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Machine design

1. Teachers as reflective practitioner Course Code: PGDT 422 Dr. Aklilu Alemu

2. Meaning and nature of reflection What is reflection ? Its derivation is the Latin refectere , meaning “ to bend back .” It has applications in physics and psychology. •In physics , reflection is the return of light , heat , or sound after striking a surface. •In psychological terms , reflection refers to a mental image or representation . Reflection involves “a state of doubt , hesitation , perplexity , or mental difficulty , in which thinking originates.” It is “an active , persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge” (Dewey, 1933). Reflection means thinking about what one is doing . It entails a process of contemplation with openness to being changed , a willingness to learn , and a sense of responsibility for doing one’s best ( Jay, 2003).

3. Definition of reflection continued Reflection refers to deliberate thinking about something that has already taken place . What happened? Why it happened? What they could have done to be more effective? What they would have changed to improve their teaching performance? Reflection refers to a process in which an experience is recalled , considered and evaluated usually in relation to a broader purpose. Reflection usually refers to the foundation of higher order thinking and learning (thinking about thinking) In professional area it is : deliberate , purposeful , structured , about linking theory and practice , to do with learning, about change and development

4. Perspectives on Reflection 1. Metacognition . Questions surrounding an individual’s ability to reflect (Brown, 1987). Metacognition as an area of inquiry may be divided into three components- M etacognitive knowledge (the awareness of one's knowledge and cognitive strategies), M etacognitive judgments and monitoring, and C ontrol and self-regulation of cognition . 2. Solving Problems in Uncertainty . individuals engage in reflection when they encounter problems with uncertain answers- when no authority figure has an answer , when they believe no one answer is correct , and when the solution cannot be derived by formal logic . The belief in uncertainty is the essential requirement in this case for reflective thinking to occur. An individual must acknowledge that some problems may not be solved by one absolute truth. .

5. Perspective continued 3. The Philosophical Mind: Reflective thinking requires the continual evaluation of beliefs , assumptions , and hypotheses against existing data and against other plausible interpretations of the data " (King and Kitchener, 1994, p.7). An individual engages in reflective thinking to "perceive the state of her own mind." From the philosophical perspective , however, one may say either that reflective thinking is not limited to the context of problem solving or that problem solving is the natural state of the philosophical mind that always questions authority. 4. The Arts. T he mind of the problem solver engages in reflective thinking by considering alternative thoughts and perspectives and all available information , the mind of the perceiver of art engages in reflective thinking . Art allows us to exercise our minds

6. Nature of Reflection The nature of reflection is considered as one of the categories of reflection . In this material, the three natures of reflection are addressed as follows. 1. Returning to experience It refers to recalling of memory situations , events and activities that happened in the past . description of what you did or plan to do (and why ) description of how you approached something or how it worked and how it did not . 2. Connections Reflective connections are the most frequent source of influence on teachers’ practical decision making.

7. Nature of Reflection continued T eachers connect a particular aspect of their teaching experience with plans for instruction , moving from experience to reflection to action . For instance:  W hat was the feeling back there as a student? W hich teacher was my favorite? Why? A m I teaching my students the same way that I loved to be learned as student? 3. Evaluation It refers to evaluation of experiences and development of a teacher . The subcategories of evaluation are:  1. G iving an opinion 2. E xamining what you have learned. 3. D rawing conclusions about your own development 4. Evaluating your knowledge or functioning 5. I nvestigating whether you have achieved your learning objective 6. E xamining what you found difficult and progressing

8. Types of Reflection Reflection engages in the process of carrying back and forth between thinking and action . However, the process may appear differently in different situations . One useful way to understand the complexity of reflection is to consider when the reflection takes place . According to Schon (1983), he divided them into two categories: Reflection-in-action (thinking on your feet) It takes place in the midst of action , not after the task or the experience is accomplished. It involves (an unexpected behavior that challenges one knows in action), conducting an action experiment on the spot by which we seek to solve the new problems. We test our new way of seeing the situation , and also try to change that situation at instant for the better . 2 . Reflection-on-action (retrospective thinking/thinking back) It is the most familiar image of reflection involves a sequence of action then thought. It is an action to look back your experience after it is accomplished to see how it went – what went well , what did not , what could be changed for the next time.

