen, and other contains high enough levels of sulfur, oxygen, and other
impurities to hamper further refining. To remove or adjust impurities to hamper further refining. To remove or adjust
the levels of these materials, the blister copper is first fire the levels of these materials, the blister copper is first fire
refined before it is sent to the final electrorefining process.refined before it is sent to the final electrorefining process.

8 The blister copper is heated in a refining furnace, which is 8 The blister copper is heated in a refining furnace, which is
similar to a converter described above. Air is blown into the similar to a converter described above. Air is blown into the
molten blister to oxidize some impurities. A sodium molten blister to oxidize some impurities. A sodium
carbonate flux may be added to remove traces of arsenic carbonate flux may be added to remove traces of arsenic
and antimony. A sample of the molten material is drawn and antimony. A sample of the molten material is drawn
and an experienced operator determines when the and an experienced operator determines when the
impurities have reached an acceptable level. The molten impurities have reached an acceptable level. The molten
copper, which is about 99.5% pure, is then poured into copper, which is about 99.5% pure, is then poured into
molds to form large electrical anodes, which act as the molds to form large electrical anodes, which act as the
positive terminals for the electrorefining process.positive terminals for the electrorefining process.

9 Each copper anode is placed in an individual tank, or cell, 9 Each copper anode is placed in an individual tank, or cell,
made of polymer-concrete. There may be as many as 1,250 made of polymer-concrete. There may be as many as 1,250
tanks in operation at one time. A sheet of copper is placed on tanks in operation at one time. A sheet of copper is placed on
the opposite end of the tank to act as the cathode, or negative the opposite end of the tank to act as the cathode, or negative
terminal. The tanks are filled with an acidic copper sulfate terminal. The tanks are filled with an acidic copper sulfate
solution, which acts as an electrical conductor between the solution, which acts as an electrical conductor between the
anode and cathode. When an electrical current is passed anode and cathode. When an electrical current is passed
through each tank, the copper is stripped off the anode and is through each tank, the copper is stripped off the anode and is
deposited on the cathode. Most of the remaining impurities deposited on the cathode. Most of the remaining impurities
fall out of the copper sulfate solution and form a slime at the fall out of the copper sulfate solution and form a slime at the
bottom of the tank. After about 9-15 days, the current is bottom of the tank. After about 9-15 days, the current is
turned off and the cathodes are removed. The cathodes now turned off and the cathodes are removed. The cathodes now
weigh about 300 lb (136 kg) and are 99.95-99.99% pure weigh about 300 lb (136 kg) and are 99.95-99.99% pure
copper. copper.
10 The slime that collects at the bottom of the tank contains 10 The slime that collects at the bottom of the tank contains
gold, silver, selenium, and tellurium. It is collected and gold, silver, selenium, and tellurium. It is collected and
processed to recover these precious metals.processed to recover these precious metals.

CastingCasting
11 After refining, the copper cathodes are melted and cast into 11 After refining, the copper cathodes are melted and cast into
ingots, cakes, billets, or rods depending on the final ingots, cakes, billets, or rods depending on the final
application. Ingots are rectangular or trapezoidal bricks, application. Ingots are rectangular or trapezoidal bricks,
which are remelted along with other metals to make brass which are remelted along with other metals to make brass
and bronze products. Cakes are rectangular slabs about 8 in and bronze products. Cakes are rectangular slabs about 8 in
(20 cm) thick and up to 28 ft (8.5 m) long. They are rolled (20 cm) thick and up to 28 ft (8.5 m) long. They are rolled
to make copper plate, strip, sheet, and foil products. Billets to make copper plate, strip, sheet, and foil products. Billets
are cylindrical logs about 8 in (20 cm) in diameter and are cylindrical logs about 8 in (20 cm) in diameter and
several feet (meters) long. They are extruded or drawn to several feet (meters) long. They are extruded or drawn to
make copper tubing and pipe. Rods have a round cross-make copper tubing and pipe. Rods have a round cross-
section about 0.5 in (1.3 cm) in diameter. They are usually section about 0.5 in (1.3 cm) in diameter. They are usually
cast into very long lengths, which are coiled. This coiled cast into very long lengths, which are coiled. This coiled
material is then drawn down further to make copper wire.material is then drawn down further to make copper wire.

