A breif detail of polyphagous pests , their biology, behaviour and management practices

Polyphagous pests are agricultural pests that can feed on a wide variety of plants from different families. They are also known as generalists and have the following characteristics: �
1.Voracious
Polyphagous pests are generalist feeders that can cause significant damage to different crop varieties. 
2.Complex adaptive mechanisms
Polyphagous pests have complex adaptive mechanisms that allow them to respond to a wide range of chemical components and plant protein
Ppt include ;
grasshopper
termite
white grub
cutworm
hairy caterpillar
helicoverpa
mealybug
thrips
mites
aphids

1. Submitted to – Dr. Kiran Rana Dr. Ajay Sharma Presented by MV Smile H-2024-07-M Msc.Ag.Entomology POLYPHAGUS PESTS COURSE- PESTS OF FIELD CROPS (ENT-509)

2. POLYPHAGOUS PEST Polyphagous pests are agricultural pests that can feed on a wide variety of plants from different families. They are also known as generalists and have the following characteristics:  Voracious Polyphagous pests are generalist feeders that can cause significant damage to different crop varieties.  Complex adaptive mechanisms Polyphagous pests have complex adaptive mechanisms that allow them to respond to a wide range of chemical components and plant proteins.    Ecological contrast Polyphagous pests contrast with host-specific herbivores and parasitoids, which are referred to as monophagous.  Ecological understanding Polyphagous species present special problems for ecological understanding and therefore for pest management.  Grasshopper Locust Termite White grub Cutworm Hairy caterpillar Helicoverpa armigera Mealybug Thrips Mites Aphids

3. Rice grasshopper Scientific name - Hieroglpyhus banian Family -Acrididae Order -Orthoptera Host plant - Graminivorous sp. of grasses Nymph feed on diverse grasses like panicum turgidum , cynodon dactylon. Adult move towards cultivated field - sugarcane ,sorghum, rice ,millets Nature of damage- Nymph and Adult Distribution - Pakistan ,Afghanistan, India ,Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, China ,Srilanka Identification - Eggs- E gg chamber , Gonophore Egg pod [15-20] Light yellow – Dark brown Nymph- Light yellow colour , 0.6cm/6mm, 5-6 moulting Adult- male 3.1-3.9 cm , female 4.2 -5.4 cm long Pronotum smooth with four transverse sulci narrowly lined with black Tegmina subhyaline greenish at base Hind tibia blue with black tipped spines Newly emerged hoppers are yellow ornamental with brown spots and patches

4. Lifecycle - Rice grasshopper is univoltine [1gen/yr] Eggs are laid during or towards the end of rainy season Egg diapause occur during the dry season and last for several months on the bunds of paddy Egg hatching occurs with the beginning of monsoon Hopper develop 66-98 days for males and 69-105 days for female Male have 6 instar , sometime 7 and female have 7 instar Adult appear Aug onwards Rice grasshopper most successful in rainfall Excessive soil moisture impair successful hatching and heavy rainfall result in loss of e.g.gs and young grasshopper Oviposition occur on bund surrounded the rice field or at the edge of stands of Cynodon dactylon Young grasshopper first eat grass and then move to other crop.

5. Damage – Sporadic pest with nymph and adult causing severe damage to rice ,millet ,sorghum and maize Leaves completely consumed exposing the midrib and stalk , stem may be cut through causing ears to fall the ground Soft grains are also eaten Most plants don’t produce grains Damage of young grasshopper is hardly visible ,adult feed voraciously Indirectly vector of bacterial blight of rice Xanthomonas oryzae pv oryzae Pathogen does not survive within the insect , maximum damage adult Individual deposit faeces on the leaf surface , fungi colonize the rotting faeces

6. Management Monitoring /regular survey should be conducted to check the abundance Cultural control - most eggs are laid in soil in uncultivated areas or on bunds The uncultivated area should be reduced as possible Mechanical disturbance of soil in which Hieroglyphus eggs have been laid, reduce the emergence of hopper Shallow ploughing after harvest ,destroy the eggs Medium green to pale green sticky trap or approx. insecticide used .Trap is placed on ground in a moist zone during the day , under sunny conditions when temperature 30 degree celcious ,RH -40-60% Biological Control - Hierogylphus banian attacked by parastiod Scelionid wasp In areas of risk the e.g. parasitiod may be released before the grasshopper egg diapause , most preferable when the adult hopper are ovipositing . Hoppers eggs will be parasitized. To be more effective release of parasitiod on the bund of rice field Emergence of nymph should be monitored to determine whether a control measure should be undertaken Blanket parasite should be avoided

7. Entomopathogenic fungi Metarhizium acridum , Beauveria bassiana reduce the grasshopper population Use of nematode Mermis nigrescence Chemical Control- Hopper emerge out 1 week or after 1 week of onset of monsoon , During this period egg infected treated with persistent insecticide kill the emergence hopper Hopper will remain in the areas for about 2 week s This period is utilized for direct application of insecticide Critical Stage –Hopper I-III confined to smaller area are more susceptible to insecticide than later stages Malathion 5% @20kg/ha Fenitrothin dust +BPMC @400 ml/acre

8. Oxya nitidula walker Order -Orthoptera Family- Acrididae Host range –G rasses, rice ,sugarcane ,berseem ,maize, sorghum [mainly kharif crops] Distribution - Andhra Pradesh , Bihar Goa, Karnataka ,Kerala, Madhya Pradesh ,Rajasthan ,Bangladesh ,Bhutan Identification Body colour- green in fresh , yellow in preserved Nymph- shiny green, broad band extended from the base of eye to the wing pads Legs- greenish yellow and full grown nymph 15 – 25 mm Adult similar in body but larger +green wing Lifecycle - Active 10 months [march -december] Lay e.g.gs in the soil instead instead of plants Passes winter in egg stage in soil Overwinter egg hatch in March and emerging nymph feed on berseem , khabbal grass , cynodon and other Moult 6-7 time by June Short horned grasshopper

9. Transformed into winged adult in 60- 64 days , Live for 40-49 days [2 nd gen.] - Adult female lay brown egg in cluster on underside of leaves of various food plants Female may lay 29-143 eggs hatch in 10-24 days Nymphs of 2nd gen during July -August are transform in winged adult 40-57 days Adult of 2nd gen live for 60-71 days Some of the eggs hatch in Oct .Give rise to 3rd generation, but n ymph never complete their development and even die of cold in December. Pest complete 2 generation in a year {if temperature increases rise to 3rd brood } Damage - Both nymphs and adult feed on berseem, maize and other When serious infestation ,the plant may be completely defoliated Management Cut the soil with a spade or rake and plaster the land especially in the rice field and water channel to destroy the egg. pods If huge no. of grasshopper , spray chlorpyriphos 20 EC @500ml/acre Dust the crop with fenulerate 0.4% @25 kg /ha or malathion @20 kg/ha