9. Reflection as a Thinking Process The domain of thinking processes encompasses a range of cognitive , affective and metacognitive knowledge , skills and behaviors . It is organized in three dimensions : • Reasoning, processing and inquiry • Creativity • Reflection, evaluation and metacognition. 1. Reasoning, processing and inquiry This dimension encompasses the knowledge , skills and behaviors required to enable teacher students to find out the world around them , and to use critical thinking to analyze and evaluate information they encounter . 2. Creativity The capacity to think creatively is a central component of being able to solve problems and be innovative . In the c reativity dimension, teacher students learn to seek innovative alternatives and use their imagination to generate possibilities . They learn to take risks with their thinking and make new connections.  

10. Reflection as a thinking process continued Reflection, evaluation and metacognition Learning is enhanced when individuals develop the capacity to reflect on , and improve their existing ideas and beliefs . In the r eflection, evaluation and metacognition dimension, teacher students learn to reflect on what they know and develop awareness that there is more to know. They learn to question their perspectives and those of others . They evaluate the validity of their own and others’ ideas . They also develop their metacognitive skills in planning , monitoring and evaluating their own thinking processes and strategies .

11. Reflective thinking and reflective practice Reflective thinking is a part of the critical thinking process referring specifically to the processes of analyzing and making judgments about what has happened . It is an active , persistent , and careful consideration of a belief that support that knowledge, and the further conclusions to which that knowledge leads. How can we prompt and support reflective thinking in the classroom? When students are faced with a difficult problem , reflective thinking helps them to become more aware of their learning progress , choose appropriate ways to explore a problem , and to build the knowledge they need to solve the problem .

12. Reflective thinking Continued 1. Perplexity/puzzle, confusion, doubt . The teacher has to provide a problem or scenario 2.Conjectural anticipation/guessing the reasons behind. The teacher provides many opportunities to engage students in gathering information to look for possible causes and solutions for a problem given. 3 . Careful survey (examination ,inspection, exploration, analysis) The teacher will give activity to help students evaluate the evidence they gather and questions that prompt them to consider alternatives and implications of their ideas 4.Consequent elaboration of the tentative hypothesis/suggest solutions . The teacher will prepare questions and activities that prompt students to draw conclusions from the evidence they gathered and pose solutions

13. Reflective Thinking

14. What do you think teacher as reflective thinker should be? Teacher as reflective thinker choose to be Active :-Voluntarily and willingly taking responsibility for personal actions. Reflective :-Searching for information and solutions to problems that arise in the classroom; identifying the strengths and needs of individual students . Persistent :-Being committed to thinking through difficult issues in depth ; consistently and continually modifying teaching approaches . Relational :-Striving for quality interactions in the classroom to set the tone for learning. Evidence seeking :-Trying new approaches while documenting their effectiveness and making adaptations based on evidence in the form of student learning.

15. Reflective practice It is a process that helps teachers think about what happened , why it happened , and what else could have been done to reach their goals (Cruickshank & Applegate, 1981). It is the practice of analyzing one’s actions , decisions , or products by focusing on one’s process for achieving them (Killion & Todnem , 1991).   It is a willingness to accept responsibility for one’s professional practice (Ross, 1990). The capacity to think creatively , imaginatively and, eventually , self-critically about classroom practice ( Lasley , 1992).

16. Levels of reflective practice They indicate in what level an individual is practicing reflection . The topic addresses from simple to complex levels that one can develop to. There are three major levels of reflective practice (Day; 1993; Farrell, 2004). Technical, contextual, and critical reflection. Technical Reflection : An initial level focused on teaching functions , actions or skills . At the first level, teachers’ reflections focus on strategies and methods used to reach predetermined goals . They are concerned with what works in the classroom to keep students quiet and to maintain order . It is the lowest level of reflection . Typical questions the teacher asks at the level of technical reflection are: Did I spend too much time on group work today? How can I keep students on-task? Did I have enough activities?

17. Levels of reflective practice continued 2. Contextual Reflection Attempt to understand the theoretical basis for classroom practice and to foster consistency between supported theory (what they say they do and believe) and theory-in-use (what they actually do in the classroom). Typical questions the teacher asks at the level of contextual reflection are: •how can I improve learning for all my students? •how can I build in better accountability for cooperative learning tasks? •am I giving my students the opportunity to develop decision-making skills? •what else can I do to help students make connections to prior knowledge? •is there a better way to accomplish this goal?

