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1. AFGHANISTAN ENGLISH CAMPUS HR & ENGLISH LECTURER MUJAHID IBRAHIM CELL & EMAIL [email protected] 0799601531

2. CLAUSE & ITS TYPES Definition: Clause is a group of words which contains a subject and verb and may or may not always have complete meaning. In other words, clause is a cluster of words that has a subject and predicate, but cannot always be considered as full grammatical sentence. EXAMPLES: If you study. When she came. Who had 24 children. Which I bought yesterday.   CLASSIFICATION OF CLAUSE Clause is generally divided into two types: Dependent, Subordinate Clause or Relative Clause Independent Clause / Main Clause / Principal Clause 2

3. DEPENDENT & INDEPENDENT CLAUSES DEPENDENT CLAUSE: Dependent Clause is a group of words which contains both subject and verb, but cannot stand alone and doesn’t give complete meaning as a sentence. It needs the help of main or independent clause to express complete thought, sense or meaning. Main Structure: Marker + subject + verb + Comp+. Ex: If she studies hard. Ex : While I was teaching. Ex: What he said. Ex: Which is very expensive. Ex: That he is busy today. Ex: Before he arrived. 3

4. DEPENDENT & INDEPENDENT CLAUSES 2. INDEPENDENT CLAUSE: Independent Clause is a group of words which contains both subject and verb, can stand alone and always gives complete meaning as a full sentence . It does not need the help of another clause to express complete thought, sense or meaning. Main Structure: S ubject + verb + Comp+. Ex: If she studies hard, she will get good score. Ex : While I was teaching, he was taking notes. Ex: What he said is absolutely right. Ex: I bought a book which is very expensive Ex: That he is busy today he cannot go to park. Ex: Before he arrived, we had finished our assignment. 4

5. KINDS OF DEPENDENT CLAUSE Dependent clause is divided into three types: 1. Noun Clause 2. Adjective Clause 3. Adverb Clause ADJEC TIVE CLAUSE Adjective clause is also called: Relative Clause, Subordinate Clause Or Adjectival Clause. Definition : Adjective clause is a group of words which contains a subject and a verb and functions the same as an adjective in a sentence is called Adjective Clause. Adjective clause always describes or modifies the noun or pronoun used before it.   KEY POINTS Adjective clause is introduced by relative markers. It does not have interrogative form. The antecedent can be noun or pronoun markers refer to. It modifies noun and pronoun used before it. 5

6. MARKERS OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSE There are three markers of adjective clause also called; C onnecters/linkers and introducers of adjective clause. Relative Pronouns (Who, whom, which and that) Relative Adjective (Whose) Relative Adverbs (Where, when, why) RELATIVE PRONOUNS Relative pronouns are used to combine two clauses. Relative pronouns are: who, that, which, whom and whose. USAGE OR RELATIVE PRONOUNS Who & Whom: Only used for people. Which: Only used for things. That: Used for both people and things. Whose: Used for people and things. Where: Used for place When: Used for time. Why: It shows reason.

7. ANTECEDENT The word “antecedent” comes from the Latin prefix, “ante”, which means “ before”. Antecedent is noun or pronoun to which a relative pronoun or relative marker refers to and always used before relative markers. In other words , antecedent is used to clarify what or who a pronoun is referring to in a sentence, and without one, a sentence may be incomplete or meaningless. EXAMPLES: The people that/who live in the house are my neighbors . The car that I bought last year is very reliable . That's the man whose house we painted. He who comes late will punished. Something which she bought was expensive. The one who works hard will succeed.

8. CASES OR USAGES OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS There are four cases or usages of relative pronouns: Subjective/ Nominative Case Objective / Accusative Case Object of Preposition / Oblique and Dative Case Possessive Case / Genitive Case 1. Subjective Case: In this case relative pronouns are used instead of subject of the second sentence and as a subject of a verb in adjective clause. Only (who, that, which) are used. Main Structure: who / which / that + verb + ROTS +. Ex: I have a friend. He is very rich. Adjective Clause: I have a friend who / that is very rich. Ex: I met a boy. He helped me last night. Adjective Clause: I met a boy who / that helped me last night. Ex : I bought a car. It is very expensive. Adjective Clause: I bought a car which / that is very expensive.  