10. Chrotogonous trachyptreus Orthoptera Acrididae Distribution - In Orient Africa , C.oxyptreus distributed in southern regions , common in field and assume serious pest in certain years Host Range - Damage to germinating cotton in April-May and germinating wheat in November Besides cotton and wheat , feed no. of other crops like berseem ,kharif ,fodders ,barley, sugarcane Identification Eggs laid in groups in soil either whitish yellowish green, brownish dirty brown in colour Early instar of Nymph- whitish colour , Nymphal period 30 -50 days Nymph similar in body form but are smaller in size having wing pads instead of wings Adult stoutly built about 20mm long 8mm broad with a rough brownish appearance 2 longitudinal rows of black dots on underside of white body Surface Grasshopper –

11. Lifecycle Chrotogonous trachyptreus remain active throughout but its activity is considered reduced during winter when only egg and adult are found A female lay 36-434 eggs in 16-46 egg pods at a depth 3-6cm in soil In Summer egg hatches in 19-33 days while in winter hatches in 5 months Develop nymph feed on grasses or soft foods Moult 5-7 times and full fed in 40-70 days Adult long lived [Female for about 3 months and male 1.5 month] 2 complete generation per year Sometime laid egg in October also, hatch giving rise to 3rd partial brood which dies in the nymphal stage during the winter Damage- Nymph and Adult Both nymph and adult feed on leaves by cutting germinating plants of cotton , wheat etc particularly in area adjoining the waste land , often damaged field have to be resown This pest is serious in low rainfall areas

12. Management ; Spray carbaryl 50WP 400g Summer ploughing to destroy the eggs Early sowing of crops Spiders feed on nymph and adult At dry or moist conditions ,apply entomophora grylli

13. Poekilo cerus pictus fabricus Orthoptera Pyrgomorphididae Distribution- Asia tropical, Africa, Bhutan, Egypt,Maladives, Nepal ,Srilanka Host range Mango , crown flower or giant weed , melon, rubber, bush oak ,cotton ,sugarcane wheat, citrus, tomato, cassava ,euphorbia etc Identification Nymph- Brightly coloured pest , display spots of varied colour from yellow , orange to blue and green . The bright and warning colour in nymph as well as adult is explained due to presence of toxic alkaloid present in calotropis sp.they feed on . Adult- Bluish green with yellow marking Head with a broad yellow band within each eye ,antennae bluish black at base rest part black with pale yellow narrow and broad rings Wings pale reddish with fine yellow transverse marking towards tips Painted Grasshopper

14. Lifecycle - Breed once a year during monsoon month Female lay egg pod on host [1 pod= 60-200 eggs] Nymph hatch in september remain around host for feeding by oct Adult found feeding on host plants . At some places it breeds during Sep-Nov Lay eggs which hatch out in April –May the longer period due to prevailing climatic conditions Can be either multivoltine or univoltine depend on the climatic conditions. Self defense on disturbing or picking up the nymph juvenile or semi juvenile immature form eject a sharp and sudden yet as pale milky viscous and bud tasting liquid containing cardiac glucosides to some distance from a dorsal opening between their 2nd abdominal segment repeated several times act as chemical defense . In adult discharge occurring under tegmina makes viscous bubbly head on sides of body Damage- Nymphs feed on leaves causing holes , tears and defoliation, stem damage and flower ,fruit damage Adults cause defoliation, seed damage reducing plant growth

15. Locusts occur in the phases of plague cycle . Locust period of more than 2 consecutive years of wide spread breeding swarm period by damage crop known as plague period followed by 1-8 years of very little locust activity called as recession period again to be followed by another spell of plague Major incursion of locust swarm were noticed during 1 926-31,1940-46,1949-55 1959-1962 No locust plague cycle have been observed after 1962 .However large scale locust upsurge 2019 -276 .No of desert locust swarm 2020 -103 Major damage to agricultural crops Rajasthan , Gujarat state was reported during 2019 for which Govt. has granted compensation to the affected areas Aiming to real life reporting of desert locust infestation android mobile app[e-locust 3m] was implemented during 2020 Towards strengthening of ground control, VLU sprayers with advanced features was used Moreover for the 1st time in India drone technology was employed for control in high sand dumes Locusts

16. Desert locust Schistocerca gregaria Bombay locust Patanga succinata Migratory locust Locusta migratoria manilensis Tree locust Anacardium species Italian locust Callitamus italicus Morocon locust Duciotaurrus moracannus Red locust Nomadacris septemfaciata South America locust Schistocerca paranensias Austrian locust Chorloiceles termenlera Brown locust Locustana pardalina Various locusts found all over the world

17. Schistocerca gregaria Acrididae Orthoptera Normally solitary insect but in conditions they undergo physical and behavioural changes and become gregarious clustering in swarm include billions of individuals These swarm devastate crop over areas of land cause economic hardship Habitat - Area of desert locust cover 30 mil sq km include 64 countries During Recession period when locust occurs in low density ,it inhabit a broad belt of arid and semiarid land stretch from Atlantic Ocean to Northwest India Inhabit dry grasslands and desert from Africa to Punjab Fly upwards to about 1500 m, 100-150 km per day Desert Locust

18. Behaviour- Laying eggs in moist sandy areas Have ability to exist as solitary or as a part of large group [gregarious] or change from solitary to gregarious as serotonin increases When breeding conditions become favourable ,desert locust can quickly reproduce in number and form one or many large groups called bands[hoppers] and swarm[adult ] Feed on over 400 plant species Hoppers depend on weather conditions are found stationary or moving on ground or on plants during the day [basking] and at night , rest on trees[roosting ] Adult desert locust found on ground during early morning or late afternoon or flying during day and rest on trees during night Both hoppers and adult feed during day and night time cause damage to every plant part

