ancient India.pdf

History of ancient India

2. CORNELL
UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY

3. Date

5. ANCIENTINDIA

6. AllBightsreserved

7. ANCIENTINDIA
BY
S.KRISHNASWAMIAIYANGAE,M.A.
MemberoftheRoyalAsiaticSocietyofOrealBritainandIreland
FellowoftheRoijalBistoricalSociety,London.
MemberoltheBoardofStudies,andExaminerinHistoryand
Economics.VnirersityofMadras
MysoreEducationSerria:
WITHANINTRODUCTION
BY
VINCENT A.SMITH,M.A.,I.C.S.(retired)
Authorofthe
'EarlyHistoryofIndia
'
LONDON:LUZAC&Co.,ICgreatkussellisteeet
MADEAS:S.P.C.K.DEPOSITORY,VEPBEY
1911

8. 1)5
4-04-
/l
^,©XKg^
6
PRINTEDATTHE
:.PKESS,VEPBKY,MADRAS
1911
"^QXYS^

9. INSCRIBEDTOTHE:ME:M0RY
OP
JOHNWEIE
[Inspector-General opEducationinJIybore]
(November 1,1909—July31,1911
)

10. CornellUniversity
Library
Theoriginaloftliisbookisin
tineCornellUniversityLibrary.
Therearenoknowncopyrightrestrictions in
theUnitedStatesontheuseofthetext.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924022968840

11. PEEFACE
ThefirstchapterdealswiththeearlyportionofIndian
History,andsothetitle
'AncientIndia
'
hasbeengiven
tothebook.Theotherchaptersdealwithavarietyot
subjects,andarebasedonlecturesgivenondifferentocca-
sions.Onewasoriginallypreparedasmythesisforthe
M.A.DegreeExamination oftheUniversity ofMadras.
Thefavourable receptiongiven tomyearlyworkby
historicalandorientalscholarsencouragedmetoputmy
researches intoamorepermanent form,whichaliberal
grantfromtheMadrasSchoolBookandLiteratureSociety
hasenabledmetodo.
Ihavetothanktheeditorsandpublisherswhohaveso
kindlyallowedmetoreproducearticleswhichfirstappeared
intheirrespective periodicals. Amongst theseareSir
EiehardTemple,Mr.G.A.Natesan,theCommittee ofthe
SouthIndianAssociation,Mylapore,andtheMythicSociety,
Bangalore. Ialsodesiretoacknowledge theassistance
whichhasbeengivenmeinthepublication ofthework
bytheEev.CanonSell,andmyobligationtoMr.Vincent
A.SmithforhisvaluableIntroduction.
Chamaeajendbapet,
i S.K.
Ba.xgalobe City,
A2ifn(st1,1911.
)

13. CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION-
CHAPTER IAHISTORICALSURVEYUPTOA.D.
700
IIHISTORYOFSOUTHINDIA
IIISTRUGGLEFOEEMPIREINSOUTH
INDIA ...
IVINDIAATTHEDAWNOFTHE
CHRISTIANERA
VTHEMYS(JEE STATE—ARETEO-
SPECT ...
VITHECHOLAEMPIRE INSOUTH
INDIA ...
VIISRIRAMANU.TACHARYA, HISLIFE
ANDTIMES
VIIITHEMAKINGOFMYSORE
IXVISHNCVARDHANA
XBI.T.IALA ...
XIMYSOREUNDERTHEWODEYABS...
XIITHEVALUEOPLITERATURE IN
THECONSTIiUCTION OFINDIAN
HISTORY
XIIITHETHIRDTAMILSANGAM
XIVTHEAUGUSTANAGEOFTAMIL
LITERATI'RE
XVSOMEPOINTSINTAMILLITERARY
HISTORY
PAGE
IX
1
29
40
54
76
90
192
±22
•254
261
272
814
330
836
873

14. CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER XVISELF-IMMOLATIONWHICHISNOT
SAT! ... ... ...385
,, XVIIagnikula:thefire-race ...B90
„ XVIIITHEAGEOFNAMMALVAE ...896
„ XIXTIRUMANGAIALVARANDHISDATE.402
APPENDIX.—NOTES ... ... ...415
ERRATA ... ... ... ...416
INDEX ... ... ... ...419
MAPS
SOUTHINDIAABOUTA.D.1100FACING ...140
SOUTHINDIAATTHESANGAMPERIODFACING ...369

15. INTEODUCTION
TherequestmadetomebyMr.S.Krishnaswami
AiyangarthatIshouldprefixtohisvolumeofcollected
essaysontheliterarj'andpoliticalhistoryofSouthern
India,afewwordsofintroductionmetwithready
acceptance,becausenothinggivesmegreaterpleasure
thantowatchthesteadyprogressmadebyIndian-
bornstudents intheinvestigation oftheancient
historyoftheircountry. Itwouldbeeasytoname
manyrecentIndianauthorswhohavemadeimportant
andsolidcontributions toaccurateknowledge ofthe
earlyhistory ofIndia.Amongsuchwriters,Mr.
Krishnaswami Aiyangarholdsanhonourable place
andifhehadleisuregreaterthanthatwhichofficial
dutiespermit,hemight,perhaps,producethatEatiif
HistoryofSouthernIndiawhichissomuchwanted
andcanbewrittenonlybyascholarfamiliarwith
thecountryandoneormoreoftheDravidianverna-
culars.Thecollection ofpapersnowofferedtothe
publicdoesnotprofesstobesuchahistory. Itis
simplyareissueofessaysprintedonvariousoccasions
atdifferenttimes,andinsomecasesnowsubjectedto
slightrevision.Avolumeofthekindwhichisrather
materials forhistorythanhistory itself,necessarily
suffersfromunavoidable overlappingandrepetition,
andfromalackofunity.Butnotwithstanding the
defectsinherentinanassemblage ofdetachedessays

16. XU INTBODUCTION
Icancordiallyrecommend thisbookasbeingareada-
bleandgenerallysoundintroduction tothestudyin
detailofthehistoryoftheSouth.
Thefirstchapter,
'AHistoricalSurveyuptoA.T>.
700
'isawell-written summary. Thehypothesis
(p.17)thattheSakasofSeistanweredisturbedand
setinmotiontowardsIndiabypressurefromthe
SassaniandynastyofPersiaestablished ina.d.226
mayyetbeverified.Thenextthreechaptersgivean
excellentgeneralreviewofthesalientfactsofearly
SouthIndianhistorysofarasknown. Iftheauthor
(p.67)iscorrect insayingthattheGurjjarasare
mentionedintheTamilepicpoemcalledManimehlialai,
"thecomposition ofthatworkcannotbemuchanterior
toA.D.500,inasmuchastheGurjjarasdonotseem
tohaveenteredIndiabeforethemiddleofthefifth
century.Heholds(p.75)thattheepic isearlier
thanthetimeofVarahamihira (A.D.533),becausethe
poetusesareckoning oftheasterismswhichwas
supersededbytheimprovedsystemoftheHellenizing
astronomer.
Manyoftheessaysnowcollected,Imayobserve,
makevaluablecontributions tothehistoryandchro-
nologyofIndian,andespecially ofTamilliterature.
TheolderhistoriesofIndianliteraturewererestricted
tothediscussion ofworkswritteninSanskritand
Prakrit.Theidealhistoryofthevastliterature of
Indiashouldgivealmostequalattentiontothenoble
worksintheSouthernlanguages,amongwhichTamil
ispre-eminent. Thetranslations publishedbyMr.
Gover,Dr.Pope,andafewotherscholarssufficeto
provethehighethicalandartisticvalueoftheTamil

17. INTRODTTCTION XIll
compositions. Sofaras1canjudgeMr.Krishnaswami
Aiyangar isrightindatingthebestperiodofTamil
literatureinthesecondandthirdcenturies ofthe
Christian era.
Themostimportantandgenerallyinterestingchapter
inthehookisthesixth(pp.90-191),whichgivesan
admirable abstract ofthepoliticalhistory ofthe
Cholas,withadetailedaccount oftheirsystemof
Governmentandvillageadministration, welldeserving
ofattentivestudy.TheCholadynastywassingularly
prolificinkingsofmorethanordinarycapacity,from
themiddleoftheninthcentury totheendofthe
reignofKulottungaina.d.1118. Itisclearfromthe
detailsonrecordthattheadministration ofthekingdom
was
'highlysystematized 'fromanearlydate.For
instance,there isabundantevidencethat
'thelands
undercultivationwerecarefullysurveyedandholdings
registeredatleastacenturybeforethefamousDc-mes-
dayrecordofWilhamtheConqueror'. There-survey
of1086wasexactlycontemporaneous withtheEnglish
record.
'TheCholasweregreatbuilders
;buildersnotonly
ofcitiesandtemples(sometimes forstrategicpurposes
sometimesinobediencetothedictatesoftheirvanity),
butalsoofusefulirrigationworks '.Itislamentable
tobeobligedtorecordthedisgracefulfactthat
'when
thelowerColeroonanient(dam)wasbuilt,thestruc-
ture(thatistosay,thenobletempleofGangaikonda-
puram),wasdismantled ofalargepartofthesplendid
granitesculptureswhichadorned it,andtheenclosing
wallwasalmostwhollydestroyed inordertoobtain
materialforthework.'BythekindnessofMr.Eea,

18. XIV INTBODTJCTION
Ihavebeensuppliedwithphotographs ofsomeofthe
survivingfiguresculptures,afewofwhichwillbepub-
lishedinmyforthcoming HistoryofFineArtin
IndiaandCeylon.Theymay,perhaps,beconsidered
"thefinestknownHindusculptures,andcertainlytake
rankamongthebest.Afullyillustratedmonograph
onGangaikondapuram andCholaartgenerallywould
beofgreatinterest.
Thediscussion inChapterVIIof
'
SriEamanuja-
•charya,hisLifeandTimes ',throwsmuchlightupon
animportantepochinthestoryofIndianreligious
development.
TheoriginandgrowthoftheStateofMysoreare
treatedatlengthintwochapters.Buttheidentifica-
tionoftheancientMahishaMandalawithMysore
must,asDr.Fleethasshown,begivenup.Mahish-
matlappearstohavebeenthecapitaloftheMahishas,
andIjnowrepresentedbyMandhataontheNarbada.
Thelaterchapters dealing withcertain special
problems,chieflyconcernedwithTamilreligiousand
literaryhistory,areoflessgeneralinterest.
Oxford, VINCENT A.SMITH.
February 8,1911.

19. CHAPTER I
AHISTORICALSUBVEYUPTOA.D.700
Inattempting tolookbackuponourownhistory,
thefirstessentialwouldappeartobethemarking
ofafewofthemoresalientfeatures, sothatwe
maygrouproundtheseanumber ofminorevents
andincidents. Thiswillgiveusperspective ;and
whateverimperfection theremaybeindetail itwill
makethewholepresentable. If,atthisdistance,we
takearetrospect, thehistoryofIndiaoftheAryan
invasionswouldappear,likeourownHimalayas ata
greatdistance, allsmoothbutforafewpeaksof
commanding height.
'Happy isthenationw'hose
annalsareablank,'saidCarlyle,andifwecanderive
comfortfromthisseemingblankness,weshallperhaps
beinadelusion. Ishallattempt,therefore, topresent
inoutlinetheoutstanding featureswithaviewto
clothingtheselaterontomakethemaspresentable
lookingaswemay.
WehavetobeginwiththeAryans intheirown
homeswherevertheymighthavebeenandmovealong
withthem.Thiswillbeextra-Indian incharacterand
withalessential totheproperunderstanding oftheir
doingsinIndia.WeshallnamethisthePre-Indiau
ageoftheIndo-Aryans circ.3000 B.r.Duringthis
agetheAryansadvanceuptotheIndianfrontier.
Theyareanomadic-agricultural folk,alreadydifferen-
iiiatedfromtheirIranian brethren,developingsome
ofthefeatures peculiar totheIndo-Aryans ofthe
Eig-Veda.

20. ^ ANCIENTINDIA
Thenextstepinadvancetakesthemacrossthe
frontierintoIndia.Duringthisstageoftheirmigra-
tionwefindtheminoccupationofthelandofthefive
rivers. ItishereforthefirsttimethattheAryans
comeincontactv^iththeaboriginalinhabitants of
Indiaandthestruggleforpossession ofthecountry
hegins.Themorerudimentary civilization, ofcourse,
giveswaytothemoreadvancedandvigorous. Itis
againinthelandofthefiveriversthatthesimple
civilizationandcompacttribalorganization takeform
andarepictured tousintheEig-Veda. Therich
soilandflourishingcommunities catchtheeyesand
attractthedesiresoftheneighbouring, butstillpri-
mitive,cousins oftheseIndianAryans. Tomake
roomforthesenew arrivals, notwithout afight
perhaps,theIndo-Aryansmoveforward acrossthe
riverstotheDoaboftheGangesandtheJumna.
Allthismaybeascribedroughlytothehalfmillennium
2000-1500B.C.
AstheGreekcousinsoftheseIndo-Aryans did,so
theselatterunderwentasimilarcourseofdevelopment
according totheirownenvironment, geographicaland
political. IntheGangeticDoab,wefindtheAryans
developingmorepowerfulcommunities,which,instead
ofbecoming city-states asinGreece, ledtostrong
monarchiesrulinggreattribesandvastkingdoms,par-
ticularlyasthecountrywasmoreopen. Itwasin
theseregionsthatthegreatinter-tribalwarstypified
intheMahabhdratamusthavetakenplace.Atleast,
theincidentsreferredtointhegreatepichavetheir
theatrehere.Hencethisperiodofhistoryhascome
tobeknownthatoftheMahdbharata. Itisherefor
thefirsttimethattheAryansgetintotouch,notonly
withtheuncivilizedaborigineswhoarethefeatureof
thePunjabplains,aseventhelaterBrihatKatlid
makesitclear,butalsowiththecivilizedDravidians
ofIndia. Itishere,aswiththeGreeksinAtticaand

21. THEDEVELOPJIBNT OE-THEAltYANS 3
Boeotia,thattheAryanschangetheirpolicyofusur-
pationtothatofamalgamation,whichalonewaspos-
sibleunderthecircumstances. Totheseevents is
ascribedtheperiodincludedinthecenturiesbetween
1500-1000B.C.
Fromherethefurtherexpansioneastwardscouldnot
beinthewholesalefashionasheretofore,buthadto
beindriblets. Thisexpansiontakestheformofafew
powerfulkingdomsfarthereastthantheDoab.What
theKurus(orKam'avas)andthePauchalaswereto
theDoab,theKosalasandYidehasweretothefurther
eastofthosetimes. ItistheseregionsthattheBcivid-
yanadescribes.Theperiodtakenupintheexpansion
(orinfiltration) intotheseregionsmayhavebeenthe
quartermillennium1000-7-50 b.c.
DuringtheseperiodstheIndo-Aryanswererearing
thosegreat edifices oflearningandreligion,which
havegiventhislandofoursallitsclaimstogreatness
inthevariousdepartments ofhumanactivity.The
jDre-YedicAryansbroughtintheirtraditions,which
theycouldelaborateatleisureinthePunjab. These,
incourseoftime,wereputintoshapeinthehymns
oftheVeda,which,astimeadvanced,requiredtobe
explainedbyanelaboratecommentary. Thesecom-
mentariesaretheBrahmanas.Theseintheirturnled
±0thefurtherdisquisitions calledtheAranyakas cul-
minatinginthephilosophical flightsoftheUpanishads,
Thistransformation, orratherelaboration,hasbeen
goingonsteadilyuptotheperiodwearrivedatin
thelastsection. Thisisnotall. Certainscientific
inquirieshadtobemadefortheproperunderstanding
oftheYedasandtheYedicritual. Theirneedwas
metbytheelaboration oftheVedangasnamely, (1)
Jvalpawhichincludedgeometry sofarasitapplied
totheconstruction ofsacrificial altars,(2)Sikshaor
phonetics, (3)Chandasormetre, (4)Myakarana or
grammar, (-5)Xiruktaorstudyofwords, (6)Jyotisha