18. 3. Critical Reflection At this stage, teachers reflect on the moral and ethical implications and consequences of classroom practices on students. They extend their considerations to issues beyond the classroom to include democratic ideals . Acknowledge school practices cannot be separated from the larger social and political realities , critical reflective teachers strive to become fully conscious of the consequences of their range of actions . Critical reflection is mostly considered as a higher-order level of reflection . It adds the following dimensions: •questioning of underlying assumptions, biases , and values one brings to bear on their teaching. •conscious consideration of the ethical implications and consequences of practices on students and their learning. •examination of how instructional and other classroom practices contribute to social equity and to the establishment of a just society. •extended awareness beyond immediate instructional circumstances to include caring about democratic foundations and encouraging socially responsible actions.

19. 3. Critical Reflection continued Typical questions the teacher asks at the level of critical reflection are: •do all students in my class have daily opportunities to be successful? •who is being included and who is being excluded in this classroom practice? •how might the ways I group students affect individual student’s opportunity for success? •does this classroom practice promote equity ? •do I have practices that differentially favor particular groups of students (e.g., males, females)?

20. Levels of reflective practice

21. Benefits of Reflection Individuals must have self-awareness and their environment to practice reflection. These benefits are categorized into two: benefits of reflection for learners and teachers . Reflection helps learners to: •understand what they already know (at individual level).They improve their basic academic skills. •identify what they need to know in order to advance understanding of the subject (at contextual level). They develop a deeper understanding of subject matter •make sense of new information and feedback in the context of their own experience (at relational level) . Students start to relate the subject matter to the non-academic world and to their own experience . •guide choices for further learning (at developmental level). Students develop personally by enhancing their self-awareness , their sense of community , and their sense of their own capacities . They also develop higher level thinking and problem solving skills .

22. Reflection enables a teacher to •be conscious of our potential for bias & discrimination . •make the best use of the knowledge available . •avoid past mistakes . • solve a problem or address an issue in the classroom •to reduce confusion or frustration . Reflectivity is often a problem- or situation-based activity. •maximize our own opportunities for learning . •result feelings of pleasure and self-satisfaction Unless we make conscious & systematic efforts to critique our own practice, we will be unaware of how & when we are being discriminatory not make use of the knowledge base developed by our own profession continue to repeat the same mistakes Our skills will decline rather than develop

23. Possible barriers for reflection •Lack of time •Lack of awareness about the purpose of reflection •Fear of judgement and criticism •being closed to feedback and defensiveness •Fear of professional arrogance

24. Technical Rationality Technical rationality is when professionals make decisions and solve problems through `the application of scientific theory and techniques . Technical rationality holds that professionals possess specific , scientific and standardized knowledge . A first component of this professional knowledge is basic science , which for a `major' profession such as medicine might include such knowledge as anatomy and physiology . From this basic science is derived applied science , which is the knowledge guiding the everyday work of professionals. Finally, in the technical rational model of practice, professionals are held to possess specific skills and attitudes , which are related to the process of providing services to individuals and the community.

25. Chapter Two: Teaching and Reflection The concept of teaching Scholars in the area have come up with many and diverse definitions for eg An activity or action. You can see teaching take place; you need not (and. Some would argue, should not) infer it from learning. A process. It involves a series of actions and decisions of the teacher An interpersonal activity and/or process. Interpersonal refers to the fact that teaching involves interactions between a teacher and one or more students . Most often the interactions are verbal and two-way.

26. Dilemmas, Reflection, and Effectiveness Dilemmas , Reflection , and effectiveness Dilemmas in Classroom Life -------- Reflection and evidence informed practice------- Standard for classroom Effectiveness and career development

27. 2.2.1. Dilemma and challenges in classroom life The complicated nature of educational issue and the practical demands of classroom teaching ensures that a teacher work is never finished. When practicalities , performance standards , personal ideals and wider educational concerns are considered together, tho job of reconciling the numerious requirements and possible confilicts may seem to be overwhelming .