19. Identification- Adult male smaller size than adult female Appearance and colour of desert locust also changes Nymph of solitary phase varies according to surrounding vegetation Adult of solitary phase remain greenish grey throughout life Nymph of gregarious phase - yellow or pink with distinct black marking Adult of gregarious phase - pink on emergence gradually turning grey and ultimately yellow when sexually mature Breeding season- 3 season in world [ winter nov-dec, spring jan-June ,summer july-oct] India -1 season –summer while in Pakistan 2 season-spring and summer Biology - Hemimetabolous [3stages egg. –hopper-adult] Eggs laid in pods having 60-80 eggs average Rate of development of eggs depend on soil moisture and temperature Egg hatch into hoppers about 2 weeks after being laid ,range 10-65 days No development take place below 15 degree celcious Incubation 1-12 days ,temperature 32.35 degree celcious

20. Hoppers after incubation is complete, egg hatch and nymph emerges 5 instar in gregarious and 5-6 instar in solitary , in each instar there is a change in growth and colour characteristics Ist instar newly hatch white but turn black in 1-2 hour 2nd instar head is larger pale colour is conspicuous 3rd instar have 2 pair of wing bud project on each side of thorax 4th instar conspicuously black and yellow colour 5th instar bright yellow colour with black pattern 5th instar moult into adult stage, This change called fledging and the adult called fledgling or immature adult means they are sexually immature, After 3-4 weeks adult mature and colour changes to bright yellow Rate of development of hoppers depend on temperature Control – India launches scheme Locust control and research , responsible for control of desert locust being implemented through organisation known as locust warning organisation established in 1939 , later algamated with DPPQS in 1946 Locust warning organisation responsible to maintain and control the locust situation in SDA scheduled desert areas mainly in the states of Punjab, Haryana under the survey , surveillance ,monitoring control operation when required

21. Invasion- Srilanka ,Malaysia ,India- areas confined extended from Gujrat to North Tamil Naidu in South and in other certain areas reached as far Bengal Bombay locust only exhibited swarming behaviour in India Most recent plague last from 1901 to 1908, last record 0f swarm in 1927 Identification - Newly hatch nymph green with black spot After they have grown and shed their skin several time they become variable in colour , some are plain green other either orange brown or green with a black spot at a base of each wing pad Immature adults are first pale brown with a yellowish dorsal stripe and a dark coloured prothorax with 2 lateral pale band After 6-8weeks the colour become darker changes Adult small in size than desert locust It has acute ventral tubercle conspicuous stripe laterally on pronotum and elytra BOMBAY LOCUST- Patanga succinata

22. Lifecycle - In desert area of India adult locust s. found in autumn , winter spring but none during summer Adult fledge during sep-October undergoes diapause and do not mature till June July next year. Only 1 brood per year During July-Aug nymphal period 34 -56 days 7-9 instar Damage - Both adult and hoppers feed on wild grasses but locust heavy damage to crop. Do not congregating[gather] to form bands but remain scattered Management- Crop rotation –Break the lifecycle by rotating crops Soil preparation- Till soil to disrupt egg. laying sites Irrigation management- Optimize water usage to reduce moisture Insecticides- Use selective , environmentally friendly insecticides e.g.. pyrethroids, neem oil Application timing- Target nymphs during early instars

23. In India swarms was observed in 1876 in Madras,TamilNaidu and in June 1954 Mysore Appearance almost similar to Bombay locust , distinguish feature of migratory locust from Bombay locust is that having ventral tubercle and eye stripe are absent Hind wings are hyaline in the young forms but become yellow subsequently Lifecycle Breed during spring in Baluchistan ,Pakistan resultant adult migrate into desert area of India as individual They breed there , during summer and again in sep-october Egg hatch in 12 days [July-aug] Hopper moult 5-6 time during nypmhal period 13 days .due to unfavourable environment overlapping generation of locust are met with Adult of this species do not under go diapause as Bombay locust do Damage- During swarming period both adult and hoppers feed on all vegetation destroying all crops , may cause famine in areas of its abundance Managemen t Ploughing and digging and harrowing of places where e.g.gs are laid on large scale Collecting hoppers with catching machine , killing them with flame throwers Natural enemies ; rose coloured and common starling [Pastor roseus and sturnus vulgarius ] ,blister beetle ground beetle flesh flies Migratory Locust – Locusta migratoria

24. Termites are social insects living in colonies Each colony contain specialised castes or type of individuals such as reproductive , workers and soldiers that perform different jobs Nature of Damage - Make mounds in soil Starts damage at starting level More loss in dry fields More damage at night Undecomposed FYM Termite

25. Body Structure : Termites have a soft, elongated body divided into three main parts: the head, thorax, and abdomen. Their bodies are typically creamy white or light brown. Antennas : Unlike ants, which have elbowed antennae, termites possess straight, bead-like antennas. Wings : During their reproductive phase, termites have two pairs of wings that are equal in size and shape, unlike ants, whose hind wings are smaller. Mandibles : Termites have strong, biting mandibles (jaws) that are used for chewing wood and other materials. Social Structure : Termites live in colonies with a distinct caste system, including workers, soldiers, and reproductive individuals (kings and queens).

26. Casts - Reproductive caste reproductive king and queen can be winged(primary) or wingless (secondary) Lifespan of a queen can be as much as 30 years Worker s Sterile , wingless and blind males and females They are soft bodied creamy white wingless and make up the largest number of population within a colony The workers and immatures are the only caste the damage wood and other materials Workers build mud tubes and tunnels forage for and obtain food to feed themselves and the entire colon construct and maintain nests and care for eggs and young Workers life span is one to five years Fungal garden Soldiers Like workers they are sterile wingless and blind males and females They defend their colony from intruders They cant feed themselves ,they have to be fed by workers Usually the number of the soldiers is much smaller then the number of workers Their lifespan is one to two years

27. Damage is mostly done by adults of worker caste . Termites damage crop soon after sowing and near maturity. The damaged plants dry up completely and are easily pulled out. Infestation found heavy in those fields where undecomposed farmyard manure is applied before sowing.