22. 4 ANCIENTINDIA
orastronomy. TheseVedangasfindbrieftreatmentin
theBrahmanas orUpanishadsandacquiretheneces-
saryscientificcastintheagewehavecometojustnow.
Thisdevelopment leadsusontotheso-calledSutra
period,becausethisgrowingmassofliteraturerequired
tobeputinashapewhichcouldeasilybemastered.
Thealphabet,nodoubt,hadbeeninventedalready(or
adaptedthoroughly toIndianrequirements), though
perhapsitwasnotbroughtquiteintocommonusage.
Thisperiodoverlapsthenextandmaybetakento
occupythefourcenturiesbetween750B.C.andsay
350B.C.Sofarthenwehavetorelyentirelyupon
suchevidenceasisavailableinoursacredliterature,
andscholarshaveallottedthesetoveryvaryingperiods.
TheAryanhome isplacedwithintheArcticCircle
byMr.Tilak,andheascribesaveryearlyperiod
(7000B.C.)indeedfortheearliesthymnsoftheBig-
Veda ;whileEuropean schola.rswouldbring itto
1500B.c.Mr.Tilakrestshisargumentsuponcertain
solarandotherastronomicalphenomenareferredtoin
theearlierhymnswhichuponhishypothesisfindclear
explanation. ThelateMr.ShankarEalakrishnaDikshit
referscertainatleastoftheBrahmanas to3800b.c.
;
therebeingareferenceintheSatapadaBrahmariato
thePleiadesbeingintheEquinox,which isverifiable
astronomically. Dr.Thibautconsidersthattheverse
referred toisalateinterpolation. Soourposition
hereisnotverysecure,andthereforeourchronology
respecting thisperiodcannotlayclaimtomuchac-
curacy.Theultimatedownward limitofourperiod
maybetakentobeaccurate,asitbringsinantin-
lookedforsynchronism. Pythagoras,^theGreekphilo-^
sopher, isbelievedtohavelearnedinIndianotonly
histheoryoftransmigration, butalsohistheoryof
numbersfromourSankyasystem. Drs.Goldstiicker
1A.B.Keithdisputesthis.J.R.A.S.,vol.1909,pp.569etseq,

23. ARYANIMMIGRATIONINTOTHESOUTH 5
:andBhandarkar referthegrammarianPaninitothis
period,andifthisbecorrect itbringsthehistoryof
SouthIndiaintotouchwiththatoftheNorth.
Takingafreshstartingpoint,therefore,somewhere
inthesixthcenturyB.c,wefindourselvesuponsome-
whatfirmergroundasoutsidefightbeginstobeatin
uponus.Inthecenturiesoneithersideof750B.c.
theAryansbeginpenetrating intotheMahakantara
roundabouttheVindhyas,thememory ofwhich is
preservedinthetraditionregarding Agustia'sadvent
intothesouth. IftheEamayanacouldbetrustedto
becorrectregarding itsgeographical details,thegreat
forestextendsuptothePampaSaras,which ison
thenorthbankoftheTangabhadra nearmodern
Hampe,thoughtheSaras(ortank)musthaVebeen
forgottenunderthename,astheauthoroftheTamil
Eamayanamakesit,Pampanadi.TheadventofAgustia
introducesreclamation ofthejungleintoarableland,
andheisthereputedauthorofthefirstTamilgram-
mar.Whoever thisAgustiawas,Eishiorsomeone
elsebythatname,hedoesforTamilwhatPaninidid
forSanskrit. ThathecriticizesPaniniappearstobe
inevidence inoneoftheveryfewquotations that
havecomedowntous.Itwouldthusappearthatthe
AryanmigrationintosouthIndiahastobereferred
tothisperiodoftheSutras.
WhenthewholeofIndia,northandsouth,isgetting
organized,theovergrowth ofritualism,andperhapsof
refigionbecomingtoomuchofamystery,setsthought-
fulpeoplethinkingaboutthisverysubject. There
appearinthesixthcenturyB.C.twogreatmenwho
havecontributedverymuchtobringaboutamighty
transformation. Itiscertainlyinthefitnessofthings
thattheseshouldhaveflourishedinthespotsfavoured
bynature,wherebeforetheirtimethedaringflights
ofspeculationintothemysteryoftheUnknownreached
itsgrandclimactericundertheIndianPisistratusashe

24. O ANCIENTINDIA
iscalled,orEajarishiJanaka.Thesetwogreatsons
ofIndiaareMahaViraVardhamana,thefounderofthe
religionoftheJina,andGautamaSakyamuni, the
Buddha.Thenewteachings ofthelatter,andthe
appealtheymadetothepeoplehavelongbeenrecog-
nizedasthepotentcauseofthedevelopment ofthe
languages ofthepeople.Thisinfluencefromthe
distantnorthfoundreadyresponseeveninthedistant
south,withwhichcommunication appearstohavebeen-
maintainedbywayofthesea,whileyettheDanda-
karanyahadnotbeenpenetratedbyagreathighway,,
theDakshinapatha. Inanotherwaytheadventof
theBuddhahasalsobeenofadvantage tostudents
ofhistory.Hisreligion itwasthattookIndiafrom
herblissfulisolation,andledhertotakeherplace
amongtheworldPowers,butthiswasnotasyet.
WiththeadventofBuddhismcomesintopromi-
nencethekingdom ofMagadha,perhapssemi-Aryan,
asitwasintheborderland ofAryavarta.Thecapitals
ofthiskingdomappeartohavebeenEajagriha,Kai-
keyi'sfather'skingdom,andVaisali,alsospokenofin
theEamayana. BimbisaraoftheSaisunagadynasty
andhispatricidesonAjatasatruwerecontemporaries-
oftheBuddha. BeforetheBuddhaattainednirvana.
Buddhismhadobtained agreatholduponthepeople-
ofIndia,andBuddhistmonksandnunshadgoneabout
carryingtheBuddhistgospel.
Thisagewhentworeligiousreformersflourished,and
inwhichthefoundationofthegreatnessofthekingdom
ofMagadhawaslaid isremarkable inmanyways.
ThisistheageinwhichanIndiancontingentfought
inthebattlesofThermopylaeandPlataea inGreece,
'incottonclothes,canebows,andiron-tippedarrows'.
Thiswaspossiblebecauseofthetwentiethsatrapyon
thewestbankoftheIndus,formedbytheadventurous
skilloftheCarianadmiral ofDariusHystaspes,by
nameSkylax.ThedateofthenavigationoftheIndus

25. KINGDOMSANDTRIBES 7
bythisadmiralandthefoundation ofthesatrapyare
placedatabout510B.C.Notfarfromthisperiod
India,thenknowntotheAryans,wasdividedinto
sixteenkingdomsandanumberofautonomoustribes.
ForbesidestheacceptedlineofadvanceoftheAryans,
thereappeartohavebeentwootherstreamsofmigra-
tion—oneskirtingthelowerHimalayasandtheother
movingdownthevalleyoftheIndus.Thetribesare
foundalongthemountainborderseastoftheGanges,
someofthem alsoalongtheupperreachesofthe
Punjabrivers. Severalofthemweregovernedbytheir
owntribalmeetings,heldinthehallofthetribe
—
Santhagara.
Imentiononlyoneofthem,because itwasaking-
dompreviously. ImeantheVidehasofmodernTirhut
whoseKingJanakahasalreadybeenmentioned.These
wereasectionofthegreatVajjianclanandwereduring
thisperiodunderthegovernment ofarepublic,whose
headman,asinthecaseofotherrepublicsaswell,was
calledaEajah,answering totheRomanconsulor
Athenianarchon. Itisfromoneoftheseclansof
nortliernBiharthattheBuddhahimselfwasborn.
Thekingdomswere,proceedingfromthewestin
geographical order,KambhojawithcapitalDvaraka,
answering tomodernSindhandGujarat ;Gandhara,
easternAfghanistanbetweentheAfghanmountainsand
alittlewaytotheeastoftheInduswithitscapital
Taxila(nearShahDeri) ;Avanti,themodernMalva
withitscapitalUjjain ;theAssaka(AsmakaorAsvaka)
SFithitscapitalP5taliorPotanaonthebanksofthe
Godavari(modernPaitan) ;theSurasenaswiththeir
capitalMadhura, themodernMuttra ;theMatsyas
westoftheJumnaanswering tothecis-SutlejSikh
StatesorPhulkian States ;thetwoPanchalasround
aboutKanoujandKampilla ;theKurusoccupyingthe
countryroundaboutDelhi ;"Vamsa,thecountryofthe
VatsaswithitscapitalFosambi ;Chedi,oneatleast

26. 8 ANCIENTINDIA
ofthetribeshavinghadtheirlocalhabitatinBundle-
khand,theotherbeinglocatedsomewhere inNepal
;
theMallasroundaboutKusinaraalongtheNepalTarai
;
theVajjians,aconfederation ofeightclansofwhich
thechiefweretheLicchavisofVaisaliandtheVidehas
ofMithila ;theKosalaswhosekingdomdm-ingthis
periodincludedSravastiinNepalontheonesideand
BenaresontheotherwithSaketainthemiddle;the
KasisroundmodernBenares ;MaghadaroundPatna
includinginitsouthernBeharuptoBhagalpuronthe
Ganges ;andAngawithitscapitalChampanotfar
fromBhagalpur.
Itisclearfromtheabovethatsofarthesouthern
expansionhadcomeuponlytotheGodavari. This
isnotinconsistentwiththestateofthingsportrayed
intheEamayana,whichnowherementionsanAryan
kingdomnoranAryansettlement ofanyimportance
beyondJanasthana alongtheupperreaches ofthe
Godavari.Thepoliticalfeatureofthisperiodisthe
struggleforsupremacybetweentheneighbours, the
KosalasandtheMagadhas.TheSaisunagas parti-
cularlyunderBimbisaraandhispatricidesonAjata-
satruweresuccessfulinexpandingMagadhatoinclude
VaisaliandtheLicchavicountryandkeepingKosala
wellwithinbounds. Itwasduring theirrulethat
Eajagrihawasfortifiedandthecapitalchanged to
Vaisali. Itwasasuccessor ofAjatasatru, byname
Udayana,whoenlargedhispredecessor's fortofPatali-
puraintothegreatcapitalofjNIagadha.Thefallof
thisgreatdynastywas,however, athandandwas
probablybroughtaboutbydissensions withinand
invasionfromwithout. Theinvasion ofChanda
Pajjota
^(PradhySta) ofUjjainmusthaveweakened
1ThisisthefatherofVasavadatta,QueenofUdayanaofKo^ambhi.
ItwasthisIdngwhoisdescribedintheBrihatKathSasChanda
jMahasena. Thatthetworefertothesameking isclearfrom
Priiiaiarsilca.

27. poEus y
theStatemuchandapalacerevolution didtherest.
TheSaisunagaswereoverthrownandtheNandascame
topower.Theill-gottenpowerlastedfortwogene-
rationsonly,andtheNandas, inturn,wereover-
thrownbyChandraguptaMaurya.
Itiswhilethisrevolutioninpoliticswasgradually'
workingoutinthemiddlekingdomsthatthewestern
frontierswerethrownintoconfusionbytheadventof
•oneoftheworld'sconqueringheroes. Startingfrom
Macedonia, theyoungchampion ofHellenism, Alex-
andertheGreat,marchedeastwardscombiningwith
thewarlike instincts ofthegeneraltheinsatiable
curiosity oftheexplorer.Meetingwithfeebleresist-
anceonthewayacrosstheempireofPersia,he
marchedalongtheleftbanksoftheKophen(Cabul
river)andcrossedtheIndussomewhereaboveAttock,
withthefriendlyhospitahtyofOmphesofTaxila,whose
jealousytowardshispowerfulneighbourPorusthrew
himintothearmsofAlexander. ItcostAlexander
agreateffortofskillanddaringbeforehecouldtake
thehillfortofAornos(identifiedwithMahaban). This
donehemarcheddownthePeshawar plaintothe
banksoftheJhelum.Hereatlasthemethismatch.
P5ruswasafter allworsted ;butsofarcompelled
Alexander'sadmiration, astogethiskingdomrestored
tohim. Itwasprobablyextended,undertheviceroy
Philip.Alexander'sfurtheradvanceupontheMagadha
kingdomwaspreventedbyamutinyamonghistroops,
andhehadtoturnback,nevertoreturn.Having
beenthusbaulkedinhisattempttobringaboutAlex-
ander'sintervention, Chandraguptawasabletolevy
troopsinthePunjabamongtheseveralwar-liketribes,
andbroughtabouttherevolutionwhich,thankstothe
exertionsofthemostastutediplomatist ofthetimes
Chanakya(orKautilyaorVishnugupta), gavehimthe
kingdom ofMagadha. Theaccession ofthis iirst
Maurya isplacedintheyearV21n.c.andprovides

28. 10 ANCIENTINDIA
nswiththefirstreliabledateinthehistoryofIndia.
Duringthefirstdecadeofhisreign,hewasableso-
fartoorganize hisresources thathewasmasterof
Hindustanuptothefrontiers.Poruswasassassinated
inthemeanwhile. Itwasin30.5b.c.orafewyears
earlierthatoneofthemostpromisingamongAlex-
ander'sgenerals,whohadmadehimselfrulerofAsia
afterhismaster's death,attempted theconquestof
theeast.Thistimetheeastoutmatched thewest.
SeleucusNicator(thevictorious)hadtoagreetoa
humiliating treaty,givinguptoChandragupta Alex-
ander'seasternviceroyaltyunderPhilip,i.e.thecountry
ofAfghanistan.
Afterthis,Chandragupta'sempirestretchedfromthe
mountainsrunningacrossAfghanistan totheBayof
Bengal,andfromtheHimalayas totheVindhyas.
Thisvastempirewasorganizedonthetime-honoured
basisoflocalautonomy,withtheconditionattached
ofprovidingcontingents totheimperialarmyandof
acknowledging supremacy.Noothercloserarrange-
mentcouldhavebeenmadeonaccount ofmere
distancealone.Theempiremighthavelastedon,if
onlythemembers ofsuchafederatedempireunder-
stoodeachotherbetterandhadacteduptothe
agreementsenteredinto,orintheabsencethereof,had
consultedthecommoninterestsofall.Thisperhaps
wastoomuchinadvanceofthetimestoexpect.
Chandragupta's successorBindusarafollowedinthe
wakeofhispredecessor andconsiderably addedta
theempire.Heentrustedthetwoimportantfrontiers
tohistwosons,theeldestbeingviceroyofthenorth-
westatTaxila,whiletheyounger,themorefamous
As5ka,wastheviceroy atVidlsa (Bhilsa) ofthe-
Dakshinapatha.
FromBindusarawepassonwithpleasure tohis
sonAsoka,theConstantine ofIndia. Asokawas-
viceroy ofthethenmostdifficultfrontierwhenhis

29. ASOKA 11
fatherdied.Asokahadtoasserthisclaimasagainst
anelderbrother,theviceroyofTaxila,andoverthrew
himatlast.Havingthusgotthethrone,hebegan
hisreigninthemannerofbothofhispredecessors.
Hisonlyacquisition totheempire,however, isex-
plicitlystatedtobeKalingam, theMahanadi Delta,
andOrissa.TherestoftheDakshinapatha must
havebeenconqueredandbroughtunder,whileyet
hisfatherwasalive. PassingovertheBuddhist
delineation ofthecharacterofAsoka,almostasthe
evilprincipleincarnate,wefindhimacceptingBud-
dhism,afterhisconquestofKalingam,outofremorse
forthebloodshed, onaccountofwhichheissaidto
havegivenupBrahmanism inwhichhewasborn.
Themercifuldoctrineshetaught,thehospitalshe
builtbothformanandanimal,theinteresthetook
tosendtheGospeloftheEnlightened farandwide,
andthepainshebestoweduponthecollectingand
consolidating oftheteachingoftheGreatOneare
matters ofcommonknowledge. Inspiteofthegreat
changesthathadtakenplace,theadministration of
theempirewentoninthetime-honoured method,
withlittlechangeofprinciplethoughthepersonnel
changed. Thisempirenowextendedinthesouth
intoMysore,andthesouthern frontiermaybere-
gardedasabout12°N.lat.Alongthefrontiers of
thisvastempireandparticular placeswithin it,he
cutonrocksandpillars hisowninstructions tohis
officialsandpeople. Besidesthis,heerectedinnumer-
ablestupasortopestoholdtheremainsofthegreat
Arhats.Thesearethematerialmostreliableforhis
history. Hismissionary enterprisecarriedtheteach-
ingsoftheBuddha atleasttoasfarasSyria.
Fromhisownedictswelearnthathenegotiated
withfivekingdomsalongthesouthernfrontier.They
were,Chola,Pandya,Kerala,andSatiyaputrainIndia
andCevlonclosetoit.Atthewesternmostextremity

30. 12 ANCIENTINDIA
ofAsiaandeasternEurope hisinfluence prevailed.
Heenteredintodiplomatic relationswithAntiochus
ofSyria,Ptolemy IIofEgypt,Magas ofGyrene,
Antigonus Gonatas ofMacedoniaandAlexander of
Epirus. According toProfessorMahaify,Buddhist
monkspreached inPalestineandSyriaacoupleof
centuries beforeChrist.He issaidtohavesent
84,000missionaries todifferentpartsofIndiaand
dominions beyond.Amongthem,hisbrotherand
sister (orsonanddaughter)hesent toCeylon.
HavingdonethebesthecouldtofurtherBuddhism
andhavingruledhisvastempireinthemosthumane
spiritpossible,heresignedtheresponsibilities ofthis
earthlyexistencetoweaklingsuccessors.
Asokawasfollowedbyfoursuccessorsandthe
dynastycametoanendbytheaccession tothe
empireoftheSenapathiPushyamitra, thefounderof
theso-calledSungadynasty.Heisbelievedtohave
assassinatedthelastMauryaBrihadrathaontheocca-
sionofareviewofthearmy.Thereappearstohave
beenaloyalist intheperson oftheminister,the
MauryaSachiva^oftheMdlavikdgnimitra, whichafter
allisbetterauthority fortheperiod,asKalidasa
claimstobasehisfactsuponothers'accountswhich
mayhavebeencontemporary, aswehavereasonto
infer.Thisusurpationwasnotunchallenged from
outside.Pushyamitra couldhardlyhavesecured his
positionwhenhewasthreatenedbytwogreatenemies
fromwithout—Menander(MilindaofBuddhistictradi-
tion)fromacrossthenorth-western frontierandKara-
vela,theKalingarajafromthesouth.Having laid
wastethecountryasfareastasevenSaketa(possibly
thatinOudh)andbesiegingMadhyamika (nearChitor
inEajaputana),MenanderretiredandnootherEuro-
1Thisaccordingtothedramawasabrother-in-law ofthekingof
Vidarbha,whodemandshisreleaseofAgnimitra.Thecommentary
makesMauryaSachivaalmostapropername.