Leaching phase:Leaching phase: A leach pad or heap is sprinkled with an A leach pad or heap is sprinkled with an
aqueous acidic solution. In this schematic it is described as aqueous acidic solution. In this schematic it is described as
the acidified liquor spray. This comes from the raffinate the acidified liquor spray. This comes from the raffinate
of the extraction stage(s). The liquid passes through the of the extraction stage(s). The liquid passes through the
heap, dissolving minerals along the way. It is typically heap, dissolving minerals along the way. It is typically
collected in a pond, which is affectionately called the collected in a pond, which is affectionately called the
pregnant leach solution or PLS.pregnant leach solution or PLS.
In-situ leachingIn-situ leaching

In-situ leachingIn-situ leaching is also called "solution mining." The is also called "solution mining." The
process initially involves drilling of holes into the ore process initially involves drilling of holes into the ore
deposit. Explosives or hydraulic fracturing are used to deposit. Explosives or hydraulic fracturing are used to
create open pathways within the deposit for solution to create open pathways within the deposit for solution to
penetrate into. Leaching solution is pumped into the penetrate into. Leaching solution is pumped into the
deposit where it makes contact with the ore. The solution deposit where it makes contact with the ore. The solution
is then collected and processed. The is then collected and processed. The
Beverley uranium depositBeverley uranium deposit is an example of in-situ leaching. is an example of in-situ leaching.

Heap leachingHeap leaching

In heap leaching processes, crushed (and sometimes In heap leaching processes, crushed (and sometimes
agglomerated) ore is piled in a heap which is lined with an agglomerated) ore is piled in a heap which is lined with an
impervious layer. Leach solution is sprayed over the top of impervious layer. Leach solution is sprayed over the top of
the heap, and allowed to percolate downward through the the heap, and allowed to percolate downward through the
heap. The heap design usually incorporates collection heap. The heap design usually incorporates collection
sumps which allow the "pregnant" leach solution (i.e. sumps which allow the "pregnant" leach solution (i.e.
solution with dissolved valuable metals) to be pumped for solution with dissolved valuable metals) to be pumped for
further processing.further processing.
Dump leachingDump leaching

Dump leaching combines characteristics of heap leaching Dump leaching combines characteristics of heap leaching
and in-situ leaching. In a dump leach, an impervious layer and in-situ leaching. In a dump leach, an impervious layer
may or may not be used depending on the dump location. may or may not be used depending on the dump location.
Ore is dumped to allow processing similar to heap leaching, Ore is dumped to allow processing similar to heap leaching,
but the physical characteristics of the location allow for a but the physical characteristics of the location allow for a
valley or pit to act as the sump.valley or pit to act as the sump.

Vat leachingVat leaching

Vat leaching involves contacting material, which has Vat leaching involves contacting material, which has
usually undergone size reduction and classification, usually undergone size reduction and classification,
with leach solution in large tanks or vats. Often the with leach solution in large tanks or vats. Often the
vats are equipped with agitators to keep the solids in vats are equipped with agitators to keep the solids in
suspension in the vats and improve the solid to liquid suspension in the vats and improve the solid to liquid
contact. After vat leaching, the leached solids and contact. After vat leaching, the leached solids and
pregnant solution are usually separated prior to further pregnant solution are usually separated prior to further
processing.processing.
Other leaching techniquesOther leaching techniques

In some cases, special leaching processes are required In some cases, special leaching processes are required
due to refractory nature of the material. These due to refractory nature of the material. These
techniques include pressure or autoclave leaching and techniques include pressure or autoclave leaching and
concentrate leaching.concentrate leaching.

After leaching, the leach liquor must normally After leaching, the leach liquor must normally
undergo concentration of the metal ions that are to undergo concentration of the metal ions that are to
be recovered. Additionally, some undesirable be recovered. Additionally, some undesirable
metals may have also been taken into solution metals may have also been taken into solution
during the leach process. The solution is often during the leach process. The solution is often
purified to eliminate the undesirable components. purified to eliminate the undesirable components.
The processes employed for solution concentration The processes employed for solution concentration
and purification include:and purification include:

Precipitation Precipitation

Cementation Cementation

Solvent Extraction Solvent Extraction

Ion Exchange Ion Exchange

Solvent extractionSolvent extraction

A mixture of an A mixture of an extractantextractant in a in a diluentdiluent is used to is used to
extract a metal from one phase to another. In solvent extract a metal from one phase to another. In solvent
extraction this mixture is often referred to as the extraction this mixture is often referred to as the
"organic" because the main constituent (diluent) is "organic" because the main constituent (diluent) is
some type of oil.some type of oil.

The PLS (pregnant leach solution) is mixed to The PLS (pregnant leach solution) is mixed to
emulsification with the stripped organic and allowed to emulsification with the stripped organic and allowed to
separate. The metal will be exchanged from the PLS to separate. The metal will be exchanged from the PLS to
the organic. The resulting streams will be a loaded the organic. The resulting streams will be a loaded
organic and a organic and a raffinateraffinate. When dealing with . When dealing with
electrowinning, the loaded organic is then mixed to electrowinning, the loaded organic is then mixed to
emulsification with a lean electrolyte and allowed to emulsification with a lean electrolyte and allowed to
separate. The metal will be exchanged from the organic separate. The metal will be exchanged from the organic
to the electrolyte.to the electrolyte.