28. Life cycle- Egg - nuptial flight light yellow kidney shaped ½ mm size 2 to 90days Nymph -white yellow colour 1mm ,4 -10 moulting[ 6 to 13 months] Adults - 1to 2 months [after copulation] Two forms – Complementary forms Colonising forms Management- Cultural control : Locate and destroy the termites nests and termatarium. Plough field to destroy nests, runways and tunnels to expose them to predators(birds, frogs, lizards etc) Remove plant residues and other debris and moist and decaying wood. Crop rotation with legume crops. Care should be taken not to use raw farmyard manure

29. Biological control: The use of entomopathogenic (insect-attacking) fungi such as and Metarhizium anisophilae are reportedly effective against adult termites. Chemical control: Fipronil 0.3% GR Seed treatment with Thiamethoxam 30% FS. Soil inoculation - Gamma BHC 1,3%dust 50kg/ha Heptacholore 5% dust 50kg/ha Crop Gamma BHC 20 EC 3.75 ltr/ha Heptacholore 20EC 3.75 ltr /ha Chlorpyriphos 20EC 3.ltr/ha Seed treatment with chlorpyriphos 20EC

30. Holotricha consanguinea Holotricha serrata / Anomalia polita White grub are the immature forms of scrab beetle well known as may /June beetle /masked chafer , Japanese beetle Host range - white grub feed on roots of very wide range of plant , naipier grass ,maize ,tobacco, pineapple ,sunhemp ,roses , strawberry other Adult beetle eat the foliage of deciduous and coniferous tree White grub white to cream colour C shaped with brown sclerotized head transparent tail section All white grub have 3 larval developmental stages Beetle emerge during monsoon , pupate in cell in April -May Pest passes winter as grub in earthen cell Each female lay eggs 4-40 e.g.gs , laid singly in instalments in soil White Grub

31. Damage - Both grub and adult Grub feed on underground plant part of various crops Potato grown during summer as rainfed is prone to attack by these grub Older 2nd instar and 3rd instar grub are more damaging Attack of white grub remain unnoticed due to concealed habits but during harvesting large no. of tubers are affected result in 80% loss. White grub feed on foliage of many tree , serious pest of turf grass Lifecycle - Adult beetle lay egg in soil , egg hatch into larva/grubs In Oct-Nov when soil temperature begin to cool , grub cease feeding and move to the deeper layer into the soil . Where they lie dormant in winter They return to the root zone and resume feeding early the following spring When mature typically in late may, grub again move deeper in soil to form an earthen cell transform into pupae Adult emerge a few week later in June July ,complete 1 year cycle Adult emerge from late summer to early monsoon and fly to nearby trees Adult beetles prefer to feed on leaves of deciduous tree , later mated female beetle drop or glide to the ground and deposit e.g.gs in the soil

32. Eggs hatch in few weeks and the larvae feed on the roots of near by host plants just a few inch below the soil line. As winter approaches, soil temperature drop the true white grub burrow deep into the ground below the frost line and overwinter as larvae in earthen cell Most of white grub damage occur in 2nd year of true grub life cycle when these grub move up to feed voraciously on plant root During true grub final winter, they overwinter as adult in earthen cell where they pupate in late summer or fall White grub lifecycle 3-4 years last, annual Japanese beetle white grub produce 1gen year Management Do summer ploughing to expose pupae, adult Install light traps between 7 pm to 9 am Do presowing soil of entomogenus fungi Metarhizinium anisophae Handpick adult in morning and handpick 3rd instar grub in July -Aug Drench with Chlorpyriphos 4ml/ha Spray host tree with chlorpyriphos 0.04% or quinalphos 0.1% immediately after emergence

33. Several species of Noctuid moth- common habit of biting through stem of seedling at ground level or eating the leaves or entire seedling 2 genera found in India , Agrotis and Euxuva Agrotis ipsilon,segetum, bioconia , Orchropleura flammatra and other Agrotis ipsilon Noctudiae , Lepidoptera Distribution -Worldwide, Newzealand, Australia,north Africa, Srilanka, punjab , West Bengal in the east , Indonesia Host range - major pest of potato, polyphagous , gram tobacco, peas, wheat,lentil,mustard,cucurbit,bhang,vegetable seedling and several weeds Identification - Slightest yellowish caterpillar on emerging 1.5mm long with shiny black head and a black shield on prothorax Full grown larvae 42-45 mm long, dark or dark brown with plump greasy body Pupation take place inside bright red colored cocoon Adult moth measure 25mm from head to the tip of abdomen and looks darker or blackish with greyish patches on the back and dark streaks on forewing Cut worm /Surface C aterpillar Greasy Cutworm

34. Lifecycle - Active during Oct-April , Cold weather pest Probably migrate to mountain for further breeding during summer Moth appear in plains in October and come out dusk and fly about until darkness sets in . Oviposition at night Lay white dome shaped egg clusters about 30 each either on the underside of leaves of food plants or in soil Single female lay 199-344 eggs, oviposition continue from 5-11 days Egg stage last from 2 days in summer and in winter 8-13 days Newly hatched larvae feed on egg shell and move like semi looper, larval stage last from 30 -34 days in Feb-April 3rd and later stages often become cannibalistic thus adopt solitary habit Caterpillar found throught the winters and become active at night when they cut off, fell the young plant During the day hide in cracks and cervices in soil , when make earthen chambers in soil ,pupate [pupal stage varies from 10 days in summer and 30 days in winter] Moth emerge at night Lifecycle complete in 48-77 days, 3gen year

35. Nature of damage - C aterpillar Young larvae feed on epidermis of leaves as they grow their habit change During the day time, live in cracks and holes in the ground and come out night and fell the plant by cutting their stem either below the surface or above the ground . Sometime seen to drag the plants into holes Replanting required Managemen t -Flooding the nurseries Digging in early winter expose the hibernating larvae to frost and cause decline of their population Handpicking and destruction of early gregarious caterpillar Before one week of sowing, apply  Bacillus thuringenesis  + Rice husk in main field to control cutworm. Release  Trichogramma  parasitoid weekly once for 3 weeks continuously to control cutworm e.g.gs. Use Steinernema carpocapsae entomopathogenic nematode or Beauveria bassiana fungi at emergenge of cutworm. Proper weeding of nursery beds with chlorpyriphos 0.1% Mixing of insecticidal dust like malathion

36. kingdom Metazoa phylum arthropoda subphylum uniramia class insecta order lepidoptera family noctuidae genus Helicoverpa species H.armigera HELICOVERPA ARMIGERA Introduction- most polyphagous and cosmopolitan pest Larvae attack more than 60 species of cultivated and wild host plants like cotton, maize,legume,tomato,okra,ornamental plants Symptoms of damage Young larvae feed on tender foliage Mature larvae bore circular holes on fruits Thrust only a part of its body into fruit and eat the inner content

37. Identification- Eggs - spherical eggs are yellowish white colour when laid but changer to dark brown as they mature . Singly laid Diameter 0.4mm to 0.6mm Close to hatching- black head capsule is visible through the egg shell Larvae shows colour variation from greenish to brown It has dark brown grey lines on the body with lateral white lines and also has dark band Pupa when the last larval instars are about to become pupae, the larvae will burrow and enter the soil to pupate Pupae are 14-18mm length brown smooth surface and round anterior and posterior Not all pupae will develop into adults without pupal diapause , pupal diapause varies and highly dependent on temperature and photoperiod Adult; Female light pale brownish yellow snout moth Male- Pale greenish moth V shaped speck Forewing olive green to pale brown and a dark brown circular spots in the centre Hindwing pale smoky white with a dark broad blackish outer margins