31. PUSHTAMITBA 13
peanattempted theconquest ofIndiafromtheland
sideeversince;noranyatalluptothedaysof
Vasco-de-Gama. Itisapartofthisarmy,according
toVincentSmith,thatwasdefeatedbyPrinceVasu-
mitraonthebanksoftheSindhubetweenEajaputana
andcentralIndiaandnotonthebanksoftheIndus.
Thisappearsaneedlesslimitation ofauthorityforone,
whothoughtofcelebratingaEajasuyaandwhohad
hissonAgnimitra,viceroyofMalva.
Pushyamitra gottheupperhandofeventheother
enemyofKalinga,whichappearstohavekeptat
peacewiththeempiresincetheconquestofAsoka.
Pushyamitra'swastheageofthegrammarianPatan-
jah,andfromhistimetherewasarevivalofBrah-
manism.Thereappearstobenofoundation infact
forregardinghimasapersecutor. Agnimitra,while
yethisfather'sviceroy,hadconqueredVidharba,the
modernCentralProvinces,andplaceditundertwo
kingsofthesamefamilysubsidiarytohimself.
BrilliantasPushyamitra's achievements were,they
didnotavailmuch tokeephisdynastylongin
power.ThePunjabandthenorth-westfrontierwere
inastateofflux,andthosepulsatingmovements
beganamongthegreatMongoltribesontheChinese
frontier,whichweresoonfeltonthebanksofthe
Indus.Adomesticrevolutionsubvertedthedynasty
oftheSungasafterthreegenerations,andtherewas
alineofrulersoftheKanvayanafamilyforlessthan
halfacentury. Thisinturnwasoverthrownbythe
Andhras,apurelySouthIndiandynastyoftheDravi-
dians,whoseterritory occupiedtheregionbetween
KalingamandtheKrishna.
Theoverthrow oftheBrahmanKanvasandthe
accessionoftheAndhrasin'27B.c.markanepochin
Indianhistory. ItopenstoourviewIndiasouthofthe
Vindhyaswhichhithertoremainedaterraincognita.
WeshallhavetotreatofIndian historyhereafter

32. 14 ANCIENTINDIA
inthreecompartments,namely,thatofHindustanup
totheVindhyas,thatoftheDekhanbetweenthe
VindhyasandtheKrishna,andthatofIndiasouth
oftheriverKrishna.
TheageoftheSungasandtheKanvaswasto
Hindustan theageofSanskrit revivalandthere
appearstobesomehistoricalfoundation forthetradi-
tionwhichplacesaVikramaditya atthelatterendof
thisage. Itwasatthesametimeanageofdomestic
revolution.Theebbinthefortunes ofthekingdom
ofAsiaunderthedescendants ofSeleucuswasfeltin
Central Asia,and itwascommunicated thence to
India. Afterthesuccessful invasion oftheeast,
Antiochus theGreatfaredbadlyinthecontesthe
hadbroughtonhimselffromtheBomans.Underhis
immediate successors,twokingdomscameintoexist-
ence,theParthianunderArsakasandBactriaunder
itsownGreekviceroy. Thisviceroywhoseindepen-
dencehadbeenrecognizedtriedtoextendhisterritory
eastwardsandwashimselfoverthrownbyausurper.
Thislattercarriedarmsuptoandperhapseven
beyondtheIndusandwasassassinatedbyhisownson.
ItwashissuccessorMenanderwhoinvadedPushya-
mitra'sdominionsandhadtodrawbackbecauseofthe
movementsamongtheSakaswhothemselvesmoved
because oftheYueh-chibeyondoustingthem. Itis
theseSakasthatmarchedintoIndiaandfoundedking-
domsinthePunjabandthelowerIndus,perhaps
undertheParthiansuzeraintyofMithridatis I.These
^akasappeartohavebeenfinallybeatenbackand
jgavetheirnametoSakastan(Seistan).Inthisenter-
prisearulerofMalvadistinguished himself.Hewas
thepatronofKalidasaandhisnamehasbeenhanded
downtousbyagratefulpeopleasthatofthesaviourof
India.TherestillwereSakasorKshetrapasonthe
rightbankoftheIndusandoftheseweshallhaveto
.speakinthesectionontheDekhan.

33. KANISHKA 15
TheSakasofthePunjabwereoverthrownbya
branchofYueh-chiabouta.d.50,andwiththefirst
rulersofthedynastythispartofIndiacameintotouch
withEomeontheonesideandChinaontheother.
Thirdinsuccession inthisdynastyofGandhara
isKanishka,famousinBuddhisthistoryandoneofthe
mostpowerfulofIndianemperors. Scholars disagree
regardingtheactualdateoftheaccessionofKanishka
andhissuccessors,butallagreeastohisgreatness.
Hewasmoresuccessfulinaninvasionoftheneigh-
bouringpartsofChinese territory,wherehisprede-
cessorfailedandwasabletoholdhisownagainstthe
Parthians. Hisfamerests,however,uponhisaccept-
anceofBuddhismandhissuccessfulattemptstomake
the
'middlecountry 'ofChinaaccept it. Aftera
successfulreign,whenhisfrontiersextendedtoPatall-
puraontheonesideandtouchedtheParthianand
ChineseEmpires inthewestandnorthandthe
seainthesouth,Kanishkadiedorwasassassinated
byadiscontentedarmyabouttbemiddleofthesecond
centurya.d.Twoorthreeofhissuccessorscontinued
fromPeshawartorulethisempirewhich,uptothe
verylast,appears tohaveincludedthecountryfrom
iluttraontheeasttoCabulinthewest.When
thelastofthem,Vasudeva,passedawaytheempire
brokeupaboutthefirstquarterofthethirdcentury.
ToturnnowtotheDekhan.Amongthepowers
mentionedasundertheempireofAsokawefindthe
Andhras,whoappeartohavebeenthenalongthe
eastcoast.Theydevelop{gradually,expanding west-
wardssoastooccupyalltheDekhanfromseatosea.
InthedecadencethatfollowedthedeathofAsoka,
theAndhrasseemtohavehadtheirownshare,and
theymaypossiblyhavehelpedKaravela ofKalinga,
whenheinvadedMagadhainthemiddleofthesecond
centuryB.C.WhentheKanvaswereoverthrown the
Andhrasextendtheirpowernorthwardsandoccupy

34. 16 ANCIENTINDIA
Magadha,havinghadtheirflankprotectedbythehills
andriversfromtheYavanainvasionsofMenander.
Duringallthetransactionsdescribedinthelastsection,
theAndhrapowerintheinteriorwasunaffected ;and
thesehadtobeactiveonlyonthewestwherethe
KshetrapasortheSakaSatrapsoftheParthianswere
pushingtheirarmssouthwards. TheAndhrashadto
counteractthisanddosobymakingPaitananalter-
nativecapitaltoDhanakataka intheeast.
Thelaterrulersamongthemshowedthemselvesquite
successfulagainsttheseSakas,particularlyVilivayakura
II'(theBaleokuros oftheGreeks) .Hewasableto
beatofftheKshetrapasfromthesouth,wheretheir
powerwentasfardownastheMalayacountryalong
thecoast.Hissonfollowedin'thewakeofthefather,
andaftertwomoregenerations thedynastycameto
anend,aboutthesametimetheKushanaruledied
outinthenorth.
Onthesouth-eastern sideoftheAndhraswesee
anewpower rising,namely,thatofthePallavas,
regardedthesameasPahlavaorParthiva(Parthian).
Theearliestrecords ofthesecomefromplacesfar
northofKanchiwhich,lateron,becamethecapitalof
thePallavas.ThePallavashavenotyetcometobe
apoliticalfactor.
Southofthisregionwefindanumber ofpetty
States,andfarthersouthstillthethreekingdoms of
Chola,PandyaandKeralaandbeyondtheseCeylon.
ThesePowersappeartohaveactivelyhelpedtheAndhras,
aseachoftheseStates(atleastcertainrulersamong
them),claimtohavedefeated
'theAryanforces '.A
somewhatlaterTamilianrulerofKerala,withhiscapital
atmodernKranganore,claimstohavebeatensomeprinces
'onthebanksoftheGanges.' ThesethreeStates
hadtheirownlocalrivalries,andashistoryopensupon
ICalledGotamlputraSatakarnibysomehistorians,

35. INTEEEEGNUM 17
thispartofthecountry,theCholasareintheascendant.
Thisascendancy passestotheCheraorKeralaruler
whenwereachtheendofthisperiod,thatisabout
theendofsecondcenturya.d.Thisperiodallknown
circumstances pointtoastheeraofgreatTamil
literary activityandthedevelopment ofthelocal
prakrits—amongthelatterPaisachi. Itisinthis
languageandundertheAndhrasthatGunadyacomposed
hisBrihatKatha.
Itisanunfortunate coincidence thatinIndian
historythecenturyfollowing isenvelopedinmistas
regardsallthethreeregionsintowhichwehavedivided
thecountry.Whenagainthemistlifts,thePallavas
arefounddominantinthesouth
;theChalukyasoccupy
theDekhanandtheGuptasareprominentinthenorth.
Thusthereappearstohavebeenagreatinterregnum
inIndia,whichmaybeaccounted forsomewhat as
follows.ThegreatArsakiandynastyofParthiawas
makingwaybeforetheSassanianPersians.Therise
ofthisnewpowerinPersiaputpressureuponthe
SakasofSeistan,whoperhapsmovedeastwards to
jointheircousinsalongthelowerIndusandGuzerat.
Thismusthavethrownthewholewesternfrontierin
confusion.FromthissalientangletheSakas,among
whomtheremighthavebeensomeParthians,pushed
themselveseastwardintoMalvaandsouthward into
theDekhan. ThisputsanendtotheDekhanpower.
AsimilarincursionintothePunjabwouldoverthrow
theKushanadynastythere.Whenwecomeuponthe
Guptas,wefindthemjustattheplacewhere,under
thecircumstances,weoughttoexpectresistance to
theadvanceofthisaggressivepower.ThenextDekhan
poweristheChalukya,inthesouthoftheBombay
Presidency, aboutBijapur. Itisalsoperhapsoutof
thisconfusiontherearisesthe
'foreignPallava
'State
intheNelloreDistrict. Thisaggressionprovokesre-
sistanceandtheorganizer ofthegeneralresistance
2

36. 18 ANCIENTINDIA
risesupoutofthestruggle.WithrespecttoSouth
India,theCheraascendancy isquestionedbytheunited
CholaandPandya,andthesewearouteachother.
Thisleadstothebreak-upofoneempireintoanumber
ofpettyprincipalities,whichfallaneasypreytothe
risingPaJlavas.
"Whenthelightofdaybreaksinuponthetheatre
ofourhistoryatthebeginning ofthefourthcentury
A.D.,thereisawedgeoftheSakasdriveninbetween
JtheDekhanandHindustan. TheseSakas,knownin
thisregiontheKshetrapas,hadalreadyoverthrownthe
-AndhrasoftheDekhanandwereinsecureoccupation
ofthelandofVikramaditya—Malvawithitscapital
Ujjain. Thesehadbeencontinuallyherefromthe
heginningoftheChristianeraand,gettingeventually
^thebetteroftheAndhras,theyhadbecomeagreat
PowerunderthegreatestoftheirrulersEudradaman.
Oneoftherecordsbearinguponthehistoryofthis
ruler'sreignthrowsacuriouslightuponthetimes.
Armiespassedandrepassedanddynastiesroseandfell,
butthepeacefulpursuitsoftheagriculturistandthe
artisanwentonundisturbed. Thegranthasreference
totherepairing ofatank,bynameSudarsana,con-
structedinthereignofAsoka,butdamagedowingto
abreach. ThiswasrepairedunderEudradamanand
adequateprovisionwasmadeforitsup-keepintheman-
nerusualinthecountry,foreignerashewasinthat
region.Butforthissensiblecontinuityofadministra-
tivepolicy,theevilconsequences oftherapidsucces-
sionofinvasionswouldhavebeenimmenselymore
detrimental tothecountry.
ItwasintheregionsetoveragainstMalvathatthe
nextgreatIndianPowercomesintobeing.Acertain
officer,possiblyoftheAndhras,bynameortitle,Gupta,
hadapettyprovinceinandaboutKosambisouth-west
ofAllahabad. Hissonpassedawayunnoticedalso. It
wasthegrandsonChandragupta, whobecamethe

37. SAMUDEAGUPTA 19
founderofadynasty.Hisperiodofrulewascertainly
agoldenageinIndianhistory.Chandraguptamarried
aLicchaviprincessofVaisali,whichgavehimsuch
influenceand,whatismore,suchpowerfulaidthathe
wasableeasilytomakehimselftherulerofwhatwas
ancientMagadha.Henotonlybeatbacktheadvanc-
ingtideofKshetrapa aggressionincentralIndia,but
alsouprootedthepowerofthese^akarulers.Having
madehimselfsofarsuccessful,hefoundedanerain
A.D.319,knownastheGuptaera.Chandragupta's
reignwasdevotedtosecuringwhatundertheMauryas
wasMagadha. Havingbeenhappilysosuccessful in
this,hehadalsothediscernment tojoinwithhimm
thisworkofempirebuildinghiseldestsonSamudra-
gupta,theNapoleonofIndia.
Samudragupta welldeservesthecomparison.Hewas
notonlyagreatconquerorbutalsoacapableadminis-
trator
;andboththefatherandsonwereskilledinthe
finearts.Samudragupta isdescribed asa
'
riipakrit
'
whichscholarsinterpret asadramatist.Theword
ordinarilymeansasculptor.Heseemstohaveearly
conceivedtheideaofunitingthewholeofIndiainto
oneempire,andthisideahebegantoputintopractice
withalltheuncompromising zealbegotten ofconfi-
denceinhiscapacity.Leavingintheextreme east,
Kamarfipa(Assam),Davaka(middle)andSamatata(the
Delta)independent alliesuponhiseasternfrontier,he
conqueredthewholeofHindustanexceptingthePunjab.
(HisfatherChandragupta carriedhisconquestsuptothe
Arabiansea).Thisdonehestartedonacareerofcon-
questtothesouth. StartingfromPatna,hepassed
rapidlythroughtheMahanadivalleydowntheeastcoast,
cominguptoKanchiinthesouthwherethePallavas
hadalreadymadethemselves secure.Takingaturn
tothenorth-west,hepassedthroughtheMaharashtra
countryandKhandeshandenteredhisterritoryagain.
Fromtheelevenkingdomshepassedthrough,he