9. 2. Objective Case : In this case relative pronouns are used instead of object of the second sentence and as the object of adjective clause . Main Structure: who / whom/ which / that + subject + verb + ROTS +. Ex : Mina saw a girl. I helped her last week. Adjective Clause: Mina saw a girl whom/that I helped last night. Ex : He found the money. I lost the money yesterday. Adjective Clause: He found the money which I lost yesterday. Ex : The police arrested the man. I saw the man steal the handbag. Adjective Clause : The police arrested the man whom I saw steal handbag. 9

10. 2. Objective of Preposition Case : In this case relative pronouns are used instead of the object of prepositions. Prepositions are used at the beginning or end. Only relative pronouns(Whom & Which) are used. NOTE: Don’t use relative pronoun (That) after preposition, but use it when prepositions are used at end of adjective clause. MAIN STRUCTURE Preposition + who / whom/ which / that + subject + verb + ROTS Ex: The chair on which I sat down collapsed. Ex: Ali built the house in which we grew up. Ex: I met a man about whom I told you last night. Ex : The man with whom I was talking was angry. 10

11. 4 .Possessive Case : In this case relative adjective (Whose) is used instead of possessive adjectives or possessive nouns to show possession. Structure : Whose + noun + verb + ROTS +. Ex : I have a car. Its color is white. Adjective Clause: I have a car whose color is white. Ex: We saw the boys. Their father died last year. Adjective Clause : We saw the boys whose father died last year. Ex : I have a dog. The dog’s color is red. Adjective Clause : I have a dog whose color is red. Ex: She met a woman. The woman’s husband was a doctor. Adjective Clause: - She met a woman whose husband was a doctor. 11

12. OMISSION (DELETION) OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS In objective and object of preposition cases the relative pronouns can be deleted, but informally. NOTE: When relative pronouns ar e deleted, the adjective clause is called Zero Adj Clause Ex: I know a man whom you talked to last night. Ex: I know a man Ɵ you talked to last night. Ex : Mina saw a girl whom/that I helped last night. Ex : Mina saw a girl Ɵ I helped last night. Ex : The bike that I bought yesterday was stolen . Ex : The bike Ɵ I bought yesterday was stolen . Ex : The man with whom I was talking was angry. Ex: The man Ø I was talking with was angry. 12

13. PLACES OF FORMAL AND INFORMAL OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS 1: Who: used only for people Sub. Case: Formal Obj. Case: Informal Oblique Case: Informal   2: Whom: used only for people Sub. Case: Never Obj. Case: Formal Oblique Case: Formal   3: Which: used only for animals and things Sub. Case: Formal Obj. Case: Formal Oblique Case: Formal 4: That: used only for People, animals and things Sub. Case: Informal Obj. Case: Informal Oblique Case: Informal 13

14. RELATIVE ADVERBS (WHERE, WHEN AND WHY) USING WHERE: It modifies a place or location in the main clause and always functions as objective case. If ( Where ) is used then no preposition is required to use before it, but it can be replaced with (in which, at which). STRUCTURES: 1. where + subject + verb + comp (Very formal) 2. in, at + which + subject + verb + comp (Formal) Ex : The building is very old . He lives there. Ex: The building where (in which) he lives is very old. EX: This is the restaurant where ( at which) I met her.

15. RELATIVE ADVERBS ( WHERE, WHEN AND WHY ) USING WHEN It modifies a noun of time in the main clause. If ( When ) is used then no preposition is required to use before it; however, it can be replaced with (on which, in which, at which). Structures : - w hen + subject + verb + Comp (Very formal) - on , at, in + which + subject + verb + comp (formal) Ex: I will never forget the day. I met you . Adj Clause: I will never forget the day when I met you. OR: I will never forget the day on which I met you. Ex: December is the month. I was born in December. Adj Clause : December is the month when I was born. Or . December is the month in which I was born.

16. RELATIVE ADVERBS (WHERE AND WHEN ) USING WHY It modifies a noun in the main clause that shows reason. It is used in objective case only. Sometimes we can use (that) instead of (why). Structures : - why+ subject + verb + comp +. I know the reason why she left the job. That is the reason why ( that ) I couldn't meet you .

