24-25-ETHICS-CH.2.discussionand lecturepptx

Ethics: A Guide to Moral Principles

Ethics is the branch of philosophy that explores moral principles and values. It delves into questions about what is right and wrong, good and bad, and how we should live our lives. While morality often refers to personal beliefs and values, ethics focuses on a broader, more systematic study of these concepts.

Key Concepts in Ethics

Here are some key concepts in ethics:

• Moral principles: These are fundamental guidelines for behavior that are considered universally applicable. Examples include honesty, fairness, compassion, and respect for others.

• Values: These are beliefs that we hold dear and that guide our actions. They can be personal, societal, or cultural, and may include things like freedom, justice, knowledge, or family.

• Moral dilemmas: These are situations where there is no easy or clear-cut right answer. They often involve conflicting values or principles, forcing us to make difficult choices.

• Ethical theories: These are frameworks that provide different perspectives on how to make moral judgments. Some prominent ethical theories include:

• Utilitarianism: This theory emphasizes maximizing happiness and well-being for the greatest number of people.

• Deontology: This theory focuses on following moral rules and duties, regardless of the consequences.

• Virtue ethics: This theory emphasizes developing good character traits, such as honesty, courage, and compassion.

The Importance of Ethics

Ethics plays a crucial role in our personal lives, relationships, and society as a whole. It helps us:

• Make informed decisions: By considering ethical principles and values, we can make decisions that are not only beneficial to ourselves but also to others.

• Build strong relationships: Ethical behavior fosters trust, respect, and understanding, leading to stronger relationships with family, friends, and colleagues.

• Create a just society: Ethics provides a framework for laws, policies, and social institutions that aim to promote fairness, equality, and well-being for all.

Ethical Challenges in the Modern World

The modern world presents new ethical challenges due to rapid technological advancements, globalization, and complex social issues.

• Artificial intelligence: The development of AI raises questions about responsibility, bias, and the potential for harm.

• Climate change: Ethical considerations arise in addressing climate change, including resource allocation, environmental justice, and intergenerational responsibility.

• Globalization: Issues such as labor exploitation, cultural appropriation, and international conflicts require ethical frameworks for navigating complex global interactions.

Conclusion

Ethics is a fundamental aspect of human existence, guiding our actions, shaping our relationships, and influencing the world around us. By understanding ethical principles, values, and theories, we can navigate moral dilemmas, make informed decisions, and contribute to a more just

1. Chapter 2 Difference between Moral and Non-Moral Standards Learning Outcomes At the end of this module, the students should be able to: differentiate between moral and non-moral standards; know the meaning of dilemma and identify its three levels; and explain why only human beings can be ethical.

2. According to many scholars, moral standards have the following characteristics, namely: 1) moral standards deal with matters we think can seriously injure or benefit humans, animals, and the environment, such as child abuse, rape, and murder; 2) moral standards are not established or changed by the decisions of authoritative individuals or bodies. Indeed, moral standards rest on the adequacy of the reasons that are taken to support and justify them. For sure, we don’t need a law to back up our moral conviction that killing innocent people is absolutely wrong; 3) moral standards are overriding, that is, they take precedence over other standards and considerations, especially of self-interest; 4) moral standards are based on impartial considerations. Hence, moral standards are fair and just; and 5) moral standards are associated with special emotions (such as guilt and shame) and vocabulary (such as right, wrong, good, and bad). Moral Standards versus Non-moral Ones Why the need to distinguish moral standards from non-moral ones?

3. What is Ethics? Morality understood in an everyday sense broadly means having some kind of systems of values, deciding what is right or wrong for oneself. Ethics however takes a much more systematic and critical approach to the question. The focus of ethics is indeed the notion of right and wrong, but what it attempts to explain is why people make certain moral decisions, how we create moral systems which tell us how to act; some ethical theories also aim to tell us what moral standards we should choose and how we could achieve the good life.

4. The difference between a moral issue and a non-moral one. Moral standards  involve the rules people have about the kinds of actions they believe are morally right and wrong, as well as the values they place on the kinds of objects they believe are morally good and morally bad. Non-moral standards refer to rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical considerations.   We shouldn’t litter the street. You shouldn’t tell white lies. We should watch tv. We shouldn’t experiment on animals. I should get 3 a-levels. Do you think the following examples are moral issues?

5. Most people would argue that telling white lies and experimenting on animals are moral issues whereas getting good grades or watching tv aren’t. However, the same key term, which has some moral dimension “should” is used in all cases. “Should” has a prudential use, which means that it is based on careful consideration, something that has been thought about, but also a moral use, in so far as it makes implicit reference to some kind of guideline of behavior or principle. A non-moral action doesn’t involve the consideration of principles.