38. Management Practices Physical method- collection and destruction of damaged fruits and grown up caterpillars Removal of alternate hosts, like Datura,Traidax,Gynandropsis Cultural method- Avoid monocropping , Intercropping with onion, black gram, green gram ,cowpea , soyabean ,maize ,clusterbean Grow castor in one or two lines/ borders Optimal use of N-fertilizers Judicial water management Grow simultaneously 40 days old American tall marigold and 25 days old tomato seedling at 1:16 rows Grow less susceptible genotypes Rupali,Roma,Pusa,Red plum Mechanical method -Setup pheromone trap with helilure@15/ha and change once in 15 days Setup of light traps 125W to monitor insect activity

39. INSECTICIDE FORMULATION DOSE Azadirachtin 1.0%EC 2.0mil/lt Indoxacarb 14.5%SC 8ml/10lt Flubendiamide 20WG 5g/10lt Novaluran 10%EC 7.5ml/10lt Phasalone 35%EC 13ml/10lt Quinalphos 25%EC 1.0ml/lt Biological method Spray HaNPV@500 LE/ha along with cotton seed oil300g/ha to kill larvae Three releases of T.chilonis @15 days interval from 45 DAS @6.25cc/ha Release Chelonus blackburni [egg larval parasitoid] Two release of Chrysoperla carnea @1lakh grubs/ha -6,13,14th weeks after sowing Encorage activity of parasitoid Eucelatoria bryani,Campoletes,Chelonus etc Spray 5%NSKEor neem oil 1% Chemical control-

40. Amsacta moorei Erebidae Lepidoptera Host- Polyphagous ,sunhemp jowar maize, guava ,cowpea, seasamum Identification - Full grown caterpillar 25mm colour varies from reddish amber to olive green Body covered with numerous long hairs arising from fleshy tubercles Moth stoutly built have white wing with black spot Outer margin of forewing, anterior margin of thorax and entire abdomen are scarlet red , black band and dots on abdomen Damage - Young caterpillar eat growing points of plants , older one have no discrimination –feed voraciously on all vegetation result in disaster Field to field devasted by moving caterpillar result in complete failure of kharif crop Red hairy caterpillar

41. Lifecycle - Active mid June to end of August Pass rest of year in pupal stage in soil Nocturnal , lay light yellow spherical eggs in cluster 700-850 each on underside of leaves Single female 1500 egg hatch in 2-3 days Young caterpillar feed gregarious and grow older, they move in bands and destroying field of various kharif crops 6 stages, complete development in 15-23 days Enter in soil as they shed hair ,make earthen cocoon 25cm depth pupate for many months till next year emerge from cocoon, Moth appear in 1st shower of monsoon More than 1 gen per year Management Moth strongly attract to artificial light . Light trap of electric or peteromax lamps placed just above a broad flat basin full of kerosenized water should be put on night following 1st shower of monsoon and continued throughout period of emergence for about 1 month Young larvae are gregarious , they can destroyed by putting infested plant and burying them underground Grown up later may be destroyed by crushing them under feet or picking and putting into kerosene water Pupae may be collected at time of summer ploughing are to be destroyed Spray 1.25 l of quilphos 25 EC ,250-500ml of dichlrophos 100EC in 500 ml of water

42. Spilosoma obliqua Erebidae Lepidoptera Sporadic pest Damage Caterpillar , eat leaves and soft portion of stem and branch Severe infestation plant may be defoliated Identification -Caterpillar 40-45mm profusely covered with long greyish hair Moth measure 50mm across the wing spread Head,thorax and underside of body is dull yellow Antennae and eyes are black Lifecycle- Breed in March-April and again in July-Nov Passes hottest part of summer[may-june] and winter[dec-feb] in pupal stage amidst plant debris Adult emerge from overwintering larvae in march Moth nocturnal, mate at night Female 412-1241 eggs Light green, spherical e.g. in cluster on underside of leaves Bihary caterpillar

43. Egg hatch in 8-13 days During 1st 2 stages, tiny caterpillar feed gregariously but then disperse widely in search of food 7 stages in 4-8 weeks Full grown larvae spin a loose silken coccon in which pupation take place in plant debris or in soil Pupal stage 1-2 week in active period, moth live for about a week Lifecycle 6-12 weeks Management - full grown caterpillar difficult to kill, very high doses of pesticides needed Deep summer ploughing Avoid pre monsoon sowing Use of optimum seed rate Adequate plant spacing Collect and destroy infested plant part , egg mass and young larvae Field sanitation- remove infested plant part Done at least in 10 days and bury them in compost pit Light trap -200w mercury vapour lamp/ha to catch the adult of some nocturnal pest E.g. BHC-positively phototrophic Spray chlorpyriphos 20EC @1.5l/ha

44. Mealybugs are cottony in appearance, small oval, soft-bodied sucking insects . Adult mealybugs are found on leaves, stems and roots and are covered with white mealy wax, which makes them difficult to eradicate. They form colonies on stems and leaves developing into dense, waxy, white masses. They suck a large amount of sap from leaves and stems depriving plants of essential nutrients. The excess sap is excreted as honeydew which attracts ants and develops sooty mould inhibiting the plant's photosynthetic ability. Warm temperature favours their growth THE HOST RANGE of the mealybugs includes cotton ,sugarcane, rice ,wheat, millet maize,grape, fig, date palm, apple, avocado, banana, citrus, okra, tomato, brinjal, cotton and a few ornamentals. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis is a typical host which is frequently attacked by Maconellicoccus hirsutus . Host records of M. hirsutus extend to 76 families and over 200 genera, including beans, Chrysanthemum, citrus, coconut, coffee, cotton, corn, Croton, cucumber, grape, guava, Hibiscus, peanuts, pumpkin, rose, and mulberry. Reason for its recent outbreak is due to climate change and vast host range. Mealy bugs