28. Dilemmas are expressed by both exprienced teachers and student teachers . Reflection and evidence informed practice The use of evidence to inform educational practices . 2. Standards for classroom effectivenes and career development- In recent years, standards have been set by governments in many countries to provide a framework for teachers training and further professional development

29. standards for initial teachers trainings set by England for example includes knowledge and understanding Planning , teaching , class management Monitoring , assessment , recording , reporting and accountability Other professional requirements .

30. 2.2.2. Model of teacher effectiveness England framework T hree complementary factors contributing to pupils progress – teaching skills , professional characterstics , and classroom climate . For each of these factors many subsidary skills and elements of knowledge were identified together with various “levels “ of capability for each

31. 2.3 Teachers Thinking and Reflection The "Teacher as Reflective Practitioner " includes References to the professional literature that supports our beliefs and philosophy . It guides programmatic decisions and ensures coherence among program curricula , field experiences , and the unit assessment system . The framework outlines our commitment to integrate technology , demonstrate dedication to professional behaviour , engage in reflective practice , work with diverse populations , and apply pedagogical knowledge to the teaching and learning process

32. Teachers’ thinking Forms of Thinking Associated with Classroom Learning Critical thinking, Creativity/ creative thinking Problem-solving Problem-Solving Somewhere between open-ended, creative thinking and the focused learning of content lie problem solving, the analysis and solution of tasks and situations that are somewhat complex or ambiguous and that pose difficulties, inconsistencies, or obstacles of some kind.

33. Creativity Conditions that promote students creativity and innovation The curriculum must integrate different techniques for creativity and innovation Students feedback must be sought in a variety of ways on a range of issues Students must be encouraged to provide critics of the curriculum . The institutional culture must stress the engagement of all in the learning process, not only students but also teachers. Teachers must be seen as learners and as facilitators of learning rather than just as teachers.

34. Typology of reflection Descriptive reflection: involves the intellectual process of’ setting the problem ;’’ that is, determining what it is that will become the matter for reflection. -encompass any ‘‘puzzling, or troubling, or interesting phenomenon with which the individual is trying to deal’’ 2. Comparative reflection: involves thinking about the matter for reflection from a number of different perspectives seeking to understand others’ points of view, which may be incongruent with one’s own . different interpretations of the same matter are compared

35. 3. Critical Reflection describes the result of carefully considering a problem that has been set in light of multiple perspectives describes it, one ‘‘ may then find a way of integrating, or choosing among, the values at stake in the situation’’ 4. A holistic view of reflection looking at the different dimensions or intellectual processes of reflection from different angles

36. 2.4 Becoming a Reflective Teacher Secondary school teachers should Like and care for children and seek to promote the devlopment of the whole child Be enthusiastic about teaching and commited to the value of the education process Believe in the promotoin of equal opportunities . Have high expectation of all pupils, R espect their social and cultural , ligustic , religious and ethinic background and be commited to raising their educational achievement

37. 2.4.2 Relationships in Teaching: How are we getting on together ? The working consensus- mutual exchange of dignity between the teacher and the children in a class Teachers try to establish rules and understandings of the way they would like things to be in their classrooms. Enhancing classroom climate – includes children confidence and self esteem, developing incorporating classroom and developing through quality cycle time

38. Enhancing professional standards and competence Understanding and mutually respectifull relationships Roger suggests that three basic qualities are required if a warm, person-centred relationship is to be established – acceptance, genuineness, and empathy . If we apply this to teaching it might suggest that A cceptance involves acknowledging and recieving children as they are ; Genuineness implies that such acceptance is real and heart-felt ; whilest Empathy sugests that a teacher is able to appreciate what classroom events feel like to students

39. Developing children’s confidence and self-esteem Children often feel vulnerable in classrooms, particularly because of their teacher’s power to control and evaluate . This affects how children experience school and thier openness to new learning Two aspects in this first there is the positive aspect of how-teachers use their power constructively to encourage , to reinforce appropriate child actions and to enhance self-esteem secondly, however, there is the potential for the destructive use of such power Developing through quality circle time with a regular time, structured by secure, mutually respectfull ground rules, in which they can openly share their perspectives and opinions.