38. 20 ANCIENTINDIA
exactedallegiancebutotherwise leftthemautonomous.
Hethenenteredintosatisfactorypoliticalengagements
withtheautonomous tribesofthePunjab,Eajputana
andMalva ;andwithNepalandthetribesalongits
borders.Notcontentwiththis,henotonlyentered
intodiplomaticrelationswiththeKushanarulersof
theGhandharaandKabul,butalsowiththechief
KushanarulerontheOxus.Inthesouthhereceived
amissionfromMeghavarna ofCeylon,whorequested
permission tobuildaBuddhisticmonastery atGaya.
Havingachievedsomuch,hegothisexploitssetinthe
bestSanskritverseandinscribed ituponanAsokapillar
nowatAllahabad.WhatwasmerevanityinSamud-
ragupta iscomforttothehistorian.Hewassucceeded
byhissonChandraguptaVikramaditya who,through
anequallylongreignwithhisfatherandgrandfather,
preservedthegrandfabricofempirehandeddownto
him,andmadehisreignsogloriousthatscholarsnow
find itthemostsuitabletoascribetothetraditional
Vikramaditya. WiththeGuptas,Brahmanism and
Sanskritliteraturetakeafreshstart,thoughBuddhism
wasnotpersecutedassuch.
Iftheambassadors oftheCeylonesekingaretobe
trusted,Buddhismseems tohavealreadydecayed
considerably. Somewhat later,however, theChinese
pilgrimFaHianvisitedthecountry,andpassedacross
thewholeofHindustanfromTaxilatothemouthsof
theGanges.Hisobservations areallthemorevaluable,
astheywerethoseofamanwhonotesthemonlyby
theway. IfFaHianistobebelievedBuddhismwas
notinsuchabadway.Thewholeadministration
wasverycreditableandcriminallawwasmild,capital
punishmentshavingbeenfew.Thereappearstohave
beennothingharassingintheGovernment. People
enjoyedalargemeasureoffreedomandconsiderable
wealth. Privatebenefactionswerelargeandthewhole
countryworealookofgreatprosperity. Theroads

39. THEGUPTAEMPIREANDTHEHUNS 2]
werewelllookedafterandkeptclearofmarauders
;and
throughallhislongjourneyFaHianwasnotsubjected
toanymolestationwhatever,Buddhistthoughhewas.
TheGuptaswereYaishuavas,butlikeIndianmonarchs
theirbenefactionsweredistributed alikeamongallreli-
gionsinthecountry. Tolerancemaybeavirtueora
weakness;butthemostpowerfulHindudynastywas
tolerantinthehighestdegree.FaHianspentanum-
berofyearsinlearningSanskritandwasrewarded
bygainingvaluableBuddhistworksinthatlanguage.
InthereignofChandragupta Vikramaditya, that
greatscourgeoftheworld,theHuns,brokeinupon
theGuptaEmpire astheydidupontheEoman
Empire. Skandagupta hisgrandsonnotonlyrepaired
themischiefdonetotheempireinthereignofhis
fatherKumaragupta I,butalsobeatbacktheHuns.
Butalaterinvasionofthesemadehimfallback,and
theHunsunderToramanaestablishedthemselves in
Malva,andthecountry inthenorth-west, having
overthrowntheSakarulersofGandharabytheway.
Itwasasaresultofthismishaptotheempirethat
Guzerat separatedunderSenapatiBhattaraka,who
foundedtheVallabhidynastywhichlastedontillthey
wereoverthrownbytheMuhammadan invasionsabout
A.D.770.Althoughtheempirewasdividedtherulerof
MalvaYasodharmanandtheEmperorBaladitya,now
confined toMagadha,bothdefeatedMihiragula, the
fiendishsonofToramana. Mihiragula wastaken
prisoner, butwasrestoredbythemagnanimity of
Baladitya.Helivedtohanddownhisnametopos-
terity,asaninfamoustyrantofKashmir,adespoilerof
templesandmonasteries ;asonewhocultivatedcruelty
almostasafineart.Withthecontinuedincursions of
theseHunstheGuptaEmpirecomestoanend.Before
takingleaveofthisempire itisbutdoingjusticeto
agreatdynastyofemperors,whonotonlybuiltan
empire,buttookgreatpainstoadminister itupon

40. 22 ANCIENTINDIA
themostenlightened principles, despotic astheir
authoritywas,toquoteasmallpassagefromFaHian
regarding freehospitals,whichweredueperhapsto
theinfluence ofthathumane predecessor ofthe
Guptas,Asoka. Thesehospitalswereendowedby
benevolentandeducated citizens.
'Hithercomeall
poororhelplesspatientssufferingfromallkindsof
infirmities.Theyarewelltakencareofandadoctor
attendsthem,foodandmedicinebeingsuppliedaccord-
ingtotheirwants.Thustheyaremadequitecom-
fortable,andwhentheyarewelltheymaygoaway.'
Commentwouldbesuperfluous. Theoverthrow of
theGuptasbringsIndianhistorytoalmosttheend
ofthesixthcenturyA.D.
TurningtotheDekhan,duringtheperiodthedis-
integration thatcameuponitinconsequence ofthe
successfulwarsoftheMalvaKshetrapas continued,
andthewholeregionwasbrokenupintoanumber
ofpettyprincipalities. "WhenSamudraguptaundertook
hisgreatinvasion ofthisregion, itwascomposed
ofelevenkingdoms, possiblymore.Eventhenthe
westernhalfremainedalittlemorecompacthaving
beendividedbetweenDaivarashtra andErandapalla,
corresponding respectively tothemodernMaharashtra
andKandesh. Itisfromtheformerthatthefirst
powerfuldynastyworksitswayup.Duringtheperiod
ofthelaterGuptas,whentheywereengagedinthat
deathgrapplewiththeHuns,theChalukyasgradually
occupiedtheterritoryoftheirnorthernneighbourand
pusheddowntheKrishnatooccupythecountrysince
knownasVengi. Heretheycomeintotouchwith
thePallavas,withwhomtheyhadtomaintain per-
petualwaralongtheborders.
Thefarthersouthwasalsogettingconsolidated
underthenewrulers,thePallavasofKanchi.When
Samudraguptacametothesouth,Vishnugopawasthe
rulerofKanchi.Hissuccessors atKanchigradually

41. THETHREEPOWERS 23
annexedotherPallavaStatesintheneighbourhood,
andexpandedsouthwards, addingthesmallerStates
betweenthedominionsunderKanchiandtheChola
andKeralakingdoms. AlongthebanksoftheKrishna
thentheserisingPallavashadtokeepvigilant, as
againsttheChalukyas.TheaccessionofthePallavas
markstheriseofBrahmanism inthesouth,andthese
Pallavasweregreattemple-builders andpatrons of
Tamilliterature,forsomeoftheearliestoftherock-
cuttemplesdedicated toSivaandVishnubelongto
thisperiod.
Whenweemergeoutofthisformativeperiod.States
re-form inIndia,andthewholecountry fallsinto
threewell-marked divisions,namely,theempire of
Hindustanunderthesupremacy ofThanesvara, the
DekhanundertheChalukyas,andthefarthersouth
underthePallavas. These shallbetakeninthis
order,asitwasduringthisperiodthattherewere
afewChinesepilgrims,chiefamongwhomwasHieun
Thsang.Xotonlythis ;wehavealsomoreofindi-
genoushistoricalmaterial tohand ;tomentiononly
afew—Bana'sHarshacharita, inscriptions ofallthe
three,Xandikkalambakam, thePrabandhas ofthe
Vaishnavas,theworksoftheSaivaAdiyars,etc.
Itwillpreservechronological continuity tobegin
withSouthIndia first.ThePallavapowerfromthe
northern frontier ofthisregionproved abulwark
againsttheadvancingChalukyapower.AboutA.d.500,
whiletheGuptaemperorswereengaged infighting
theHuns,thePallavashadbecomethechiefsouthern
power ;whiletheDekhanalsohadbeenunitedunder
Kirtivarman and hisbrother Mangalisa. When
MahendraPallava'sdeathleavesthePallavadominions
tohissonNarasimhavarman, oneofthegreatest
amongthedynasty,theChalukyaPowersimultaneously
passestothegreatestamongthemPulikesin II.The
accession oftheseprincestopowertookplaceabout.

42. 24 ANCIENTINDIA
thesametimethatacertaincombination ofcircum-
stancesbroughtabouttheaccessionofHarshavardhana
SiladityaofThanesvar, lateronofKanouj. "Wemust
nowturntothisruler.
Outoftheconfusioncausedbytheincursions of
Mihiragala, theHunkingofSagala(thecapitalof
ancientMadraDesa),therearose,inthelineofmarch
oftheenemyandinthefar-famedregionofbattles
wheremorethanoncethefateofIndiawastobe
decided,achieftainbynamePrabhakaravardhana, who
wasconnectedbymarriagewiththeimperialGuptas.
Prabhakara beatbacktheHunsthrough histwo
valiantsons,theelderEajyavardhana andtheyounger,
aladoffifteen,Harshavardhana. Thelattercom-
mandingtherear,whilehisbrothermarchedahead,
wasstillintheregionbelowthemountainsonhisway,
whenheheardhisfatherwastaken illandreturned.
Theeldersoonfollowed,havingcrushedtheenemy
andplaced thefrontier inacondition ofsafety.
Prabhakaradiedandwassucceededbyhiseldestson,
whoheardofamisfortune^[that befellhisonlysister
EajyasrimarriedtoGrahavarman ofMagadha.The
latterhadbeenkilledbytherulerofMalvaand
Bajyasrihadbeenthrownintoprison.Eajyavardhana
marcheduponMalva,andhavingdefeatedtheking
ofthatcountry,wasonthemarchhomewardwhen
hewasentrappedbySasankaofBengal. Eajyavar-
dhanawasassassinatedbySasankaandEajyasr!ha.d
toescapetotheVindhyan forests tosaveherself.
Harshavardhana appearstohavebeenunwilling to
accepttheresponsibility ofrule,buthehadtodoso
allthesame.
Hisfirsttaskwastogoinsearchofhissister,
andfindwhereshewas,whichhesoondidandjust
savedherfromdeath.HethenturnedtoSasanka
andreducedhimtosubjection. Thisdone,hesetto
himselfthetaskofrebuildingtheempire,asitwas

43. HAESHA 25
undertheGuptas.Throughout acomparatively long
reignhewasconstantly engaged inwarforabout
thirtyyears,andbroughtthewholeofHindustanunder
hissway,hisauthorityhavingbeenacknowledgedby
theBrahminical rulerofKamarupa(Assam)andthe
6aivarulerofBengalontheonesidetothefaroff
VallabhiandKashmir attheotherextremity. In
onedirectionalimitwassettohisarms,andsohis
achievement fellfarshortofhisambition,which
wasprobablythatofSamudragupta. Harshaunder-
tookaninvasionoftheDekhan,buttheVindhyan
passesweresowellguardedbyPulikesin ofthe
Dekhan thatHarshawasactually defeated. Like
manyanothergreatmanherecognizedthelimitation
tohisowncapacityandacquiesced inthisdefeat,
asheneveragainmadeanyotherattemptonthis
side. Thus,having reconstructed anEmpire of
Hindustan,heturnedhisattentiontomaintaining this
empire.
ItwasduringthelaterpartofhisreignthatHiuen
Thsang,thegreatmasteroftheLawfromChina,
travelledinIndia.Hefoundtheadministration ofthe
empireassatisfactory ashispredecessor ofacouple
ofcenturiesagohaddone,exceptthatthelandandwater
wayswerenotsosecureasintheageoftheGuptas.
Theemperorwasconstantlyonthemoveandhis
campwasalmostamoving city. Criminal justice
appears tohavebeenprompt,butsomewhatseverer
thanintheprevious age. Therewasaregular
systemofofficial records,althoughnoneofthese
havecomedowntous.Harsha,agreatscholarand
poethimself,gaveastimulus tolearning, and,ac-
cordingtotheChinesescholar,educationappearsto
havebeenwidespread. Inhiscourt,andunderhis
directpatronage, poetsflourished insuchnumbers
thathisnameranksamongtypicalpatronsofletters.
Bynatureorbyeducation,heappearstohavebeen

44. 26 ANCIENTINDIA
extremely tolerant.* Hiseclecticismwasmuchlike
thatofAkbar
;butlatterly,andthroughtheinfluence
ofHiuenThsang,heleantmoreandmoretothe
Mahayana schoolofBuddhism. ThegreatBuddhist
festivalhecelebrated atKanoujandthetoleration
feastheheldatAllahabadshowthatheentertained
verybroadandenlightened viewsupon religion.
Althoughhehadtocarryonwarsincessantly for
thirtyyears,heseemstohavebeenledintowarout
ofsheernecessity,ratherthanofatasteforit.The
storiesregarding hisactsofpersecutionhavetobe
considerably discounted.Whenhepassedawayin
A.D.648hedoesnotappeartohaveleftaproper
successor.AministerofhisArjunausurpedtheempire.
Theusurpationprovedafailure,throughtheinter-
cessionofaChineseambassador. HarshasentaBrah-
manasambassador toChina.Whenthisambassador
returned,ChinasentareturnembassyunderWang-
Hiuen-t'se.Whenthislatterarrivedtheusurpation
hadtakenplace.Theusurperilltreatedtheambassador
whofledtoTibetforprotection. Returningwith
Tibetanhelp,heoverthrewtheusurper,andthuscame
toanendthelastHinduempire, ofHindustan.
Duringthecenturiesfollowing A.d.700uptothe
Muhammadan conquest, thereneverwasbuiltup
anotherempireofanydurationandthewantofa
centralpoweraccountsfortheconquest,withcompa-
rativeease,ofIndiabytheMuhammadans.
Ataboutthesametimealsocametoanendthe
greatPallavaPowerinSouthIndia. Sinceadminis-
teringthechecktoHarsha,Pulikesinhadtograpple
withthePallavaNarasimhavarman, thebuilderofthe
cave-temples atMamallapuram, thesevenpagodas.
OneofthePallavagenerals,marcheduptothecapital
1ThisistheageandBenarestheplacewhereSankaracharya is
believedtohavewrittenhisBhashyam.

45. EMPIRE-BUILDING 27
oftheChalukyasatBadamianddestroyed itsocom-
pletelythattherewasaninterregnum ofthirteen
yearsafterPuhkesin. Hissuccessors,however,often
carriedthewarintothePallavaterritory,thenorthern
frontierhavingbeenundisturbed. Itwastomaintain
peaceonthisPallavafrontierthatPulikesinorganized
aseparateviceroyalty atVengiunderhisbrother,who
inhisturnbecamethefounderofadynasty.
AsadcalamityovertooktheChalukyasaboutthe
latterhalfoftheseventhcenturya.d.Thiswasthe
overthrow oftheirdynastyandtheusurpation ofthe
ChalukyaEmpirebytheEashtrakutas, withtheir
capitalfarther,andthereforesafer,fromthePallavas.
ThisgavethePallavasalittlerespite;butafterthe
temporaryoccupation ofKanchibytheEashtrakuta
Vairamegha,thePallavaEmpirebreaksupintosmaller
States,fromoutofwhichthegreatCholaEmpire
iseventually torise.
Amidst allthisceaselessfluxofthepoliticalunits
thatconstituted Indiathrough alltheseages,there
standsoutonefact,namely, thatwhenever great
empireswereinexistence, suchastheMaurya or
GuptaoreventhatofHarsha,Indiaenjoyednotonly
internal tranquillity andtheblessings ofagood
administration, butalsosecurityonthefrontiers.
Wheneverthisimperialunitywaswanting, itfollows
asunmistakably thattheanarchicalelementsinside
assertedthemselves. Thisstateofdivisioninvitedan
invader,andhewasreadilyforthcoming, sothatif
there isonefeaturewhichcanbesaidtobethe
dominantfeature ofthehistory ofIndiaduringthe
milleniumendingA.D.700,thatfeatureistheattempt
tobuildapermanent empire.Inspiteofallthese
disturbancestherestillwasagoodmeasureofpeaceand
plentyinthecountry,andwhatfollows,asanecessary
consequence thereof,considerable success inmaking
lifenotonlytolerablebutcomfortable. Theliterary

46. 28 ANCIENTINDIA
andartisticachievements oftheperiodarethingswe
maywellbeproudof;andthishasbeendueentirely
toabroadoutlookintothefuturebyourancestors.
Itisonlytoberegrettedthattheydidnotdiscover
amethodofreconcilingtheopposingprincipleoflocal
autonomywithimperial unity.Thisaccountsforall
theillsthatfollowed.
ThehistoryofHinduIndiahasaunityofitsown,
ifonlythematerialavailablebeusedconstructively.
Thisunitywouldbecometheclearer, ifwecouldbut
bringtogetheralltheavailableinformation. Itisevery
daybecomingmoreandmorepossible,thankstothe
exertionsoforientalists, towritesuchahistory.