45. Identification- Mealybugs are white to pink in colour . In case of M. hirsutus, eggs as well as crawlers are pink in colour. Immature females and newly matured females are greyish-pink which are dusted with mealy white wax. Adult females are soft-bodied, elongate oval and slightly flattened. Females are provided with 9-segmented antennae, anal lobe bars, numerous dorsal oral rim ducts on all parts of the body except the limbs and long, flagellate dorsal setae. Males have one pair of very simple wings, long antennae and white wax filaments projecting posteriorly with no mouthparts . Some important species Striped mealybug (Ferrisia virgata) Longtail mealybug (Pseudococcus longispinus) Citrus mealybug (Planococcus citri) Solanum mealybug (Phenacoccus solani) Pink sugarcane mealybug (Saccharicoccus sacchari) Pineapple mealybug (Dysmicoccus brevipes) Pink mealybug (Maconellicoccus hirsutus; synonyms - Phenacoccus hirsutus) Solenopsis mealybug (Phenacoccus solenopsis) Mango Mealybug (Drosicha mangiferae)

46. BIOLOGY Reproduction is mostly parthenogenetic but some species such as M. hirsutus are biparental. The mature female lays eggs in an egg sac of white wax, usually in clusters on the twigs, branches, or bark of the host plant but sometimes on the plant's leaves and terminal ends. Each egg sac may contain as many as 600 eggs, majority of which are female resulting in explosive outbreak Some species such as D. brevipes are ovoviviparous i.e. the eggs hatch within the female and give births live larvae. Egg development takes between 3 and 9 days. Eggs hatch into nymphs called crawlers and are very mobile. In appearance, nymphs of both sexes resemble female adults. There are three nymphal instars in female and four in males which lasts for 22-25 days. The last instar of the male is an inactive stage with wing buds within a cocoon of mealy wax. Individual mealybugs may take as long as 30 days to grow through all the nymphal stages under normal conditions There may be as many as 15 generations per year. The species survives cold conditions as e.g.gs or other stages, both on the host plant and in the soil. In warm climates, the insects stay active and reproduce round the year.

47. Non-infected plants can be infected from infected plants as juvenile mealybugs can crawl from an infected plant to another plant. Small 'crawlers' are readily transported by wind, rain, birds, ants, clothing and vehicle and may settle in cracks and crevices, usually on new plants. The wax, which sticks to each egg, also facilitates passive transport by equipment, animals or people. The female mealybug is not active and unable to fly. In fact, humans are great friends helping in transport of mealybugs. As the infested plant back the colonies of mealybugs migrate from shoot tips to twigs, branches and finally down the trunk. Long distance movement is most probable through carrying infested planting material and fresh fruit and vegetables across the country or even from one end of a farm to the other. Ants, attracted by the honeydew, have been seen carrying mealybugs from plant to plant. Damage –Direct and indirect Plant growth , wilting,yellowing of leaves, leaf drop and possibly plant death Plants under irrigation or fertilization affect xylem and phloem Cotton mealy bug in 2005,Sindh punjab They secrete honey dew Promote development of fungus,creating a blacksooty mass Honeydew flicked away by mealy bug, mealy bugs are carrier for various viral disease and secrete toxins

48. Physical control Water can cause mealy bugs flushing from leaves providing fast but temporary relief Colonies of mealy bugs can crush and rub off by cloth Removal of infested plants Cleaning by cotton dipped into alcohol Hot water is also an effective to get rid of mealybugs as it doesn’t alter quality of fruit Biological control Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Australian lady bird beetle Mealybug destroyer Indian butterfly feed on root mealy bug

49. Chemical control- They repel water soluble and polar insecticide due to their waxy coating .Controlled by some neonictinoids[dinotefuran] and systemic insecticides [Azardirachtin] or drenches Can be applied in many ways Population above ground can de controlled by foliage cover spray Insecticide solutions applied to soil cause its penetration to root zone to control species underground Applied through irrigation Smearing of insecticides on stem and branches can be also be done Ethyl bromide fumigation can also be done Name Class Mode of action Acephate Organophosphate Acetylchloline esterase inhibitor Dinotefuran Neonicotinoids Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor diruptor Befenthrin Pyrethroid Prolong opening of sodium channels Buprofezin I GR Chitin synthesis INSECTICIDE

50. Phylum Arthopoda Class Insecta Order Hemiptera Superfamily Aleyrododidea Family Aleryrodidae WHITEFLY Why they are called whiteflies ? White appearance of adults due to wax on the body and wings Identification- Eggs . Small, elliptical, smooth surfaced, yellow to tan, eggs are laid on surface, on undersurface, in irregular, waxy lines, forming a spiral (hence the common name). Eggs take about seven days to hatch. Larva . There are four larval stages that take about 30 days to complete. The first instar is mobile, crawling a short distance from the egg before settling to feed. The following 3 instars are immobile, appearing as a small, flattened, oval scale on the leaf surface . The final instar stops feeding and is referred to as the Pupa . It is colourless or yellowish, nearly oval, flat and about 1 mm long and 0.75 mm wide. They secrete waxy threads on their back which are about 12-15 mm long and provide a protective cover. Adult. The adults are white and quite small, about 2-3 mm in length and coated with a fine dust-like waxy secretion . The eyes are dark reddish-brown, wings are transparent with white powder covering . Females lay e.g.gs throughout their lifetime

51. Damage – Both immature and adult whiteflies feed by pierching the undersurface of leaves and sucking the plant sap The nymphs which feed in one position for 2-4 weeks , may cause yellow spots which are conspicuous on the upper leaf surface. On older leaves the spots develop a brown centre. Some sweet potato cultivars respond to the damage by producing purple pigments, resulting in purple spots with a brown centre Feeding by adults usually cause no visible lesion, but high whitefly population may cause yellowing of infested leaves and may stunt the growth Whitefly produce honeydew, sugary secretion , making the leaf surface sticky . In humid conditions sooty mold may develop on the leaf surface reducing its capacity to trap light required for plants normal growth Also a transmitter of viruses of mild mottle virus, leaf curl and many more

52. Lifecycle - adult female lays eggs which are provided with a stalk or pedicel at one end with which they are attached to the leaf. The first instar is called crawler. The legs and antennae of the second, third, and fourth nymphal instars are atrophied and these instars are sessile. The adult develop within the quiescent fourth instars. Biology and ecology Whiteflies have six life stages ; the egg, four nymphal stages, and the adult . The development time of this insect from egg to adult depends upon temperature. Temperature range of 10 to 32degree celcious favours development. Low temperatures increase egg mortality . The pest is more common during the dry season. The female may lay 100 or more e.g.gs on the back or undersurface of the leaves. They hatch after about seven days. The first instar nymphs emerge and feed. After the first moult they become fixed to one place of the leaf and develop into pale green or creamy flattened scale-like bodies. The third moult gives rise to the "puparium" which is less flat than the previous nymphal stages and the red eyes of can be seen through the integument. Development of one generation takes 2 to 4 weeks depending on temperature.In both species, reproduction can occur without mating (parthenogenesis). Unmated females produce only male