17. USING RELATIVE PRONOUNS TO MODIFY PRONOUNS Adjective clause modifies subject pronouns and indefinite pronouns; subject pronouns (I, we, you, they, he, she, it) indefinite pronouns (someone, something, anyone, anything, nobody, nothing, the one, the ones and those.) EXAMPLES: He who comes late will punished. Something which she bought was expensive. The one who works hard will succeed. Those who sleep late at night will be depressed. It is I who always respect the elders. I saw nobody who has a stable business in our country.

18. TYPES OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSE Adjective clause has three types according to punctuation. 1. Restrictive Adjective Clause 2. Non-restrictive Adjective Clause 3. Sentential Adjective Clause   1. RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE: - It is also called; defining , modifying , identifying and essential adjective clause. It is a type of adjective clause which is used to give necessary information about the noun and pronoun modified by adjective clause. In other words, it used to provide essential information about the antecedent in the main clause. Without restrictive adjective clause the sentence doesn’t make any sense.

19. KEY POINTS ABOUT RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE In restrictive adjective clause we can use all relative markers including (who, that, whom, which, whose, where and when.) No commas are required to set off or separate restrictive clause. Common nouns are mostly used as antecedent in the main clause. It can’t be removed because the sentence doesn’t make any sense. It is used in all four cases of relative pronouns or relative markers. No proper nouns should be used as antecedent in the main clause. It also modifies personal and indefinite pronouns as antecedent. Restrictive adjective clause is usually shorter.

20. EXAMPLES OF RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE The professor who/that teaches English is an excellent teacher . The man who robbed us was never caught. The woman whom/that you met at my party is a former president . The newspaper that is on the table has a good article on sports. The television show which I watched last night was informative . Something which she bought was so expensive. REMEMBER: The adjectives clauses in these examples are essential in order to identify which professor, which woman, which newspaper, or which television show is meant, so they only give essential or important information about the antecedent.

21.   2 . NON-RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE: It is also called; non-defining , non-modifying , non-identifying and non-essential adjective clause. It is a type of adjective clause which is used to give non-essential, unimportant or extra information about the proper noun modified by adjective clause in the main clause. In other words, it used to provide additional information about the antecedent in the main clause. Without restrictive adjective clause the sentence still makes sense or has meaning, therefore, it can be deleted as well.

22. KEY POINTS ABOUT NON- RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE It provides non-essential information about the antecedent. All relative markers (who, which etc…) are used except ( THAT ). C ommas are needed to separate non-restrictive adjective clause. Only proper nouns are used as antecedent in the main clause. We can remove it because without it the sentence still makes sense. It is used in all four cases of relative pronouns or relative markers. Commas can be used before and after non-restrictive clause. It is usually longer than restrictive adjective clause.

23. EXAMPLES OF NON-RESTRICTIVE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE Professor Adnan , who teaches English , is an excellent professor. Angela Merkel , whom you met at my party , is a former president. The Kabul Times , which is on the table, has a good article on sports. Afghan Star, which I watched last night , was funny and helpful. Mohammad Ali, who works night and day , is an excellent lawyer. Mr. Javid , who is a well-respected doctor , retired from his work. Copper , which has numerous important uses , is growing scarce. Honda car , which is in the garage , is mine. REMEMBER : The non-restrictive adjectives clauses in these examples are non-essential because the nouns have already been identified, so they provide unimportant information about the antecedent.

24.   3. SENTENTIAL ADJECTIVE CLAUSE: It is also called; sentence or connective adjective clause. It is a type of adjective clause which is used to modify the whole main clause not noun or pronoun (antecedent) or it rather comments on the whole preceding clause or sentence: Only the relative pronoun ( WHICH ) is used in this type. Always use comma before ( WHICH ). EXAMPLES: The streets were empty, which was unusual for this time of day . The weather is so cold, which made all the people sad. Kabul is so beautiful , which attracts a lot of visitors yearly. He always comes late, which made the director angry.

25. REDUCTION OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSE TO ADJECTIVE PHRASE Adjective Phrase : It is also called modifying phrase which is a group of words having no subject.