47. CHAPTER II
HISTOBYOFSOUTHINDIA
AGOODmapofIndia,willshowveryclearlythat
India,southoftheHimalayas, fallsnaturally into
threedivisions,namely,theriverplainsofHindustanin
thenorth,theplateauofMalvaDekhaninthemiddle,
andtheplainsbelowtheGhautsboundingtheDekhan
plateau. Historically eachofthesenaturaldivisions
maybetreatedseparately. Hindustanhasahistory
ofitsown,comingintotouchwiththatoftheDekhan
onlyatparticularepochs.TheDekhanhasitsperiods
ofhistoryquitedistinctfromthatofHindustan ;while
thehistoryofSouthIndiaandthatoftheDekhan
comeintocontactmuchoftener,andthegeneralmove-
mentsofbothregionsshowagreatdealmoreof
connexionandinteraction. Thereasonforthisstate
ofthings isnothardtounderstand. Intheearly
dawnofhistoryinIndia,betweenthefirsttwodivi-
sionstherewasanimpenetrable forestcalledMaha-
kantara (orthegreatforest)flankingtheVindhyas,
andprovingwiththemagreatbarriertothefreedom
ofmovements ofthepopulation.Withrespecttothe
Dekhanandthesouththerehasneverbeenanysuch
barriereitherofmountainorforest.Hence itiswe
arejustifiedintreatingofthehistoryofthispartof
India—IndiasouthoftheVindhyas—asonewhole,
though itispossibleandoftennecessarytotreatitin
compartments.
ThehistoryofpeninsularIndiabegins,then,some-
whatlaterthanthatofHindustan
;fortheDravidian

48. 30 ANCIENTINDIA
civilization ofthesouth,thoughmuchmoreancient
thanitshistory,owesitshistorytoAryanimmigration,
asmuchasdoesnorthIndia.Thisimmigration of
theAryanstookplacecertainlymuchlaterthanVedic
times. Oftheperiodthatintervenedbetween this
immigrationandthebeginning ofhistoricaltimesin
southIndia,wehavebutfewtracesofevidence,and
thesearemoreoftenindirectthandirect.
Thefirstdefinitementionofkingdomsinthesouth,
whichcanbeacceptedashistorical,undoubtedly is
thatinthethirteenth edictofAsoka.Thiswehave
toregardasthehistorical startingpoint,untilthe
chronology ofthePuranasandtheEpicsaresettled
beyonddoubt.Evenassuchwehavetocomedown
totheChristianeraforanydetailedknowledge of
SouthIndia.
Forthisknowledgewearemoredependentuponthe
so-calledauxiliariestohistorythananyhistorywehave,
evenofthechroniclekind.Theevidenceistobefound
inthemonuments ofhumanindustryandart,andthe
inscriptionsthathavecomedowntousoncoins,metallic
plates,oruponstones.Theinscriptionsdonottakeus
veryfar,andtheinformationcontainedinthem,though
reliableandoftenclear, isnotquitesofullasone
wouldwishtheywere.Themonumentshavebegun
tobestudiedonlyrecently,and,sofar,theresults
theyhaveyielded,thoughquitesatisfactory, arenot
fullenough.Thereismuchtobedoneherebefore
resultscanbeachieved.Thetraditionary evidence
isofadifferentcharacter. Itisfarfuller,thoughvery
carefulsifting isrequiredbeforeanyreliancecanbe
placeduponit.Thesetraditionsmaybegroupedinto
ethnographyandfolklore,andliterature.Thecustoms,
habits,andthevariousandvaryingpractices ofthe
people telltheirowntale,notonlyinregardtothe
movements ofthepeopleandtheirchangeofhabitat,
butalsogiveusthecluetotheirhistory.

49. PERIODSOFSOUTHINDIANHISTORY 31
Theliterarytraditionisoftenmorefixedandperhaps
morereliable,thoughagainconsiderablecarehastobe
bestowedinthecollection, classificationandevaluation
oftheevidence.Onageneralconsideration ofthese
variousitemsofinformationsofaravailable,thehistory
ofSouthIndiawouldfallintosixperiods
:
—
(1)Earlyperiod—tothefifthcenturya.d.
(2)Pallavaperiod—fifthtoninthcenturya.d.
(3)TheCholaascendancy—ninthtofourteenth
centurya.d.
(4)Theascendancy ofVijayanagar—fourteenth to
sixteenthcenturya.d.
(5)TheMusalman-Maharatta period—sixteenthto
eighteenthcenturya.d.
(6)TheBritishperiod—eighteenthandnineteenth
centuryA.D.
Corresponding tothistherearefortheDekhan:
—
(1)Andhraperiod—tofifthcenturya.d.
(2)EarlyChalukyaperiod—fifthtoseventh,and
Eashtrakuta—seventhtotenthcenturya.d.
(3)ThelaterChalukyaperiod—tenthtofourteenth
century a.d.
(4)Vijayanagar.
(5)Musalman-Maharatta.
(6)TheBritishperiod.
TheearliestperiodofSouthIndianhistory,incon-
tradistinction tothatoftheDekhan,dependsentirely
uponliteraryevidence. Infactforthefirstperiod
there isnothing elseexcept forafewAsokaand
Satavahanarecords.EvenSatavahanahistorydepends
ingreatpartupontheaccountsgiveninthePuranas
—chieflytheMatsya,VishnuandtheVayu. Sofar,
therefore, asthemovement ofpoliticalpoweriscon-
cerned,SouthIndiaandtheDekhanweremarkedoff
respectively asthespheresoftheSatavahanasand
'the
threekings
'andseveral(sevenaccording toTamil
literature) chieftains.ThekingsarerespectivelyChera,

50. 32 ANCIENTINDIA
Chola,andPandya
;andthechieftainshavetheirstrong-
holdsonhillocks,likethedoorgsofthePalayagarsof
alatergeneration. Theregionspeciallyremarkable
forthesechieftaincieswasthehillystripofcountry
runningthroughSouthArcot,Salem,andCoimbatore
districts,atthefootoftheghautswheretheymove
outtomeeteachother.Kanchiwasthehead-quarters
ofone,Tirukoilurofanother,Anji,Kari,andOribelong
totheSalemdistrict ;Pehan,Evviandafewothersto
MaduraandTinnevelly; whileAmur(Ambur)and
VellorebelongedtoyetanotherchieftainofMavilangai.
Therewassomecommercialactivityduringthistime,
althoughtheperiodmusthavebeenfullofwarsaswell.
Happyconfusionprevailedinmattersreligious,asingle
streetoftencontainingshrinessacredtothebrightbene-
ficentVedicdeitiesandtheblood-thirstyandvengeful
devilworship. Alongsidebothofthesearethequiet
abodesoftheholyonesoftheJainsandtheBud-
dhistsaswell.Thereappeartohavebeentherudiments
ofgoodgovernment,mostlyinsomesortofselfgovern-
ment,andjusticewasadministeredwitheven-handed
impartiality. Theauthoritiespresenttous,nodoubt,
idealizedpictureofthestateofsociety ;butbehind
theworkofartitiseasytodiscoverthebed-rockof
fact.Thereseemstohavebeenmoreunityinsocietj%
andthehardhideboundexclusiveness(whichisonlytoo
apparentnow),doesnotfindmuchvogue.Buddhist
andJaininfluences areatwork
;buttheworshipof
SivaandVishnuseemtocarrythelargestclientele.
Thisoldorderchangethyieldingplacetonew,and
wefindinsteadastrugglingbodyofwarringpolitical
atoms.Fromoutofthisstruggle arisesthegreat
Pallavapower,andwepassintothesecondperiod. It
oftenappearsthatthehistoryofIndia,beforetheBritish
supremacywasestablished,canbeconsideredonlyas
aperpetual struggletofoundanempire.Eegarded
inthismanner,theestablishment ofthatEuropean

51. AGEEATLANDMAEK 33
powerwouldbethenatural resultofthepolitical
evolutionofthecountryasawhole.Thisviewseems
tobeclearlyrightwithrespecttoSouthIndiain
particular,andthuscanbeseenaparallelisminIndian
historytothatofGreeceinpre-Macedonian times.
Atthecommencement ofthefirstoftheseperiodsthe
Cholasareintheascendancy.Theygiveplacetothe
Cheras,whointurnmakeroomforthePandya.The
PandyasupremacypassesawayandthePallavasrise
intoimportance. Thelatestscientificestimateofthe
ageofallthesevicissitudes isthefifthcentury ;hut
thereisavolumeofevidenceinfavourofpushingthis
periodbackafewcenturies.Heretheinvestigation
willhavetogohandinhandbothinSanskritand
Tamil.Thisisnottheplacenortheoccasionforan
elaborateexminationoftheconnexionbetweenthetwo
languages,butitmustberemarkedinpassingthatone
oftheearliestTamilKavyas isbasedontheBriJiat
KathdofGunadya,whoflourishedinthecourtofa
Satavahana atPaitan.Thisgivesustheultimatelower
limit ;whilethefifthcenturywouldbetheultimate
upperlimitforthisperiodofefflorescence ofTamil.
Thereisonegreatlandmarkbetweenthefirstperiod
andthesecond,andthatistheinvasionofthesouth
bythegreatSamudragupta. Hecamesouthdownto
Kanchiandthenturnednorth-westfrom it.The
contemporary ofthisGuptawasVishnugSpaofKanchi,
whichnamefiguresamongtheearlyrulersofKanchi
inthePallavarecords.Withthemwecomeupon
firmerhistorical ground. Simultaneously withthese
riseintoimportancetheearlyChillukyas,intheregion
thathad,intheearlierperiod,beeninthepossession
oftheSatavahanas. Theselatterhadtomaintain
theirpossessions asagainsttheKshetrapas, firstfrom
GuzeratandthenagainstthemfromMalva.Inthis
struggletheywerefinallyoverthrown,anditisfrom
amonothefeudatories oftheseSatavahanas thatthe
3

52. 34 ANCIENTINDIA
Chalukyas rise.TheAndhraorSatavahana ruleis
characterizedbyahnostthesamesocialfeaturesasthe
farthersouth ;butinpointofreligiontheyseemto
havebeengreatpatronsoftheJainsandBuddhists.
Tradeguildsandcommercialcorporationsseemtohave
beeninexistence
;andabriskcommercialintercourse
appearstohavebeenmaintainedbothwiththeinterior
bywayofland,andwiththeouterworldbywayof
water.ThePrakritdialectsseemtohavebeenculti-
vatedwithcare,andthePaisachiBriliatEathd is
evidenceofthisculture. Prathishtana (Paitan),Patri,
Vallabhipatan, aresaidtohavebeengreatmartsand
ports ofexitforcommerce onthewestcoast
;
whileequallyimportant intheeastandsouthwere
placeslikeTamralipti,Kataka,Tondi,Puhar,Korkai,
etc.,ontheCoromandel ;Cranganore,Tondi,Vaikkarai
ontheArabianSeaCoast.Otherplacesreferred to
areKataha,Sambahavaandsomeislands,andregions
aboutthePersianGulf.
Throughthecenturiesofitssway,theSatavahana
dynastyhaditspowerextendingfromseatosea,
andwearenotquitesurehowitactuallypassedout
ofexistence.Theusualbreak-upprobablyfollowed,
agreatexternalimpact,andwhenagainwegaina
glimpseweseetheChalukyaswellontheirwayto
hegemonyintheDekhan.Froma.d.500to750we
findtheChalukyasandthePallavasconstantlyatwar.
ThePallavasgaintheupperhandanddestroythe
capitaloftheChalukyas atBadamiabouta.d.640.
Inconsequence there isaninterregnum forthirteen
years.Duringthenexttwogenerations thePallavas
suffersimilardisastersfromtheChalukyas. Kanchi
hasoftentostandsiegeandevensufferoccupationby
anenemy.TheconstantwarsonthePallavafrontier
wearthemout,andaninternalrevolutiondoesthe
rest.TheChalukyas fallandtheEashtraktitas risein
theirplace.ThePallavasattempttoasserttheirinde-

53. PALLAVAASCEMDANCY 35
pendence
;buttheattemptisfrustratedbytheenergetic
actionoftheRashtrakuta Dantidurga Vairamegha.
WiththispassesawayPallavagreatness,andtheir
territorybecomesbrokenupintoanumberofchieftadn-
cies,thefirstofthesebeingoverthrownbytheChola
Adityabeforea.d.900.ThissameruleroftheChola
dynastyalsooverthrewtheKongucountry,andthus
begantheCholaempireintheDekhan.
TheperiodofPallavaascendancy isremarkablein
manyways. Itwastheperiodofgreatreligiousactivity,,
whenBuddhismhadtogivewaybeforetherisingtide
ofPauranic Hinduism, both^aivaandVaishnava.
According toMr.Venkayya theearliestPallavasof
thePrakritrecordswereBuddhists ;thenextones
wereVaishnavaandthelastonesSaiva. Thiswas
alsotheperiodwhencave-temples,andothertemples,as
well,cametobeconstructed inlargenumbers. There
wasalsoconsiderable activityinliterature.Manyof
theTamilclassicsthatwehaveatpresenthavetobe
ascribedtothisperiod.IntheDekhanalsotherewas
similar activity, theKailasanatha temple atEllora
havingbeenbuiltduringtheperiod.
WhenthePallavapowerbrokeabouttheendof
theeighthcenturya.d.,andtheCholaswerebeginning
torise,SouthIndiawasdividedinpohticalallegiance,
theborderlinepassingthroughthefringe ofthe
plateau. Justintheregionwhereweare,therewas
thedynastyoftheGangasrulingovertheplaindistricts
ofMysore,withtheircapitalsatKolarandTalakadat
differenttimes.ThePallavasandPandyasseemto
havebeenatwar,whichendedinthecompleteover-
throw oftheformer.ThePandya activityinthe
northreceivedacheckfromtheGangafeudatories of
theEashtrakutas inabattlefoughtsofaroutas
Tirupparambiyam nearKumbhakonam. ThePandya
Varagunahadtowithdraw,andthiswasthetime
propitioustotheriseofanewdynastyofenterprising

54. 36 ANCIENTINDIA
rulers,suchastheCholaswere.Theyriseintopro-
minencenodoubfbytheacquisition ofthePallava
andtheKongukingdoms. Thislatteracquisitionbrings
theCholasintotouchwiththeRashtrakntas through
theirsouthernfeudatoriestheGangas.TheEashtra-
kutasandtherisingCholasgotowar.KrishnaIII
oftheformerdynasty issofarsuccessfulthatheis
inoccupation ofKanchi. LateronEajaditya,theson
<ofParantaka I,fallsinabattlefoughtina.d.949-50
withaGangafeudatory,Butuga
;andthisforatime
checkstherisingtideofCholaaggression. Abouta
quarterofacenturythencetheKashtrakutas falla
victimtoadomestic revolution,andascionofthe
westernChalukyas risesintoimportance. Thisrevo-
lutiongivestheCholastherequisiteleisuretoorganize
theirresources,andwhentheyreappearunderEaja-
rajatheyarealreadyagreatpower.TheChalukyas
similarlyhaveasuccession ofableandenergetic
rulers.Theplateaubecomes thedebatable frontier
betweenthetwopowers,andthisstruggleconti-
nuesforsixorsevengenerations,withvaryingsuc-
cess,untilatlasttheCholasandtheChalukyasmark
offtheirspheresofinfluenceasitwere.TheCholas
remainbelowtheGhats,andtheterritory inthe
plateauremainsnominallyundertheChalukyas. The
endofthisstruggle—abattleroyalbetweentwo
equallymatchedpowers—wellorganizedandwithgreat
resources—bringsintoprominence anumberoffeuda-
torystates,chiefamongwhichhavetobementioned
theYadavas ofDevagiri,theKakatiyas of^^'arangal,
andtheHoysalas ofDvarasamudra. Inthesouth
thechiefsofminorprincipalities riseintoimportance
;
buttheleadingpartistakenbyasuccessionwarfor
thePandyathrone,inwhichtheCeyloneseonthe
onehand,andtheCholasandtheirfeudatorieson
theothertakepart.Thiscivildissensioncontributes
toweakenallparties,theCholasfall,andthePandyas

55. AGEOPHINDUPEOGEESS 37
andtheHoysalasfightforthequarry,astheHoysalas
andtheYadavasdidbeforeonthebreakupofthe
ChalukyaEmpire. AtthetimethatMarcoPolowas
sailingalongtheIndiancoast,NarasimhaHoysalaand
SundaraPandyawererulinginthesouth
;theYada-
vaswereunderEamadeva,andtheKakatiyasunder
PratapaEudraII.ItwasintothisworldofSouth
Indiathuspolitically dividedthatAla'u'd-din Khilji
brokein.Whennexthisgeneral,MalikKafur,under-
tookamoresystematic raidintothesouth,theking-
domswereiaahigh stateofdecay.Theywere
allcrashedandtheMusalman stoodarbiter fora
time.
Thisistheperiodofhighwatermark ofHindupro-
gressallround.ModernHinduismassumestheshape
inwhichwefinditto-day.Theindigenousliterature
aswellastheclassicalSanskritreceiveconsiderable
patronageandblossomintofullmaturitytopassinto
artificiality. Religion has,beenreadjusted tothere-
quirementsofthemasses,andadministrationhadcome
tobehighlyorganizeduponsurprisinglymodernlines.
Revivalism inreligionandre-invigoration wasthe
orderoftheday. Itisupona\^-orldsosituatedthat
thefloodwaveofMuslimincursion brokein,over-
turningeverything. AsinnatLiresoinpoliticsaction
provokesre-aclionagainst it.Thisincursion,andthe
consequentconfusionandapprehension, provokedlocal
re-action,wherever therewerelocalrulingfamilies.
TheMuslimoutpostsarebeateninandtheempire
isinnopositiontoassert itsauthoiitv. TheIdcal
effortsaregatheredupinthefoundation ofalarge
andunitedHinduEmpireknown tohistoryasthat
ofVijianagar. Thisempirelastsfromthemiddleof
thefourteenthcentury totheendofthesixteenth,
wheninitsturn itfallsbeforeacoalition ofthe
Musalmankingdoms oftheDekhan.Thetwochief
MusalmanStatesofGolkondaandBijfipurdividethe