The resulting streams will be a stripped organic and a The resulting streams will be a stripped organic and a
rich electrolyte. The organic stream is recycled rich electrolyte. The organic stream is recycled
through the solvent extraction process while the through the solvent extraction process while the
aqueous streams cycle through leaching and aqueous streams cycle through leaching and
electrowinning processes respectively.electrowinning processes respectively.
Ion exchangeIon exchange

ChelatingChelating agents, natural zeolite, activated carbon, agents, natural zeolite, activated carbon,
resins, and liquid organics impregnated with resins, and liquid organics impregnated with
chelating agents are all used to exchange cations or chelating agents are all used to exchange cations or
anions with the solution. Selectivity and recovery anions with the solution. Selectivity and recovery
are a function of the reagents used and the are a function of the reagents used and the
contaminants present.contaminants present.

Metal recovery is the final step in a hydrometallurgical Metal recovery is the final step in a hydrometallurgical
process. Metals suitable for sale as raw materials are process. Metals suitable for sale as raw materials are
often directly produced in the metal recovery step. often directly produced in the metal recovery step.
Sometimes, however, further refining is required if Sometimes, however, further refining is required if
ultra-high purity metals are to be produced. The ultra-high purity metals are to be produced. The
primary types of metal recovery processes are primary types of metal recovery processes are
electrolysis, gaseous reduction, and precipitation.electrolysis, gaseous reduction, and precipitation.
ElectrolysisElectrolysis

Electrowinning and electrorefining respectively Electrowinning and electrorefining respectively
involve the recovery and purification of metals using involve the recovery and purification of metals using
electrodeposition of metals at the cathode, and either electrodeposition of metals at the cathode, and either
metal dissolution or a competing oxidation reaction at metal dissolution or a competing oxidation reaction at
the anode.the anode.

PrecipitationPrecipitation

Precipitation in hydrometallurgy involves the chemical Precipitation in hydrometallurgy involves the chemical
precipitation of either metals and their compounds or precipitation of either metals and their compounds or
of the contaminants from aqueous solutions. of the contaminants from aqueous solutions.
Precipitation will proceed when, through reagent Precipitation will proceed when, through reagent
addition, evaporation, pH change or temperature addition, evaporation, pH change or temperature
manipulation, any given species exceeds its limit of manipulation, any given species exceeds its limit of
solubility. In order to improve efficiency in solubility. In order to improve efficiency in
downstream processes, seeding to initiate downstream processes, seeding to initiate
crystallization is often used.crystallization is often used.

Extraction phase: Extraction phase: Through gravity or from the suction Through gravity or from the suction
of the pumper mixer in the Extract Stage, PLS is of the pumper mixer in the Extract Stage, PLS is
mixed in a pump-box (mixer, pumper stage) with an mixed in a pump-box (mixer, pumper stage) with an
organic solution often referred to as the barren organic solution often referred to as the barren
organic (here called Regenerated Extractant coming organic (here called Regenerated Extractant coming
from the Strip Stage) to form a liquid-liquid from the Strip Stage) to form a liquid-liquid
dispersion. Mass transfer occurs and ideally only the dispersion. Mass transfer occurs and ideally only the
desired mineral transfers selectively from the aqueous desired mineral transfers selectively from the aqueous
phase to the organic phase. In this schematic, the phase to the organic phase. In this schematic, the
mineral is copper.mineral is copper.

In most SX plants, there is usually a pump-box followed In most SX plants, there is usually a pump-box followed
by one or more auxiliary mixing tanks. Their purpose by one or more auxiliary mixing tanks. Their purpose
is to maintain the dispersion and give more residence is to maintain the dispersion and give more residence
time for the extraction to take place. Then the time for the extraction to take place. Then the
dispersion is sent to a settler, where the two phases dispersion is sent to a settler, where the two phases
disengage. The lighter fluid (organic) is removed from disengage. The lighter fluid (organic) is removed from
the top, while the heavier fluid (aqueous phase) is the top, while the heavier fluid (aqueous phase) is
removed from the bottom of the end of the settler. removed from the bottom of the end of the settler.
The aqueous is now called raffinate and is returned to The aqueous is now called raffinate and is returned to
the heap or leach pad. It contains lots of dissolved the heap or leach pad. It contains lots of dissolved
minerals, but very little of the desired mineral. The minerals, but very little of the desired mineral. The
aqueous cycle is complete. The organic (labeled above aqueous cycle is complete. The organic (labeled above
as Copper Loaded Extractant), now heavy with the as Copper Loaded Extractant), now heavy with the
desired mineral, is pumped into the Strip Stage.desired mineral, is pumped into the Strip Stage.

