An Introduction to Naga Cult in ancient India

The Nāga cult, centered on serpent deities (Nāgas), is one of the most ancient religious traditions in India. Nāgas were venerated as powerful beings associated with fertility, water bodies, protection, and esoteric knowledge. Their worship predates Vedic traditions and was later assimilated into Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.

Early evidence of serpent worship appears through seals and figurines in the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 2500–1900 BCE). In Vedic texts, serpents are often depicted negatively, such as the demon Vṛtra slain by Indra in the Rigveda. However, in the Mahābhārata and Purāṇas, Nāgas like Śeṣa, Vāsuki, and Takṣaka appear as divine beings ruling the netherworld (Pātāla). The Nāga Pūjā (serpent worship) became widespread, with rituals and festivals like Nāga Panchamī dedicated to them.

Buddhism and Jainism also incorporated Nāga worship, with legends of Nāgas protecting the Buddha and Tīrthaṅkaras. Archaeological evidence from sculptures, inscriptions, and temple reliefs confirms the widespread Nāga cult, especially in regions like Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Karnataka. The enduring worship of Nāgas reflects their significance in Indian religious traditions, blending indigenous, Vedic, and non-Vedic beliefs over millennia.

1. An Introduction to Nāga Cult Gurvendra Kushwaha, UGC Research Fellow, Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology, Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute (Deemed to be University), Pune

2. Origin and Antiquity of the Nāga Cult The most appropriate meaning- Serpent worship. James Fergussion , ‘ Tree and Serpent Worship ’ traced Nāga origin from the race of Turanian . S C Roy, “The Proto-Dravidian contributed to the snake cult in India.” Some scholars traced the origin among Scythian of central Asia. Hence, no one theory can be accepted with certainty.

3. Nāga in Harappan tradition Few findings throw lights on serpent worship. Faience tablet : where a seated deity is worshipped, and behind the deity- cobra with extended hood. Painted potteries : a few potteries found with reptile figures. Amulet : An Indus amulet displaying the figure of गरुड़ flanked with two Nāga . In conclusion the Indus valley people were associated with the serpent worship.

4. Nāga Cult in Vedic tradition Veda refers the war between आर्य and दस्यु they latter associated with serpent. अहि - बुध्न्य ( RV. I. 79.1) In the later Vedic tradition Nāga are referred as semi divine such as: यक्ष , गंधर्व and किन्नर अहि - बुध्न्य is also mentioned in the Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. तैत्तरीय संहिता । , solutations to the divine snake. तैत्तरीय ब्राह्मण ., certain passages to the divine serpent. तैत्तरीय ब्राह्मण . , In the अश्वमेध sacrifice certain portions of the horse are offered to divine serpents.

5. Nāga Cult in Epic tradition Mbh . opens with historical persecution of the Nāga under king तक्षक Mbh . Nāga is referred as children of कश्यप Mbh . refers various powerful kings of the Nāga tribe: शेष /अनंत, वासुकी, तक्षक, कश्यप, कौरव्य etc. धृतराष्ट्र alone had 28000 Nāga as his follower The five पांडव brothers were the grandsons of the grandson of the Nāga named आर्यक Bharat were also included in Snake race. The Krishna was direct decendents of the Nāga chief आर्यक , who was the great grandfather of वासुदेव Even Baldev (Brother of Krishna) represented, having his head covered with many snake hood. It is interesting to note that the फराओ of Egypt were associated with गरुड़ and serpent.

6. Nāga Cult in Purāṇic and Sūtra literature Purānas divide the world into seven category, in which three are occupied by Nāga . Primitive society- totamistic nature, they known by their totem such as: वानर , अज , वृष्णि ,गरुड़, नाग and मत्स्य etc. आश्वलायन गृह्य सूत्र ., the divine serpents have been first time termed as नाग पारस्कर गृह्य सूत्र ., refers the term सर्पदेवजन हिरण्यकेशिन गृह्य सूत्र ., same reference.

7. Nāga Cult in Buddhist tradition The ललितविस्तर states that when queen माया had given birth to the future Buddha in the Lumbini garden, there appeared two नागराज , नंद and उपनंद T his is the better representation of this story, now kept in Mathura Museum Date 1st-3rd CE Courtesy: AIIS

8. Muchlinda Nāga Gautama Buddha from harsh weather conditions following his enlightenment. According to legend, six weeks into Buddha's meditation under the Bodhi Tree, a severe storm ensued, lasting seven days.  Muchalinda , emerging from the earth, utilized his hood to safeguard the Buddha, exemplifying his role as a protector. This story is mentioned in Muchlinda Sutta. Upper section: Buddhas previous life (Sama Jatak ) Lower section: Muchlinda Nāga From south face of the north pillar, west Torana of Sanchi, Stupa 1 Courtesy: Buddhist monuments

9. Nāga Cult in Jain tradition Nāga is almost always found in Jain temples as an object of worship. सुपार्श्वनाथ (7th) पार्श्वनाथ ( 23rd) Tirthan karas are seen from their representations with hooded Nāga . Courtesy: AIIS ( Bhojpur Image)

10. Nāga in Vaiṣṇavism The विष्णु images have been classified into standing, sitting and reclining postures. In each format विष्णु is represented with snake. The serpent is recognized as a form of विष्णु ( Mbh . III. 187.10) It symbolizes eternity as his name Ananta suggests. अनंतशायीमूर्ति is sculpted in one the side niches of the Deoghar temple which is one of the finest motif in Indian Art.