56. 38 ANCIENTINDIA
southbetweenthemselves,theKarnaticBalaghatgoing
totheone,andthepa'inghattotheother.Inthe
former, arisesthekingdom ofMysore,andinthe
lattertheNawabshipofArcot.Happilythefirstone
remainsto-dayunderitsnativeruler,thoughunder
theaegisoftheBritishEmpire ;whiletheotheris
represented byatitularscionofthefamilythus
founded.Itisthisotherthatgavetheoccasion forthe
Europeanmerchantcompanies todroptheirquills
andtrythesword. Itisthispleasantdiversion of
someoftheCompany's clerks,beitbyaccidentor
bydesign,thatwasthesmallbeginningofthatgreat
politicalphenomenon—theBritishempire inIndia
asweseeitto-day. Itistheseattempts,whichhave
neverceasedtobemadefromthebeginningofhistory,
thathaveculminatedintheempirethatforthefirst
timeholdsswayfromthe
'EoofoftheWorld 'to
CapeOomorinandfromtheMekran coasttothe
Mekongval!ey.
Noattempthasbeenmadeinthischaptertotrace
thehistoryofSouthIndiaonanylargescale—atask
ofthegreatestmagnitudeanddifficulty. Ihaveonly
attempted toindicatethemanyissues,bothprincipal
andsubsidiary, thatwouldrequirecarefulstudyand
investigation. Thereisroomformuchgoodworkon
alltheseperiods,theearliermorethanthelater
generally.Thefirstisavirginfieldforanyexplorer,
whilemuchyetremainstobedoneinthesecond.
Theperiodsinterveningthebrighterepochsaresofar
amereblank Thehistory oftheseintervals of
darknesscouldbeworkedoutbyastudyoftheplaces
wherelocalchieftains flourished ;whilethePallava
periodhastobeworkedupbyastudyoftheGanga
andotherdynastiescoevalwiththePallava.Thereis
muchusefulworktobedonealongthelinesindicated,
andwork,too,thatwouldbeallthebetterforthe
co-operation andco-ordination ofindividual effort.

57. THEMYTHICSOCIETY 39
TheMythicSociety ofBangalorehasbeenushered
intobeingandwillprovidetherequisitecommonplat-
form,andunderitsauspices Ihaveeveryhopethat
individualworkerswillnotbelongincomingforward
tolendtheirassistance.

58. CHAPTER III
STBUGGLEFOBEMPIREINSOUTHINDIA
Fromthedawnofhistory,empirehasbeenaproblem
ofsuchimportancethatatalentedhistorian,Maspero,
hasnamedhishistoryoftheTigresandEuphrates
valley,duringthesecondandthirdmillenniums b.c,
ThePassingAwayofEmpires. Thishasbeenthe
casewithempireseversincePericlesplayedhisnoble
roleofempire-building onthestageofAthenian
politicsdowntoourowntimes, characterized by
imperialism asrepresentedbyChamberlainandCecil
Rhodes. SofarasIndiaisconcerned thishasbeen
theproblemfromthedaysofChandragupta—nayeven
fromthedaysoftheMahdbhdrata—tothecompara-
tivelylatetimesofMahadajiScindia. Itisacommon
complaint ofhistoriansthatinIndianhistorythere
isnocentralargumentroundwhichtomarshalfacts
soastopresentaconnectedandconsistentwhole.
This,nodoubt,istruetoacertainextentandthe
HinduperiodofIndianhistoryhas,inconsequence,
beengiventhedistinguishing epithet
'formative ',that
is,theperiodwhenStateswereinprocessofformation.
Iwouldrathergivethisdistinctiontotheearlierpart
oftheHinduperiod ;andcharacterize thelaterone
'thestruggleforEmpire'. Itwasinthisstruggle
thattheStatesthathadbeenformedwerebrought
intoalargerunionwiththeinevitabletendencyto
breakup.Empire isafterallacompromisebetween
theopposingprinciplesoflocalautonomyandimperial
unity.AVhileforatimeoneofthetworivalprinciples

59. THETHEEEDIVISIONS 41
maybeintheascendant, theother isalwaysin
existencetotakeadvantage o£anyweakening init.
This,inessence,hasbeenthecasewithIndian
empires,withthedistinctionthatpersonahtyplayeda
farmoveprominentpartthantheprincipleunderlying
it.Thislatterpeculiarity itisthatmakesthestruggle
assumeinIndiatheappearance ofariseand fallof
dynasties,withoutmuchaffectingtheeventenorof
lifeofthepeople,ortheircivilization.
Indiahasthroughhistoricaltimesbeendividedinto
threedistinguishable geographical partsdespitemuch
historical unity.TheseareHindustan, theDekhan
andthefarthersouth. Beforetheestablishment of
theBritishempirethesepartshadeachadistinct
historyofitsownandwerenever,morethantempo-
rarily,unitedintoaconsistentwhole.Thereoccasion-
allyarosegreatrulerslikeAsokaorSamudragupta,
whomadeanattemptatweldingthemintoone,but
theattemptwaspractically successfulonlyfortheir
lifetime. Asoka'sboundary inthesouthwasaline
drawnfromPondicherry toCannanoreandtheparts
outside itlaybeyondhisauthority.Withregardto
Samudragupta itwasevenless—hisclaimtoauthority
overtheDekhanStateshavingbeenoneofsufferance
ratherthanofactualrule.Heclaimstohavecon-
queredtheStatesoftheDekhanandtohaverestored
themtothedefeatedrulers.Soitispossibletocon-
siderthehistoryofanyoneofthesethreegeographical
partsbyitself,andwithoutreference totheother
two.ThusIcannowgiveasummaryofthestruggle
forempireinthesouthbetweentherulersofthe
DekhanandofSouthIndia.
Theearliestknownhistoricalreference totheseis
intheinscriptions ofAsokawherehereferstothe
Chola,Pandya,Kerala,Satiyaputraandtherulerof
Ceylon.Butoftheactualstateofthecountryorof
itsrulersweknowbut little ;butfrom literatui'e

60. 42 ANCIENTINDIA
(Tamil)ofanancientcharacterwemaygainaglimpse
ofthepoliticalconditionofSouthIndiaintheearly
centm-ies oftheChristianEra. Itisthenthatwe
see,asIhavepointedoutinthechapterontheThe
AugustanAgeofTmnilLiterature, thatStateswere
formedbytheamalgamation,mainlybyconquest,of
thesmallercommunities intothelargerkingdoms,
sothatatthebeginning oftheChristianErawe
findthreewell-definedandcompactkingdomsofthe
Chera,Chola,andPandya.Theselayclaimtohaving
overcometheAryanforces,andthusperhapsindicate
theirhavingplayedanotunimportant partinthe
warsoftheDekhanrulersagainstthenortherninva-
ders,theKshetrapas ofGuzeratandMalva.The
Dekhancontemporaries ofthethreecrownedkingsof
thesouth(Chera,Chola,Pandya)andthesevenchiefs
weretheAndhrabbrityas. Ofthisdynastythemost
distinguished rulerswereGotamiputra Satakarniand
hissuccessorPulimayiorPulomavit. Thesebeatback
theKshetrapaNahapanafromthesouthandkepthis
successors confined toGuzeratandthussavedthe
south.Theterritoriesundertheirruleincludedthe
presentNizam'sDominionsandtheMaharashtra,with
theircapitalsatGuntoor(Dharanik5t orDhanakataka)
and,atPaitanontheGodavari. Theconstantrefer-
encesinTamilliteraturetoKarikalaChola'serecting
histiger-emblemontheHimalayas,andthefatherof
Senguttuvan's havinghadforhisnorthernboundary
theHimalayas,wouldwarranttheinferencethatthey
carriedtheirarmssuccessfully towards thenorth.
ThemoresoasKarikala issaidintheSilappadki-
kdram,tohavereceivedpresents(tributesastheyare
called)fromtherulersofMalva(Avanti),Bundalkhand
(Vajranadu)andMagadha. Itwouldthusappearthat
thestruggleforempirehadalreadybegun,andthis
probablycontinuedforacoupleofcenturies,whenwe
seetheAndhrabbritj-a powergoingoutofexistence.

61. SHIFTINGOFPOLITICALPOWER 43
Soalsointhesouth \yglosethethread,andwe
havebarelyanymention ofagreatruler.There is
thusahiatus intheavailablerecordswhichwould
indicateananarchyconsequent onthefallofthe
greaterPov/ersthatheldsway.Thisanarchywastaken
advantageofbytherisingpoweroftheGuptas,who,
underSamudragupta andprobablyunderhisfather,
conqueredtheDekhanStates,andrestoredthemto
theirformerrulers,perhaps,asamatter ofpolicy.
Thisstateofvassalagecouldnothavelastedlong,and
fromoutofthisanarchy there arosetwogreat
Powers,thePallavas inthesouthandtheChalu-
kyasinMaharashtra. Thesetwodynasties,withtheir
capitalsrespectively atKanchiandatBadami(near
Bijapur),continuedthesamestruggleforempireand
wereseenfightingconstantlyontheTungabhadra-
Krishnafrontier.Asaconsequence ofthisperpetual
antagonism,weseetheChalukyns, followingtheex-
ampleoftheAndhrabbrityas, createafrontierprovince
withhead-quarters atRajamahendri. Thiswasdone
bythegreatChalukyaEmperorPulikesin II,whomade
hisyoungerbrothertheviceroy.Thatthiswasawise
measureandwascalledforbythenecessityofthecase
isamplyborneoutbyhisgreatenemyNarasimhavar-
manPallavamalla's attackingBadamiandburning it
down,soastocauseaninterregnum ofthirteenyears.
Thesetwogreatrulersweretheimperialcontemporaries
oftheChinesetraveller,YuwanChwang(HieunThsang),
andofhishostHorshavardhana Slladitya ofKanouj.
Thiswasaboutthemiddleoftheseventhcentury
afterChrist.Alittleaftertheendofthatcentury,
boththesepowerfuldynastiesworeouteachotherso
thoroughlythattheywentoutofexistenceandgave
waytootherstotaketheirplaceintheI)ekhan
andinthesouthaftertheinevitableanarchy.Wesee
aboutthistimethepoliticalcentreofgravityshifting.
TherisingESshtrakiitapowerisonitstrialandnot

62. 44 ANCIENTINDIA
merelyhastomakegooditsclaim ;butitalsohas
tocontendagainstfactionswithinthecamp.Nowit
wastheroleoftheGangasofMysoretoextendtheir
territorynorthward andsouthward. Inthislatter
directiontheyreceivedacheckfromthePandyasunder
Varaguna,whoturnedbacktheGangasafterinflict-
ingadefeatonthematTirupparambian nearKumba-
konam.ThePandyawastoofarofftodefendthe
MysorefrontieragainsttheGangasandnotlongafter
thiswefindtheEashtrakutas tightening theirgrip
upontheMysorecountry,andputtingtheirsouthern
frontierinastateofdefence,atatimewhenanew
powercomesintobeingimmediately tothesouthof
Mysore.
ThiswasnootherthanthegreatCholadynasty,
whoseinscriptions inlargenumbersgiveusaninsight
intotheirgreatnessandthepoliticalcondition ofthe
times.TakingtheiroriginsomewhereintheTanjore
district(nearPudukotta)theymasteredpossessionof
theCholacountry ;andwhenthethirdinsuccession,
butthefirstgreatruler,Parantakacametothethrone
aboutA.D.900,theirauthorityextendedoverChola,
TondaandKongumandalam. Itwashethatfought
againstandbeatbackaggressiononthePandya,
KeralaandGangafrontiers.Whenhepassedaway
inthemiddleofthecentury,helefttohissonsthe
wars allalongthenorthernfrontier. Itisnowthat
theCholafortunes fellsolowthattheEashtrakuta
ruler,KrishnaIII,wasmoccupation ofKanchifora
while,andthatEajaditya, theCholaruler,forthe
timebeing,wasslaininabattleatTakkolamabout
A.D.950,chieflythroughtheexertionsofPerumanadi
Biltuga,theGangafeudatory oftheDekhan rulers.
Aboutatwentyyearsafterthis,theEashtrakutaswere
overthrownbyascionoftheChalukyas, andthe
confusionintheDekhanwastheopportunity forthe
Cholasofthesouth. WhileyettheChalukyaswere

63. EAJAEAJA,THEGREAT 45
strugglingtomakegoodtheirnewlyacquiredposition,
theCholasbegantorecoversowellthat,whenthe
greatChola,EajarajatheGreat,ascendedthethrone
inA.D.985,hefoundhimself inpossession ofthe
Chola,TondaandKongumandalams, andhehadto
iighttheKeralasonthewestcoastandtheGangas
intheirowncountry. Thislatterpowerwasover-
thrownabouttheyearA.d.1000,tliankstotheexertions
ofthisgreatChola,ablysecondedbythoseofhis
greatersonEajendra,theGangaikonda Chola,sothat
thedebatablefrontierhereafterwasYedatorenad, 2000.
"Whilethesonwasthusfightingtoestablishpeaceon
thisfrontier,thefatherhadvastlyaddedtohisempire
byastrokeofpolicyinthenorthbytheadditionof
thewholeoftheeasternChalukyakingdomofVengai-
mandalam.
ThiskingdombeginningasaviceroyaltyunderKubja
Vishnuvardhana, theyoungerbrotherofPulikesin II,
theChalukya,continuedtoacknowledge allegiance to
theChalukyas, probably tilltheselatterwereover-
thrown.Thentheeasternkingdomcontinuedincom-
parativepeace tilltheCholasmadetheirfrontier
contiguous totheeasternChalukya frontier. Eajaraja
nowgavehisdaughter inmarriage toVimaladitya,
andrestoredtheconqueredkingdomtohisson-in-law,
whowasonlytoogladtohavethepowerfulChola
tohelphimincaseofattackeitherfromthewest
orfromthenorth.TheeasternChalukya territory,
itmustbesaidtothecreditofthefar-seeingpolicy
ofEajaraja,remainedeverafterfaithfulfotheCholas
andcontinuedanintegralpartoftheempire.
WhenEajaraja diedinA.D.1013,heleftbehind
him tohisson,theGangaikonda Chola,practically
thewholeoftheMadraspresidencyexceptMadura
andTinnevelly. OnlytheChalakya frontierwasin
dispute.Thesonhadtofightonthisfrontierandif
hisinscriptionscanbetakenasunpimeachable evidence

64. 46 ANCIENTINDIA
hesecured it.Hesighedfornewworldstoconquer
inhisownsmallway,andcarriedhisarmssuccessfully
acrossKalingam(Ganjam), etc.Hefoughtbattleson
theGangesandinBurma,earningthusthehigh-
soundingsurnameoftheGangaikondaOhola,themagni-
ficentruinsofwhosecapitalatGangaikonda-Solapuram
(intheWodlyarpalayam taluka)attesthisgreatness
tothisday.WheninhisturntheGangaikondaChola
(theherooftheKanareseEajasekharaVilasam),hadto
leavehisearthlyempire tohissonEajadhiraja in
A.D.1042,thefrontierswereallaflameinrevolt,and
thisconditionoftheCholaempirewasmadetheworse
bytheChalukya rulerofthetimehavingbeena
greatwarrior.
Threegenerationsofrulershadlivedandpassedaway
inthesevenandahalflakhcountry
^oftheChalukyas
andtheirexertions lefttheempirequietinallother
directionsexceptthatoftheCholafrontier.Onthis
frontiertherewasconstantwareveninthedaysof
Eajarajaandhisson,sothat,whenSomesvaraAhava-
mallaascended thethroneofhisfathersA.d.1044,
hehadtocontinuetheworkofhisfatherandgrand-
father.MeanwhileEajadhirajahadhadtimetointro-
duceorderintohisownempire,andtobringthe
revoltedfrontiersbacktotheirallegiance. "Whenthe
warrior-king SomesvarabrokeinuponhimEajadhiraja
wasreadytomeethim.Thewarswerelongand
wearyingandtheresultswereoftendoubtful.They
madeatlastaresoluteattempttodecideonceforall
thisdebateofarms,andtheresultwasthegreatbattle
foughtintheyeara.d.105'2atKoppamontheTunga-
bhadra. Eajadhiraja fellinitand,forthetime,victory
waswiththeChalukyas ;butEajendra,theyounger
brotheroftheChola,broughtupreinforcements and
retrievedthefortunesoftheCholasandthusearned
1Thisreferseithertotherevenue,ortothenumberofvillages.