6. The main difference thus, between moral and non-moral issues is that moral issues are based on values. A valu e, is never intended to be descriptive: it is a judgment about the world and implies the acceptance or rejection of norms of behavior, and the understanding of terms such as right or wrong

7. Philosophers investigate the relationship between facts and values, which means how we view the world and the moral principles we adopt. This has led philosophers to make a distinction between moral, immoral and amoral actions. An immoral action is that is considered morally wrong. An amoral action is one performed by someone who is not morally aware, that is doesn’t have any concepts or understanding of right and wrong. A moral action is an action which is considered morally right or good. A morally neutral action is one that is independent from moral judgment; for example the prudential use of the verb should when we say you should eat more fruits.

8. Are the following actions moral, immoral, amoral a) a lion killing a zebra. b) A toddler hitting a baby. c) A 19 year old man stealing from a shop d) A child accidently firing a gun and injuring a relative. A 40 year old woman hitting her child. We would probably consider the action of the lion and of the baby as amoral; in the case of a lion, we would argue that it is not capable of thinking morally, whereas a baby, a toddler and even a child do not yet under the moral implications of their actions. What we need to think about, therefore, is the criteria for moral responsibility.

9. What is considered a moral dilemma? A  moral dilemma  is a conflict in which you have to choose between two or more actions and have moral reasons for choosing each action. An  ethical dilemma  is a decision making problem between two possible moral imperatives, neither of which is unambiguously acceptable or preferable. It's sometimes called an ethical paradox in moral philosophy. What are the 3 level of moral dilemma? Kohlberg defined three levels of moral development Preconventional conventional, and postconventional.

10. Kohlberg classified moral reasoning into three levels, each of which contains two distinct sub stages: A. Pre- conventional level Obedience Self interest At this level, children are only interested in securing their own benefits. This is their idea of morality. They begin by avoiding punishment and quickly learn that they may secure other benefits by pleasing others. B. Conventional Level Conformity Law and order This is the stage at which children learn about rules and authority. They learn that there are certain conventions that govern how they should and should not behave and learn to obey them.

11. C. Post- conventional level Social contract orientation Universal human ethics At this level children have learned that there is a difference between what is right and what is wrong from a moral perspective, and what is right and what is wrong to rules. There are several types of moral dilemmas, but the most common of them are categorized into the following: epistemic and ontological dilemmas, self-imposed and world-imposed dilemmas, obligation dilemmas and prohibition dilemmas, and single agent and multi-person dilemmas.

12. STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT Level/Stage Age Range Description I.Obedience/punishment infancy No difference between doing the right thing and avoiding the punishment 1.a self-interest Pre-school Interest shifts to rewards rather than punishment effort is made to secure greatest benefit for oneself II. Conformity and Interpersonal Accord School age The “good boy/girl” level. Efforts is made to secure approval and maintain friendly relations with others II. authority and social order School age Orientation toward fixed rules. The purpose of morality is maintaining social order III. Social Contact Teens Mutual benefit, reciprocity. Morally right and legally right are not better for everyone III.a Universal principle Adulthood Morality is based on principle that transcend mutual benefit

13. Foundations of Morality Care Liberty Fairness Loyalty Authority Sanctity Care - protect others from harm. This foundation underlies virtues of kindness, gentleness, and nurturance. Liberty - overcome tyranny and oppression Fairness- exchanges are reciprocal and proportional, don’t cheat. These foundation generates, ideas of justice, rights and autonomy. Loyalty- support our team and our tribe. This foundation underlies virtues of patriotism and self -sacrifice for the group. (one for all, all for one). Authority- respect those above you in hierarchy. This foundation underlies virtues of leadership and followership including deference to legitimate authority and respect for traditions. Sanctity - noble things are good, disgusting things are bad. This foundation underlies religious notions of striving to live in an elevated, less carnal, more noble way.

14. Requirements of Moral Judgement 1. Moral judgements should be logical. Our goal is to be able to support our moral judgments with reasons and evidence, rather than basing them solely on emotion, sentiment or social or personal preference 2. Moral judgments should be based on facts. Adequate moral judgments cannot be made in vacuum. We must gather as much relevant information as possible before making them. 3. Moral judgments should be based on acceptable moral principles. We know that moral judgments are based on moral standards. At the highest level of moral reasoning, these standards embody and express very general moral principles. Reliable moral judgments must be based on sound moral principles- principles that can withstand critical scrutiny and rational criticism.

15. After knowing that moral judgment should be logical, should be based on facts, and should appeal to valid moral principles, bearing this in mind can often help especially when various people are discussing an issue and proposing rival answers. In any moral discussion, make sure participants agree about the relevant facts. Once there is general agreement on factual matters, try to spell out the moral principles to which people are at least implicitly, appealing. Seeking to determine these principles will often help people clarify their own thinking enough to reach a solution. Keep the following rough guidelines in mind when handling cases of conflicting obligations, ideals and effects: When two or more moral obligations conflict, choose the stronger one.   When two or more ideals conflict, or when ideals conflict with obligations honor the more important one. When rival actions will have different results, choose the action that produces the greater good or the lesser harm.

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