53. Control – whitefly control is complex and difficult as whiteflies rapidly develop resistance to chemical pesticides Cultural control: Clipping off infested leaves. Avoid water stress and water logged conditions. Avoid planting in low land areas. Mechanical control: Detrashing the puparia bearing leaves and immediately disposing by burning or burying to prevent emergence of adult whiteflies. Use yellow sticky trap. Biological Control: Conserve and augment the natural enemies such as Encarsia sp, dragonfly, spider, praying mantis Natural enemies were introduced to control whiteflies. The parasitic wasp Encarsia formosa is an effective biological control against both A.disperses and B.tabaci Pesticides used for whitefly control usually contain Neonicotinoid compound as active ingredients-Clothianidin ,Dinotefuran, Imidacloprid, Thiamethxam Several predators and parasitoids may be effective in controlling whitefly infestation, including green lacewings,ladybirds,minute pirate bugs, big eyed bugs, damsel bugs and phytoselid mites Collateral host plants . Nasturtium's are thought to provide a defense to tomatoes Zinnias, attract predators that consume whiteflies including hummingbirds and predatory wasps and flies

54. Thrips are economically important since some species transmit  plant  viruses. Feeding by thrips may reduce seed production, disfigure flowers and fruits, and damage plant leaves. In warm areas a number of them cause plant galls and leaf rolls. On the other hand, a few species prey on destructive mites and scale insects, and a number may aid in the pollination of flowers. Thrips species There are several species of thrips that are important pests in horticulture and agriculture worldwide. Some of the most common species include: Western flower thrips ( Frankliniella occidentalis ) : This is a polyphagous species that feeds on a wide range of crops, including fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants. It is one of the most damaging thrips species in many parts of the world Onion thrips ( Thrips tabaci ): This species is a major pest of onions and other allium crops Chilli trips ( Scirtothrips dorsalis ): This is a polyphagous species and is a pest in berries and many other crops Citrus thrips ( Scirtothrips aurantii ): This species is a major pest of citrus crops Rose thrips ( Thrips fuscipennis ): This species is a major pest of strawberry, roses and other ornamental plants Impatiens thrips ( Echinothrips americanus ): This is a pest of pepper crops Japanese flower thrips ( Thrips setosus ): This species is a major pest in ornamental crops       THRIPS

55. Identification- Size and shape - T hrips are 1.5 to 3 mm (0.06 to 0.12 inch) in length, b ecause of their minute size, they can enter the smallest flowers or tiniest cracks in stems and bark. Their  wings , when present, are narrow and  fringed , hence the name Thysanoptera (Latin for “fringed wings”). Despite their Lilliputian size, thrips are often elaborately ornamented with hexagonal designs, spines, or body flanges. The bristles (setae) of some are expanded at the tips or elongated, or the body wall may be expanded into prongs or forks. Color:  Thrips can be a variety of colors, depending on the species. Most of them are brown or black. Some species may have distinctive markings or stripes on their bodies or wings Adults have extensible bladders on the tarsi of the legs, as suggested by the common name bladder feet.  Movement:  Thrips are strong fliers and can move quickly between plants. They are often found on the undersides of leaves, where they feed on plant sap . Recognize thrips larvae Thrips larvae are usually pale or transparent in color and have a similar shape to the adults but are smaller and lack wings. One of the most distinctive features of thrips larvae is their characteristic " frass ," which is a type of waste material that they produce as they feed. The frass looks like small black or white specks on the surface of leaves or flowers and can sometimes be mistaken for fungal spores or other types of debris . Damage:  Thrips can cause damage to leaves, flowers, and fruits by feeding on plant tissue. This can result in distorted growth, discoloration. Thrips cause damage to the plant by piercing the cells of the surface tissue and sucking out their contents, causing the surrounding tissue to die . The resulting silver-grey patches on leaves and the black dots of their excreta indicate their presence in the crop . At a later stage, the empty cells become desiccated and the adjacent cells turn brown. The vigour of the plant is also reduced by loss of chlorophyll. With a serious infestation ,the leaves themselves can shrivel, and there can be varying levels of fruit damage depending on the species of thrips and their population density. In ornamentals, flowers can be seriously damaged, while leaves are often damaged and become misshapen. Thrips are also responsible for the transmission of viruses, the best known of which is tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV), mainly transmitted by  F. occidentalis.

56. Lifecycle-Thrips develop through six stages: the egg, two larval instars, a pre-pupa and a pupal instar , and finally the adult insect . The eggs are elongated, oval to kidney-shaped and have a white or yellow shell. Before a female deposits an egg, she makes an opening in the plant tissue. The eggs are laid in leaves, flower petals and in the soft parts of stalks . On the leaves of sweet pepper, for instance, these egg-laying sites are recognizable as wart-like growths, whereas on most other crops the egg deposition sites cannot be seen. E gg stage is followed by two larval stages, during which all the immature feeding occurs. Ordinarily, eggs of the Terebrantia are inserted into living plant tissue in a slit prepared by the saw-like ovipositor of the female. By contrast, e.g.gs of the Tubulifera, whose females have no ovipositor, are pushed under bark, in or between flowers and leaf sheaths, or are glued onto leaf or bark surfaces. Eggs take from 3 to 16 days to hatch according to the species and conditions. Although similar in overall form to the adult, the larvae of thrips are smaller and simpler in structure . The long anal bristles characteristic of larvae may hold droplets of exc r eted liquid that are deposited on leaf surfaces. The presence of dark-coloured spots of excreta  adjacent  to light-colored feeding zones are some typical signs of thrips damage.