65. SOMESVAEAANDTHECHOLABROTHERS 47
histitletobecrownedonthefieldofbattle.Now
beganthebattleroyalbetweenthecontending rulers
whichwasnottoendforacouple ofgenerations,
and,when itdid,ithadwornoutbothpartiesso
muchthattheempireswereripeforbreaking up.
EajendraCholaIIwasableduring hisreignto
invadetheChalukyadominionsthemselves,andlays
claimtohavingerectedapillarofvictoryatKollapuram
(Kolhapur). Oneunlooked forconsequence ofthese
longandwearisomewarswastheadventintopromi-
nenceofanumber ofgreatchieftains,whobegin-
ningaspillarsofempireeventuallyproved,intheir
successors, itsdestruction. Havinghadtofightover
thewarsofhiselderbrotheragain,andhavingto
maintaintheCholaarmsandprestigestrenuouslyduring
histime,asagainsttheChalukyas,Eajendradiedin
A.D.1060or1061.HisyoungerbrotherVirarajendra
assumedtheimperialpurpleandalongwith itthe
responsibilities. Hewasalready ahandymanfor
theheavywork.OneoftheMysoreInscriptionsthus
speaksofhimandhisrule—
'anewruler !Akingdom
fitforahero !Nowistheoccasionforus
'.
TheChalukyaswerebusyonthefrontier.Between
VirarajendraandSomeswaraseveralbattleswerefought
intheCededdistricts.TheChalukyasregardedKol-
lippakkaisomewhere intheChitaldroog districtasthe
doorofthesouthandappointedthemosttrusted
official toguardthisregion. Attheaccession of
Virarajendra thewholeoftheMysorecountry—the
threedivisionscomposing it,namely,Gangavadi,Nolam-
bavadiandBanavase, allbutthelastonlynominally,
wasunderthesecondbutthemostcapableofSdmes-
vara'ssons.Anothersonwasnotfaroffandhada
viceroyalty intheCededdistrictswithhead-quarters
atKampli,andbearingthetitleVengaimandalesvara
withouttheterritorytogivehimthetitle. Itwould
appearfromtheinscriptions thattheChalukyas

66. 48 ANCIENTINDIA.
advanceduptothePalar,fromwhichriverVirarajendra
hadtochasethemback. Afterthisthenormalcondi-
tionofaffairswasrestored,andthefiveCholainvasions
hadfortheirobjectivetheterritoryattheanglebe-
tweentheTungabhadraandtheKrishna. Viraraja
onceoccupiedKampliandplanteda
'
PillarofVictory
there'
.
TheCholaclaimstohavewonthreetimesinbattles
atKndalSangaman atthejunction oftherivers.In
mostoftheseVikramaditya, thesecondsonofSomes-
vara,playedadistinguished part.Onthelastoccasion
whentheCholawasthere,havingacceptedthechallenge
ofSomesvara I,hehadtowaitlongandneither
Somesvaranorhisarmyappeared. WhiletheChola
wasabouttobreakupcampandmoveon,Vikra-
maditya appeared atthehead ofhisarmyand
showedareadierincliuationtotreatthantofight.
ThisparleyingendedinatreatybetweentheChola
rulerandtheChalukyaprincewhosetthesealby
takingtheCholaprincessashiswife.
ThischangeoffrontonthepartofVikramaditya
hastobeexplained.WhiletheCholawaswaiting,
SomesvaraAhavamalla diedbydrowninghimself in
theTungabhadra asaresultofanattackofamalignant
fever.TherewtisachangeofrulersatEajamahendri.
EajarajaChalukya,thenephewandson-in-law ofthe
Gangaikonda chola,haddiedleavingasonanda
daughter. Thissondoesnotappearinthetransactions
immediately followingEajaraja'sdeath.Thewestern
Chalukyas moved east,butVirarajendra wastoo
quickforthem.Hewonavictory atBezwada
(Vijayavadi) andappointed abrotherofthelateKing
asViceroy atEajamahendri. Virarajendra thusse-
curedhimself onthis sideofhisempireand
returned,sendingoutanexpeditionacrossKalingamto
Central India. Inthis political condition ofhis
frontiersSomesvara Ahavamalla died,andhiseldest

67. vikramaditya 49
sonSomesvara Bhiivanaikamalla succeeded. Vikra-
madityadidnotwishtoplaytheroleofalieutenant
tohislessdistinguished, thoughelder,brother,but
couldnotstrikesingle-handed. Hencetheinclination
toenterintoanalliancewiththepowerfulCholaon
thefrontier.
Thisdone,Vikramadityamovedthroughthesouthern
partofhisbrothersdominions tofeelthetemperof
thegreaterviceroys oftheempire.Sometimein
thecoarseofthisprogress,VirarajendradiedatGangai-
kondaSolapuramthecapital. Thisunsettledtheplans
ofVikramadityawhohurriedthere,sethisbrother-
in-lawonthethroneandreturnedtohismoredirect
sphereofactivity. SoonafterthenewCholaruler
fellavictimtoarevolution,andanotheryoungambi-
tiousmanwasupontheCholathrone.Vikramaditya
hadtobidehistime,andwaited sixmoreyears
beforehethoughthecouldventureuponhisdanger-
ouscareertowardsempire.Theyoungmanwhoas-
cendedtheCholathroneinA.d.1070wasnoother
thanKulottunga, thesonoftheChalukyaRajaraja
andgrandson,throughhismother,oftheGangaikonda
Chola.Heappearstohavebeenbroughtupinhis
grandfather's houseandseemstohavedistinguished
himself,whileyetaprince,indistantexpeditions in
centralIndia. AsYuvaraja,heissaid,inhisin-
scriptions, tohavecaptured aherdofelephants at
VairagaramandtohavetakenChakragottam. This
latter isintheterritory ofDharawherethegreat
Bhujahadrecentlyruled,anditmighthavebeenthat
Kulottungahadtoplayaleadingpartintheexpedi-
tionsentoutbyVirarajendra. Virarajendra issaid
alsotohavesentanexpeditiontotheTalaingcountry.
AsYuvaraja oftheChalukya Eajaraja, Kulottunga
couldnothavegonethere.Thisisfurtherborneout
by
'Kulottunga's havingupliftedthelotusgoddess
inthedirectionoftherisingsun.'Thiscould,perhaps,
4

68. 50 ANCIENTINDIA
bemadetomeantheTelugucountry,which isnot
quitetotheeastoftheCholacountry.
Itwouldthusbeclear,bearinginmindthatthe
nameofKulottunga doesnotfigureinthetrans-
actionsafterthebattleofBezwada,thatKulottunga
spenthisyouthintheimmediateentourage ofthe
greatCholas.Heappearstohavebeenquitecontent
toacceptalieutenancyfromhisuncles,butnotfrom
anyofhiscousins. Further there isnothing to
connectKulottunga withtherevolution after"Vira-
rajendra's death.Thismayhavebeenthenatural
consequence oftheChalukyaintervention,andKulot-
tungamerelyreapedthebenefitarisingtherefrom,
havinghadreasontobelieve,assomeofhisinscrip-
tionsandtheKalingattupparani show,thathewas
adoptedbytheGangaikonda Chola,thoughthislatter
hadthreesonstosucceedhimandanotherolderthan
thesewhopreferred quiet lifetosovereignty. It
wasthisKulottungawhoupsetthecalculation of
Vikramaditya, and,underthecircumstances ofhis
accession,foughtagainstVikramaditya inhisschemes
ofself-aggrandizement.
Kulottungahadhisownfrontierstoquietbeforehe
couldthinkofVikramaditya,andthisrespiteonthis
frontierwastakenadvantage ofbyVikramaditya
togaingreaterholdupontheMysorecountry. In
thishewassuccessfulinthemain.Whenhe,there-
fore,thoughthistimehadcometoputhisplansinto
operation,Kulottungawasready.SomesvaraBhuva-
naikamallahadreasonstosuspectVikramaditya, and
thislatterdeemeditunsafetoresideatcourt.Vikra-
madityamadeuphismind,andwithhisbrotherJaya-
simhagotthingsreadyinthesouthagainsthiselder
brotherandsovereign. Somesvaraaskedforhelpand
Kulottungagladlyagreed
;butbeforeKulottungacould
arriveVikramaditya hadwon,andSomesvarawas
thrownintoprison.ThiswasinA.D.1076.Afteran

69. THEIMPERIALRIVALS 51
invasionortwooftheMysorecountrytowrestthe
southernhalfofitfromtheCholas,andanotherinto
theTelugucountry,Vikramadityaallowedmattersto
settlethemselves inthefrontierbetweentheCholas
andtheChalukyas. Eachofthesesovereignsruled
overhisrespectiveempireforhalfacentury,generally
inpeace. Vikramaditya sentouttwoexpeditions
acrosstheNarbudda,CentralIndia,(DharaandDahala),
havingbeendistractedbywars,civilandexternal,in
theearlierpartofhisreign.Hedispatchedcontin-
gentstohelprulers atsuchagreatdistance as
Kamarupa(Assam).Kulottungaconqueredandeven
colonizedthesouthandwestuptoKottarunear
CapeComorin,andsubjugatedtheKalingams(Orissa)
throughhisgeneralKarunakaraTondaman.
AffairsontheMysorefrontierweredeveloping fast
forafinalissue,andchieflythroughthestrenuous
exertionsofaMysorechief,Vishnuvardhana Hoysala,
andthewarlikeinstincts ofhisgeneralGangaraja,
GangavadiandNolambavadiwerelosttotheCholain
A.D.1116andonlynominallyaddedtotheChalukyan
empire. Thismarksthebeginning ofthedisruption.
Thesouthernviceroyswhostoodfirmbythesideof
Vikramaditya inhiswarsagainsttheChola,andeven
inhisusurpation, naturallyexpectedtherewardof
theirservices innominal allegiance, ifnotactual
independence. Thishadtobeacquiesced inandthe
ambition ofsomeoftheseredoubtablechampions of
theprince,theaspiranttothethrone,provedthe
baneoftheemperorandhisempire.Vikramaditya
was,however,savedthehumiliation ofabreak-upof
theempirebytheexertionsoftheloyalSindachief-
tain,AchugiIIofGulburga(intheNizam'sDominions).
Hedefeated inanightattack atKannegala the
HoysalaforcesandchasedthembacktoBelilr,their
head-quarters. Theiralliesintherevolt,theKadambas
ofHangalandGoahadalsotofindshelterintheir

70. 52 ANCIENTINDIA
strongholds. SowhenVikramaditya diedinA.D.1126,
theempirewasleftintactnodoubt,butwithout
chancesofcontinuingmuchlonger,unless itfound
asuccession ofverycapablerulers,whichtheempire
wasfatednottohave.
Kulottungawasmorefortunate. Doubtlesshehad
toacquiesce inthelossofsouthernMysore,buthe
acquiredaholduponKalingam.Whatwasmorehe
hadcapablesons,distinguished inwarandtrainedin
administration tosucceedhim,whenhediedA.D.1118.
Therewerethree successor.swhomaintained the
empireintactandwhentheCholaEmpire fell, it
fellfromtheimpactofsimultaneousPandya,Kerala
andKakatlya invasionsfromthesouth,westand
north. Boththeseemperorsweregreatadministra-
tors,eachinhisway.TheyhadperfectedtheGovern-
ment,asithadbeenhandeddowntothem,andwere
•otherwisepatronsofletters.Theyadoptedapolicy
ofenlightenedliberalisminreligion. Afteracoupleof
generations ofweakrulers,theChalukyaempirewas
subjectedtothedoublemisfortune ofdisorganization
anddissensions within,andtheonsetofapowerful
invaderwithout. Thisdoublecalamitywasaverted
byamanofgeniusBijjala,whousurpedtheempire
andinfusedsomefreshlifeintoitforaquarterof
acentury. Thenewpower oftheKakatiyas of
WarBingalwasemergingintoagreatcareer,andthe
processofdisintegrationwasgoingon,though,inthe
meanwhile,unobserved onlybythosewhom itcon-
cernedthemost.TheHoysalaspressedfromthe
south,Yadavasfromthenorth-westandtheKakatiyas
fromtheeast.Theempirewasdeadandtheseshared
thequarry.LiketheCholaempiresomewhat later,
thisempirewasparcelled outamongnumbers of
pettychieftains,whoclaimedindependence,andhadto
maintain itbyperpetualreadiness tofight.Atthe
commencement ofthethirteenthcenturytherestood

71. MUSLIMINCUESIONS 53
outtheYadavasofDeogiri,theKakatiyas ofWarangal
orTelingana, theHoysalas ofDvarasamudra, anda
numberofsmallchiefsinlieuofthegreatCholaempire
andthePandyasandKerala.Attheendofthefirst
decadetherebrokeinintothisworldsouthofthe
VindhyasthegreatMuslimwaveofinvasionunder
MalikKafur.Overthrowing insuccession thegreat
feudatory principalities ofDeogiri,Warangal and
Dvarasamudra, KafurMalikadvancedsouthasfaras
Rameswaram. Leaving smallgarrisons behind,he
wentbacktomaturehisownplansofking-making
andbecoming king.Thegeneralmovement against
thisoccupation ofthecountrybytheMuhammadans
culminated inthegreatHinduempire ofVijaya-
naggar. Thegarrisonsweredrivenoutandthe
threadsoftheseisolatedrisingsweregatheredtogether
bythegeniusofoneman,whoplacedthehead-
quartersoftherisingempireinthefrontieroutpost
ofthesouthtoguardatleastthislastcitadelagainst
theMuslimconquest. Thisstory,however,belongsto
anotherperiod.

72. CHAPTEEIV
INDIAATTHEDAWNOFTHE
CHRISTIANERA
Indiathewonderland oftheeast,asitisevennow
called,wasmadeknowntothewest,whentheworld-
conqueror,AlexandertheGreat,forcedopenhergates
onthenorth-west. OurknowledgeofIndiaatallof
adefinitecharactermaybesaidtoextendnofarther
thanthisperiod, as,according tothemostrecent
authority, hisconnexionwithIndiawasnotmuch
morethanagreatraid. Itismatterofcommonknow-
ledgethathehadtogiveuphisideaofcarryinghis
conquestsrightuptotheeasternlimitsoftheland,
(according tohisownnotionoftheconfiguration of
theearth),owingtoamutinyamonghissoldiers
headedbyhiscavalrycommander Koinos. Before
leavingIndia,however,hedividedhisconquestson
thissideoftheIndianCaucasusintothreevice-royalties
asfollows
:
I.Paropanisadae, thecountrywestoftheIndus,
withOxyartes,thefatherofRoxana,foritsviceroy.
II.ThePunjabincluding initthekingdom of
Taxila,andthatofPorus, thatoftheSophytes
togetherwiththeterritories oftheOxydrachoiand
theMalloi,undertheviceroyPhilip,sonofMachetas
;
leavingtheciviladministration inthehandsofthe
nativeprinces.
III.SindhincludingthekingdomofMousikanos,
Oxykanos,SambusandMaeris ofPatalene under
Peithon,thesonofAgenor,foritsviceroy.