11. Courtsey : AIIS

12. Śaivism and Nāga When Siva was passing by the slopes of the mountain Mēru without any garments, the wives of the Rishis fell in love with him. So, the Rishis, performed incantations to kill Śiva, from their ceremonial ground there came snakes, a krishna-mriga , an Apasmara -purusha, a parašu , a bull, a tiger, a lion and several other things against him. The latter took into his hands for his sports the black-deer, the snakes and the parašu , the Apasmara -purusha was trampled under his feet and is always serving him as a foot-stool, the lion and the tiger were killed by Śiva and their skins worn by him as his garments, while the skull and the digit of the moon were placed on his jatāmakuta as ornaments ( सुप्रभेदागम )

13. Śiva Naṭarāja Panel Snake in the upper two hands of dancing deity has been beautifully sculptured in this panel. Found from Jhalrapatan (Rajasthan) now kept in Jhalawar Archaeological Museum. Date: 900-1000 CE Courtesy: AIIS

14. Association of Nāga with Rain and Water Nāga are associated with powers of natures such as rain, water etc. Represented the essential forces for agricultural fertility. Mbh . consists a tree and a stone alter. जातक , the Nāga dispenses natures gifts. Many temples and shri nes are are honored as guardians of these sacred waters. In the North India, often contain a sculpture of a Nāga with his right hand raised as if ready to strike, and left hand holding a cup of jar, represents the powers of growth and fertility. Nāga is worshipped to ensure that the land with sufficient rainfall.

15. Nāgas and fertility Nāga is worshipped to get rid of snake bites, curing chronic diseases and get a child showing the association with fertility cult. मानसा देवी , holds special place in the serpent worship in eastern India, considered as fertility goddess. She is the sister of वासुकी ( Mbh .) Found from Dinajpur (West Bengal) Date: 900-1100 CE Courtesy: AIIS

16. Nāgi ̄ worship in Pre-Mauryan period Nāgi ̄ have been well documented by Jean Przyluski . मणिमेकलै, refers a Cola king once has a liaison with Nāgi ̄. The varie ty of symbols of snakes appears on punch-marked coins Found on the coins of Kaushambi , Mathura, Ujjayani , Ayodhya, Taxila, Almora, Youdheya , Magadha etc. Courtesy: Marudhar Arts

17. Nāgi ̄ worship in Mauryan and later period The Nāgīs , the female attendants to the sides of the Nāga , do not need to be shown with Nāga hood, they are distinguishable as snake-ladies by their theriomorphic lower bodies ending in snake tails. Medallion with Nāga and Nāgīs of Railing pillar of Bharhut. Nāgi ̄ from Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh) Date: 300-399 CE Courtesy: AIIS

18. Types of Nāga The Iconographic types of the Nāga figures are described in the later texts such as मयसंग्रह

19. Theriomorphic Nāga This is the simplest and most primitive form in which Nāga appears in Indian art. An instance of a single serpent carved in stone with three hoods. Description: Nāga on a slab found from Yamuna River Bed (Mathura), now kept in Archaeological Museum, Mathura. Date: 200-299 CE Courtesy: AIIS

20. Anthropomorphic Nāga This is the second variety, depicts the Nāgas as human beings having serpent hoods over the turbans or at the top of the heads. The deity is showing standing in त्रिभंग posture with its hoods partially damaged. Found from Hinglajgarh , Mandsaur Madhya Pradesh now kept in Indore Central Museum. Date: 900-999 CE Courtesy: AIIS

21. Therio -Anthropomorphic Nāga There is a combination of a human being and animal elements. The upper part of such figures has the appearance of human being with canopies of snake-hoods over their heads, and the lower part, below the waist, that of snake coils wounds in various ways. Found from Gowanda. Date: 900-999 CE Courtesy: Sanskriti

22. References Sharma, R. K. 2014. Nāga in Indian Iconography and Art . New Delhi: Aryan Books International. Fergussion , James. 1873. Tree and Serpent Worship . London: India Museum. Wave, C. S. 1888. Serpent-worship and Other Essay . London: George Redway York Street Covent Garden. Viyogi , N. 2002. The Ancient Rulers of India. Delhi: Originals an imprint of Low-Price Publication. Sharma, R. K. 2006. Nagas-The Tribe and the Cult . Delhi: Aryan Book International. Bloss, Lowell W. 1973. “The Buddha and the Nāga : A Study in Buddhist Folk Religiosity.” History of Religions 13: 36-53.

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