57. The first larval stage is short, lasting only a few days. The second may last up to many months when aestivation or hibernation occurs. In the Terebrantia the second stage larva transforms into a prepupa, whereas in the Tubulifera an abbreviated form, the primipupa, is part of the sequence of development and is followed by the prepupal form. The prepupal stage lasts only a few hours to several days and gives rise to the final pupal stage, which may be of short or long duration. Pupation takes place in the ground in earthen cells (in the case of many advanced Terebrantia), in cocoons (in many primitive Terebrantia), or on a host plant (in many advanced Terebrantia and the Tubulifera). Some thrips, for example, the pear thrips, have only one generation per year, whereas others such as the onion thrips may have several generations each growing season. Larvae and adults feed on all aerial parts of the plant and are fairly mobile. Immediately after hatching, the larvae begin to feed on plant tissue on the underside of the leaf. The larvae are smaller than the adults and lack wings. Depending on the species, thrips either pupate on the plant or in the ground. The pre-pupal and pupal instars are recognizable by their developing wing buds. Compared with the pre-pupa, the pupa has longer, more developed wing buds and longer antennae that are curved back over the head. The pre-pupal and pupal instars do not feed and only move if disturbed. In adults, both pairs of wings are fully developed. Only at this stage can the particular species of thrips be identified based on form, colour and pattern The development of thrips is unusual in that, although they belong to a group of insects that usually undergo simple metamorphosis, they have pupae resembling those that occur in insects that undergo complete metamorphosis. There may be one, two, or three pupal stages in which no feeding occurs. The primary method of reproduction among thrips is by bisexual union. The males frequently are shorter lived than females, and mating often takes place early in the life span, when the adults first appear. Reproduction by unfertilized e.g.gs (parthenogenesis) has been known to occur occasionally

58. MANAGEMENT Preventing a thrips infestation in your greenhouse crop involves several strategies. Firstly, it's important to maintain good  plant health  through regular irrigation and fertilization , as stressed plants are more susceptible to thrips infestations . Additionally, it's important to make sure thrips cannot enter your greenhouse by using hygienic measures, such as regularly cleaning and disinfecting greenhouse surfaces and equipment. Sanitation Crop rotation Pruning of infested plants It's also important to monitor your crop regularly for signs of thrips, so you can detect an infestation early and take action. This can be done by using sticky traps, which are attractive to thrips and can help trap them before they can cause damage Use of neem oil-disrupt thrips hormonal system Natural enemies like lady bird beetle, lacewings Predatory mites e.g. Amblyseius Pyrethroids- Broad spectrum insecticides- Imidacloprid, clothianidin You can also scout the plants visually to look for signs of thrips, such as distorted leaves or silvery streaks.

59. Mites are among one of the most diverse and successful of all invertebrate groups They are small in size and often go unnoticed Cause loss to stored product Also damage to beneficial insects like honeybee

60. CHARACTERISTICS- Found in variety of habitat Aquatic- lakes or pond Terrestrial- plant,mammals,birds and insects or they live freely Body is divided into 2 regions- Cephalothorax Abdomen Sucking mouth parts Lack of antennae and wings Eight legs [except larvae which have 6] Feed on plant sap Complete lifecycle 1-4 weeks , depending on temperature Mite damage Direct feeding mites pierce plant cells, sucking sap Indirect damage mites transmit plant viruses reduce plant growth

61. Female mites lay eggs on leaves or stems Eggs hatches into larvae-6 legged Adult Protonymph molt into deutonymph Larvae molt into protonymph

62. Management Cultural control Irrigation management Pruning Sanitation Biological control Natural predators- lady beetles, lacewings , predatory mites Parasitic wasp Phytoseiulus persimilis Chemical control Neem oil Pyrethroids Miticides e.g. dicofol, propagite Mite resistant coating on plants

63. Host range: Wide host range- cereals, pulses, vegetables, oilseeds, fruits, flower crops etc. These insects are soft bodied green, inert(barely move), louse like. The nymphs and females look alike, except females are larger. APHIDS Wheat aphid Macrosiphum granarium Potato aphid/ green peach aphid Myzus persicae Pea aphid Acrythosiphum pisum Mustard aphid Lipahis erysimi Cotton aphid Aphis gossypi Sugarcane wooly aphid Ceratovacuna lanigera Apple wooly aphid Eriosoma lanigera Tea aphid Ceylonia theoecola Corn aphid Rhopalosiphum.maidis Sugarcane aphid: Tetraneura javensis Okra aphid Aphis malvae Rose aphid Microsiphum rosae

64. BIOLOGY In non-migratory aphids, the wingless, parthenogenetic Viviparous females continue to breed throughout the year. Obligatory migratory aphid consists of the following stages: Eggs, fundatrices, fundatrigeniae, migrants, alienicolae, sexuparae and sexuales. Eggs are laid in the primary host by sexuales. Fundatrices are the first wingless female aphids produced from eggs on the primary host. Fundatrigeniae are the parthenogenic female offsprings of the fundatrices . Fundatrigeniae after 2-3 generations change to migrants which are winged, parthenogenetic, viviparous females which fly to secondary host . Alienicolae are the apterous and winged parthenogenetic viviparous females produced by migrants. Alienicolae after some generation produce sexuparae which are also apterous and winged parthenogenetic viviparous females. Sexuparae migrate to primary host to produce sexuales which are apterous and winged oviparous females. EGGS FUNDATRICES FUNDATRIGENIAE MIGRANTS ALIENICOLAE SEXUPARAE SEXUALES

65. LIFE CYCLE In Oct –Nov aphids appear in wheat. Aphids breed fast during cold weather . They reach height of population in Feb- March when ears are ripening. Females are capable of reproducing without mating. During spring when wheat crop is ripe and summers approach , winged forms of both males and females are produced and they migrate to other plants like doob grass. It is not known how this pest passes summers and monsoon. In Oct –Nov aphids again appear on wheat. Feeds on young leaves and ears in large number during cold .

66. DAMAGE Being sucking pest, the aphids draw the cell sap from the plants. Both nymphs and adults cause damage to the pla nts by their sap sucking habit. Four main kinds of symptoms are produced by them Sap sucking leads to devitalization and reduced/ stunted plant growth. Ingestion of toxic saliva during sap sucking leads to gall formation on leaves. Honey dew extraction by aphids attracts growth of black sooty mould which interfere with photosynthetic efficiency of plants. Aphids causes brightening of buds, curling of leaves, and appearance of discoloured spots on leaves. Severe infestation cause wilting and yellowing of plants and finally leads to death. Excellent transmitter of virus of plant diseases Out of the 300 known plant viruses 90% of them are transmitted by aphids. • Myzus persicae- potato leaf roll Pentalonia nigronervosa- Banana bunchy top/ cardamom katte disease ,Toxoptera citricidus- Citrus tristeza

67. BIOCONTROL : Since aphids first appear on the borders of the crop , spray only the infected strip to check their further spread Lady bird beetle : Several species of lady bird beetles can be found in wheat out of which the seven-spotted lady bird beetle most common which are useful in controlling aphids. Lacewings : The larval stages of all lacewings are predators which feed primarily on aphids. CHEMICAL CONTROL) Imidacloprid 48% FS. Thiamethoxam 30% FS.