Stripping phase: Stripping phase: The loaded organic extractant is mixed The loaded organic extractant is mixed
with the aqueous lean electrolyte (hear strip solution) to with the aqueous lean electrolyte (hear strip solution) to
form another liquid-liquid dispersion. Due to a shift in pH, form another liquid-liquid dispersion. Due to a shift in pH,
the desired mineral transfers back from the organic phase to the desired mineral transfers back from the organic phase to
the aqueous phase. Once again, it is not unusual to find one the aqueous phase. Once again, it is not unusual to find one
pump-box followed by one or more auxiliary mixing tanks pump-box followed by one or more auxiliary mixing tanks
to achieve the desired residence time and mass transfer to achieve the desired residence time and mass transfer
efficiency. The dispersion is again sent to a settler so that efficiency. The dispersion is again sent to a settler so that
the two liquid phases can be separated again. A portion of the two liquid phases can be separated again. A portion of
the aqueous phase, called here the Concentrated Copper the aqueous phase, called here the Concentrated Copper
Electrolyte, is pumped to the Electrowinning house, while Electrolyte, is pumped to the Electrowinning house, while
the rest is recycled back to the Strip Stage Pure copper the rest is recycled back to the Strip Stage Pure copper
(desired purity is called five-nines = 99.999%) is deposited (desired purity is called five-nines = 99.999%) is deposited
on plates, pulling the copper out of solution. This solution on plates, pulling the copper out of solution. This solution
is called the lean electrolyte, or here as the strip solution, is called the lean electrolyte, or here as the strip solution,
and returns to the Stripper. This completes this aqueous and returns to the Stripper. This completes this aqueous
loop. The barren organic (here called regenerated loop. The barren organic (here called regenerated
extractant) returns to the Extractor to complete the organic extractant) returns to the Extractor to complete the organic
loop.loop.

This method almost doubles the throughput of copper, This method almost doubles the throughput of copper,
because E1P (or E3(P)) replaces the former S2 because E1P (or E3(P)) replaces the former S2
allowing essentially twice the copper to be processed. allowing essentially twice the copper to be processed.
Although the single stage E1P will not have the same Although the single stage E1P will not have the same
transfer efficiency as the dual stage E1-E2, the copper transfer efficiency as the dual stage E1-E2, the copper
remaining in the raffinate goes back to the pad and remaining in the raffinate goes back to the pad and
will eventually come back to the plant to be processed will eventually come back to the plant to be processed
another day. another day.
Regardless of the SX circuit layout, each stage is treated Regardless of the SX circuit layout, each stage is treated
in the same way with CFD. The only difference is the in the same way with CFD. The only difference is the
density (and other properties) and flow rates through density (and other properties) and flow rates through
each stage. E1 and S1 are often not only pumped by each stage. E1 and S1 are often not only pumped by
the pumper-mixer, but are also externally fed by the pumper-mixer, but are also externally fed by
gravity or through additional pumps from the PLS or gravity or through additional pumps from the PLS or
TOC (total organic container = inventory storage).TOC (total organic container = inventory storage).

POLLUTION AND POLLUTION AND
ABATEMENTABATEMENT

Byproducts/WasteByproducts/Waste
The recovery of sulfuric acid from the copper The recovery of sulfuric acid from the copper
smelting process not only provides a profitable smelting process not only provides a profitable
byproduct, but also significantly reduces the air byproduct, but also significantly reduces the air
pollution caused by the furnace exhaust. Gold, pollution caused by the furnace exhaust. Gold,
silver, and other precious metals are also important silver, and other precious metals are also important
byproducts.byproducts.

Waste products include the overburden from the mining Waste products include the overburden from the mining
operation, the tailings from the concentrating operation, the tailings from the concentrating
operation, and the slag from the smelting operation. operation, and the slag from the smelting operation.
This waste may contain significant concentrations of This waste may contain significant concentrations of
arsenic, lead, and other chemicals, which pose a arsenic, lead, and other chemicals, which pose a
potential health hazard to the surrounding area. In the potential health hazard to the surrounding area. In the
United States, the Environmental Protection Agency United States, the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) regulates the storage of such wastes and the (EPA) regulates the storage of such wastes and the
remediation of the area once mining and processing remediation of the area once mining and processing
operations have ceased. The sheer volume of the operations have ceased. The sheer volume of the
material involved—in some cases, billions of tons of material involved—in some cases, billions of tons of
waste—makes this a formidable task, but it also waste—makes this a formidable task, but it also
presents some potentially profitable opportunities to presents some potentially profitable opportunities to
recover the useable materials contained in this waste.recover the useable materials contained in this waste.

17313005-Copper tembaga bahan galian ekonomis.ppt

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