40. 2.4.3 Teachers as lifelong learners 2.4.3.1 Continuous Professional Development (CPD The Ministry of Education designed approaches to enhance the quality of general education. The Education and Training Policy (ETP, 1994) laid the legal framework for teachers’ professional growth . Embedding on ETP, with the main objective of increasing student success , active learning methods , continuous assessment and problem solving approaches were introduced In fact, a program of In-Service CPD was introduced in 2005 (CPD Framework, 2009). Accordingly, all teachers were expected to carry out a CPD program produced at a national level. The newly deployed teachers were expected to work through a two year induction program with the support of mentors.

41. b) Characteristics of CPD In the Ethiopian context, two key words are used in the definition of CPD : ‘Updating and Upgrading’: “ Updating ” is a continuous process in which every professional teacher participates during his/her career as a teacher. It focuses on subject knowledge and pedagogy and improve classroom practice . “Upgrading ” is process by which teachers can choose to participate in additional study outside their regular work as a teacher at appropriate times in their career e.g. convert a certificate to a diploma, a diploma to a first degree or a first degree to a master’s degree

42. c) Qualities of Good Teaching A good teacher has the following qualities Professional Knowledge and Understanding Teaching Skills --plans effectively for student involvement and learning, gives clear learning objectives and uses a wide variety of active learning methods Values and Attitudes - With a great respect for the profession , a good teacher has a desire for learning and self improvement Learning Environment --- Maintaining an attractive and supportive learning environment , a good teacher creates a safe and ordered environment

43. Professional Competencies of Teachers The ''National Framework for Professional Competencies of Teachers’’ (MoE, 1999 EC.) identified three core competencies of an Ethiopian school teacher as presented in the diagram below : Professional Competencies of Teachers Professional Practice (PP) Academic and Professional Knowledge Professional Attributes

44. Professional Attributes

45. B. Academic and Professional Knowledge the following competencies represent the academic and professional knowledge of a teacher: Knowledge of Learning Environment- -----Mastery of Education and Training Policy Knowledge of Students ---Pedagogical Knowledge Knowledge of the Curriculum- ---Knowledge of Subject Matter

46. C. Professional Practice five core professional competencies of teachers Professional Practices Mastery of Education policies and curriculum Community Engagement CPD Engagement Facilitating student learning Assessing and reporting learning outcomes

47. Activities that facilitate professional learning Action Research “Brainstorming” Curriculum meetings Demonstration Lessons Discussions/meetings Joint lesson planning Mentoring Peer observation Personal needs assessment

48. Professional groupings such as CRCs, ZEBs Professional reading and research Role model schools and teachers School based study Sharing/showing best practice Teaching log encouraging reflection Teaching observation and feedback Team teaching Visiting experts Workshops

49. What is good teaching? arisen from consultation with a wide group of stakeholders: individual teachers, Directors and Supervisors, Regional Education Bureaus and other educational professionals including international volunteers and officials at the Ministry of Education.

50. Characteristics of good teacher Has a love of the profession Has a wide and up-to-date subject knowledge Maintains an attractive and supportive learning environment Creates a safe and ordered environment in which all students are able to learn Is reflective about classroom practice and regularly reviews planning. Has a hunger for learning and self-improvement Sets high standards and has high expectations of the students Plans effectively for student involvement and learning Forms excellent working relationships with colleagues Cares for the progress and wellbeing of students

51. Rewards and praises progress and challenges poor performance and behavior Treats all students fairly Facilitates active learning Is aware of the individual progress and learning needs of each student Uses a wide variety of teaching methods and strategies, appropriate to the learning preferences of the students Gives clear learning objectives and provides students with the skills necessary for study and learning Relates subject matter to the everyday lives of the students Uses a wide range of appropriate teaching aids and materials, including locally available resources

52. Encourages participation by the students Encourages a problem-solving attitude in the students Is a competent assessor of student progress and provides effective student feedback to aid their progress Fosters inclusion and equal opportunities within the classroom and institution Planning for CPD - At each level - Individual, group, institution, woreda, region, and national - the process of planning for CPD is similar

53. CPD Principles Managing self and personal skills Delivering Excellent services Finding innovative solutions Embracing change Using resources Providing Direction Developing self and others Working with people Achieving results

54. Different perspectives on good teacher The good reading teacher Quality awareness and self-evaluation Professional ethics