73. THEFIRSTEMPIRE 55
Philipwasmurderedinamutiny,beforethedeath
ofAlexander,andhisplacewastakenbyEudamos
whoremained inIndia tillcalledawayin317B.C.
tohelpEumenesagainstAntigonus ofAsia,themost
powerfulamongtheDiadochi.WhentheMacedonian
Empirewaspartitioned asecondtimeinH21b.c.
(consequentonthedeathofPerdiccas,theregentof
thelirstpartition),theIndianprovince, eastofthe
Indus,wasleftoutofaccount, asPeithonhadto
withdraw tothewesternbankofthegreatriver.
About305B.c.SeleucusXikatormadeanattemptto
revivetheempireofAlexanderinthisregion,buthad
torelinquishhisholduponthewholeofAfghanistan,
andenterintoahumiliaiingtreatywithChandragupta,
theMauryaemperor ofIndia. Thispersonage is
believed tohavebeeninthecampofAlexander in
thePunjab,and,thrownuponhisownresources as
thegreatMacedonianturnedawayfromthebanksof
theEavi,hetookadvantageoftheconfusionresulting
fromthedeparture ofAlexander tooverthrowthe
rulingNandainMagadha,andsethimselfupasthe
firstemperorofIndiaknowntohistory. Inthecourse
offifteenyearshewasabletomakehimself so
strongastofightSeleucus,notonlyonequalterms
butalsotoextortfromhimsuchavaluablecession
ofterritoryasAfghanistanuptotheHindu-Kush.
Forthreegenerations thisdynastyheld itspower
undiminished. HisgrandsonAsoka,thegreatBuddhist
EmperorofIndia,wasabletoholdhisownwiththe
successorsofSeleucus,andmaintainedwiththemthe
diplomatic relationsthusbegunbyhisgrandfather.
ItseemstobewellattestedthatbothSeleucusNikator
andPtolemyPhiladelphus hadsentambassadors to
thecourtsofChandragupta andBindusara,although
scholarsarenotwantingyetwhoconsidertheparti-
cularedictofAsokaamereboast. "Withthedeath
ofAsokaabout230b.c.theMauryanempirelosesits

74. 56 ANCIENTINDIA
holduponthemorepowerfulanddistantofitsvassals,
andthedaysofthedynastyarenumbered.
FromthiseventtotheyearA.d.319thedateof
therisetopoweroftheImperialGuptas,thehistory
ofIndiaisyetquiteuncertain,althoughweareable
togainafewglimpsesastothegeneralfeatures
ofthehistoryofthatperiod.TheAsiaticempireof
theSeleucidaewasattackedsimultaneously bythe
EomansandtheGaulsfromthewestandnorth-
west,andtheParthiansfromtheeast.Aboutthe
beginning ofthesecondcenturyB.c,Parthiamade
goodherindependence underArsakesMithridates I
andBaktriaunderEukratides.* Thiswasbutthe
reflexactionofthemovements ofthenomadtribes
inthefar-offplainsofMongolia.Thegreattribeof
theHiung-nu fell,withallthefervourofneighbourly
love,upontheYuet-chi,anddislodgedthemfrom
theirthenhabitatintheplainsofZungaria. These
intheirturnfellupontheWu-sung,killedtheWu-
sungchieftaininbattle,andmarched furtherupon
theregionthenintheoccupation oftheSe,Sukor
Sakas.JTheselasthadtomakeroomforthemalong
therightbankoftheOxusandoccupythecountry
protectedbytheIndianCaucasus.TheYuet-chiwere
themselvesdefeatedbythesonofthelateWu-sung
chieftain.Whenhisfather fellinbattlehefound
asecureasylumwiththeHiung-nu,whonowhelped
himtoregainhislostpatrimony. Itwasinthe
courseofthesemovementsthattheSakasandpossibly
someoftheHiung-numoveddowntheKabulvalley
intoIndia,andoccupiedthecountryontheright
bankoftheIndus,rightdowneventoGujarat. It
isoneoftheirout-settlementsontheJumnathatthe
coinsandotherantiquities ofMuttrawouldseem
towarrant.
1V.A.Smith,EarlyHistory
ofIndia,p.210S.

75. SHIFTINGSOfPOLITICALPOWER 57
A\hileallthiswastakingplaceacrosstheborders
ofIndia,inIndiaitselftherewasgoingforwarda
revolutionofnolessconsequence. TheMauryanempire
wasoverthrownbyPushyamitra Sunga,theMauiya
general,inspiteoftheloyalistminister,abrother-in-
lawofYegnasena Satakarni oftheDekhan. The
usurper'sstrengthwastriedbyatriplewar
:—(1)
againstMenander,rulerofKabul; (2)againstKaravela,
theKalingarulerofOrissa
;(3)againsttheloyalist
Yegnasenaandinbehalfofacounter-claimant tothe
throneofthekingdomofVidharba. Thoughforthe
timesuccessfulagainstallthese,theempirehadsuffered
vitalinjuries. TheDekhankingdomorviceroyalty
becomes soposverfulthattheAndhrasestablishan
imperialpositionthemselves,andrendertheirquota
ofservicebyholdingoutagainsttheSakainvaders
fromthenorth-westandwest. Itmusthavebeenin
thecourseofthesewarsthattheoccasionshouldhave
arisenforthefounding oftheerawhichnowgoes
bythenameofVikramaditya, andthatunderthe
nameofSaka.Astoboththeseerasandthecircum-
stances oftheirorigin,there isveryconsiderable
difference ofopinionamongscholars. Inthecourse
ofthepoliticalshiftingsdescribedabove,aclanof
theYuehchi,bynameKushana,wasabletopushits
wayintoIndiaandestablishakingdominthePunjab
includingKasmir. Thegreatestruleramongthem^
whoseempirecameintotouchwiththeChinese
EmpireontheonesideandtheParthianonthe
other,isKanishka,theConstantine oftheBuddhism
ofthegreatervehicle(Mahayanism). Learnedscholars
associatehimwithboththeerasabovereferred to,,
whilethereareyetothers,whowoulddissociatehim
fromeitherandreferhimtoaperiodlaterthanboth.
Noneofthem,however,takehimbeyondtheperiod
Ihavemarkedatthebeginning. Attheverybeginning
oftheChristianerathenthePunjabandthefrontier

76. 58 ANCIENTINDIA
province,includingKasmir,wereundertheKushanas
ortheirimmediate predecessors ortheirsuccessors.
GujaratandMalva,includingnorthernKonkan,were
TindertheSakas.
Duringtheperiodmarkedoutabove,wehavebeen
passingfromthesupremacy ofBuddhism (ifsuch
anexpressioncanberegardedasappropriate atall),
throughareassertion oftheBrahmanascendancy,on
toafinalcompromise, endingontheonesidein
Mahayanist Buddhism, andontheother inthe
Hinduism oftheGita.ForasProfessorKernmain-
tains,ontheauthorityoftheTibetanhistorianTaranath
andtheSaddharma-pundarika, thefounder ofthe
Madhyamika school ofBuddhism, Xagarjunawasa
discipleoftheBrahmanKahulabhadrawhowasmuch
indebtedtoSageKrishna. Paraphrased, thismeansno
lessthanthattheseteachersdrewapartoftheir
inspirationfromtheGita.*Thisisborneoutbythe
importance thatattaches toBhakti (devotion) in
MahayanistBuddhismandlaterHinduism.
During allthisperiodofactivemutationsbothin
religionandpolitics,SouthIndiawouldappeartohave
beenoutofthisgreatvortex.Thisisadelusiondue
moretolackofinformationthantoalackofhistory.
TheedictsofAsokamentiontheChola,Pandya,
Kerala, Satiyaputra,andCeylon,amongthosewith
whomheenteredintodiplomaticrelations.Hethought
itworthhiswhiletosendhissonanddaughter to
Geylonasmissionaries. Thesefactsputitbeyonda
doubtthattherewassomecommunication between
MagadhaandCeylon,generallybywayofthesea.
•Itcannotbethattheneighbouring coastwasnot
alsobroughtintotouchwiththeriorth.Theedicts
•ofAsoka,foundintheChitaldroog district,make it
certainthattherewassomeconnexion,andinall
iManualofIndianBuddhism
,p.122.

77. MARITIMEACTIVITY 59
likelihoodbywayofland,andbytheeastcoast.The
Ceylonese tradition, asembodied intheMuhavamsa,
isquiteinsupport ofthisconclusion. Betweenthe
MaharashtraandMalvatherewasagreattrunkroad
notwithstanding thegreatforestregionbetweenthem.
ThisroaditisthathasgivenusthenameDakshina-
patha(Dekhan). Mostlikelythisroadwounditsway
overthehillsbywayofBurhanpur intowestern
Malva.Themiddleregionwastheforest,which it
continuedtobeevenuptothedaysofHarsha.
During thisperiod, andforalongtime after,
Hindustan (thecountrynorthoftheYindhyas),kept
touchwiththeouterworldbywayoflandmainly;
thesouthkeptitselfincontactwiththerestofthe
worldchieflybywayofthesea.ThattheHindus
didnotalwayswaitforotherstocometothemfor
goodsisinevidence inavarietyofways.There is,
first,thestatementofCorneliusIsepos,whosaysthat
Q.MetellusCelerreceivedfromthekingoftheSuevi
someIndians,whohadbeendrivenbystorminto
Germany inthecourseofavoyage ofcommerce.^
Thisisquiteaprecisefact,and isborneoutbya
numberoftalesofvoyageswiththehorrorsattending
navigation depicted intheliveliestcoloursincertain
classesofwritingsbothinSanskritandTamil.Among
theplacesmentioned inthelatterclassesofsources
arethose intheEastIndianArchipelago, such
asJava(Savaham), Sambhava (Karpiirasambhavam),
Kataha (Sumatra), andKalaham (Burma) notto
mentionChina. Itwouldthusappearthattherewas
someveryconsiderable activityinmaritimecommerce.
Theyusedtohavelighthouses towarnshipsandone
suchisdescribed atthegreatportatthemouthof
theKavery,abigpalmyratrunkcarryingonthetop
ofitahugeoillamp.
1Macrindle,AncientIndia,p.110.

78. 60 ANCIENTINDIA
Oneithercoastweretowns ofgreatcommercial
importance. BeginningwiththecoastoftheArabian
Seaandpassingovertheportsbeyondtheregionof
SouthIndia,thefirsttownofimportance iswhatthel
classicalgeographers callTyndis(Tondi)whereQuilandy
nowstands. Opposite toitlieswhatwascalled
Liuke(WhiteIsland)nowgoingunderthename
SacrificeEockor
'VelliyanKallu 'amongthepeople.
TheOphirofthesegeographers islocatedbysomeat
thesiteofmodernBeypore. Southfromthiswasthe
greatmartofMuziris(Muyirikkodu, Kodungalur or
Cranganur)theportofVanjiorKarur,thecapitalof
theCheras,withtheriver-mouthPseudostomos (A]i-
mukhamorfalsemouth). Thisistheporttowhich
navigators turnedtheircoursewhen,throughthe
enterprise ofHarpalos,thesouth-westmonsoonwas
discovered. PassingthisportwecomenesttoBakare
(Vaikkarai) theportofNyeacinda intheterritoryof
thePandionofMadura(Nirkkunram inthekingdom
ofthePandyansatMadura). Afterthistheclassical
geographers mentiononlyCapeComorin(Kumari).
PassingKumaritheyleadusintotheArgalic(Argali
inTamil,MahodadiinSanskrit)gulf,andthenceinto
theportofKolkoi(Korkai). Itisherethatthe
islandofTaprabane naturally findsmention. The
originofthisnameforCeylonhasbeenthecause
ofveryingeniousspeculation. Itisregardedbysome
astheequivalent ofTamraparni (theTambapanni of
theBaddhists). There isanotherderivationmore
fancifulthanthis,namely,tapRavanaasacorruption
ofdlpaRavana.Themorelikelyandmuch less
ingeniousoriginwouldbedipRuan,Euanbeingone
ofthekingdoms intheIslandofCeylon,aboutthe
beginningoftheChristianera,accordingtotheMahd-
vamsa
;andthatthekingdomtowhichsailorsshould
inevitablygofromtheArgalicgulf.Proceeding still
furtherthroughthegulfthesesailorscametothe

79. POLITICALGEOGRAPHY 61
•easternemporiumofTondi,thegreatmartforChinese
wares,andcommoditiesfromtheEasternArchipelago.
FurthernorthofthiswasPuharatthemouthof
theKaverj-
;thenextportofimportanceonthisside
wasMaisolosasPHn}'callsit(Masulipatam).^
Totakeupthepoliticalgeography ofsouthIndia
asawholethen,thecountrysouthoftheKrishna
wasdividedamong
'thethreecrownedkings 'and
sevenchieftains, withaneighthcomingsomewhat
later. Itisthecoastregionandthemoreopen
countrythatbelongedtothekings,whilethemiddle
regionsofhillsandforestsbelongedtothechieftains,
andperhapsevenafewtribes(Xagasandothers).
TheeastcoastfromnearthemouthoftheKrishna
tothesouthofTondi,intheZamindariofRamnad,
belongedtotheChola,althoughmidwaybetweenthe
kingdomproperanditsnorthernviceroyalty ofKanchi
laythehill-countryroundTirukoilur, intheposses-
sionofaclassofchieftainsnamedMalayaman, very
oftenlo3'alsupporters oftheirsuzerain, occasionally
truculentandrebellious. SouthoftheCholaking-
domlaythatofthePandya,whichextendedfrom
coasttocoast,andembracedwithin itsbordersthe
moderndistrictsofMaduraandTinnevelli,andthe
StateofTravancore,takinginalsoapartofCoimba-
toreandCochin.Thisincluded initthechieftain-
ciesofAay(theAioiofPtolemy)roundthePodyil
hillinthewesternghats,andofEvviroundabout
theportofKorkaiinTinnevelli.Therewasbesides
thedomainsofPehanroundthePalnis,whichcomes
undertheirsphereofinfluenceaswell.Northofthis
andalongthewesternghatsonthesea-side laythe
territory oftheChera :aterritory stretching right
acrossthePalghatgapthroughSalemandCoimba-
1Kanakasabhai's Tamils,1800yearsago,ch. iiiandJIacrindle's
AncientIndiaandPtolemy.

80. bli AXCIENTINDIA
tore.SouthMysorewasparcelledoutamonganumber
ofchieftainscorresponding tothemodernPalayagars,
whoseallegiancewasatthedisposalofeither,but
themorepowerful, oftheirneighbour kings.Such
weretheIrungoofArayam,PariofParambunad,
Adiyaman ofTagadiir(Dharmapuri) andOriofthe
Kollimalais. ThefirstofthesewaswithinMysore
territoryproper,andtotheeastofhisdomainlaythe
Gangas,andKongutothesouth.
Thesechieftaincies weretheboneofcontention
betweentheCholasandtheCheras.Whentheperiod
undertreatmentbegins,theCholasaresupremeunder
Karikal,whoascended thethrone,probably after
defeatingtheCheraandPandyainabattleatVennil
(Koilvenni asitisnowcalled)intheTanjoredistrict.
Hewasaremarkable sovereignwho,inmanyways,
contributed tothepermanentwelfareofhissubjects,
andhasconsequentlybeenhandeddowntoposterity
asabeneficentandwisemonarch.Heconstructed
theembankments fortheKavery,andhischiefport
Puharwasthegreatemporium oftheeastcoast.
Hisreignwaslongand,takenalongwiththoseofhis
twopredecessorsandthesuccessornextfollowinghim,
constitutes theperiodofthe firstCholaascendancy
inthesouth. Inthereignofhissuccessoragreat
catastrophe befellPuhar,andthecityandportwere
bothdestroyed. Thiswasahardblowtotheascend-
ancyoftheCholas.ButKarikalhad,afterdefeating
hiscontemporary Chera,givenoneofhisdaughters
inmarriagetothesonofhisvanquished rival.This
alliancestoodtheCholasingoodstead. Karikal's
successorbeganhisreignwithavictory,whichhis
heir-apparentwonforhim,againsttheCheraand
Pandyacombined, atKariyar,probablyintheSalem
district.WhenPuharwasdestroyedtherewasacivil
war,owingperhapstotheuntimelydeathoftheyoung
Cholaprince ;andtheCherarulerforthetimebeing,

81. INDIAAKDCEYLON 6S
advancedthroughthecentralregion.Heintervened
infavourofhiscousinswitheffect,asagainstthe
rivalclaimantsofroyalblood,andrestoredtheChola
dynastytosomepower ;buttheascendancy surely
enoughpassedfromthemtotheChera.TheChera
ascendancyundertheEed-Chera(^enguttuvan) lasted
onlyonegeneration ;inthereignofhissuccessorthe
Pandyasrosetogreaterimportance andtheChera
suffereddefeatandimprisonment athishands.This
Pandyaascendancy probably lastedonsomevs'hat
longer tillabouttheriseofthePallavasinKanchi.
Thiscourseofthepoliticalcentreofgravityofpower
insouthernIndiaisborneoutinveryimportantparti-
cularsbytheCeylonchronicle,calledtheMahdvamsa.
According tothiswork,theCholaswerenaturally
thegreatestenemiesoftheSingalese rulers.There
wereusurpersfromtheCholacountryinCeylonin
thefirstcenturyB.c. ;andtherewereinvasionsand
counter-invasions aswell.OnoneoccasiontheChola
invaderscarriedaway12,000inhabitantsofCeylonand
setthemtoworkat
'
theKavery
'
astheChronicle
hasit.'Thislooksverymuchlikeanexploit of
Karikala,seeingthat itwashewhobuiltthecity
ofPuhar.KingGajabahuofCeylonwaspresentat
theinvitationoftheKed-Chera, towitnessthecelebra-
tionofasacrificeandtheconsecration oftheteruple
tothe
'
ChasteLady
'
(PattinyDevi)atVanji,onthe
westcoast.
Theascendancy oftheChera,however,passedaway,
asalreadymentioned, tothePandyasinthecourseof
onesinglegeneration. TheEed-Cherawassucceeded
byhisson,'theCheraoftheelephantlook',whowas
hisfather'sviceroyatTondi,andfiguredprominently
inthewarsofhispredecessor inthemiddleregion.
Hewasdefeatedandtakenprisonerinabattle,which
1Upham'sMahivamsa, vol. i,p.228.

82. 64 ANCIENTINDIA
hehadtofightwiththecontemporary Pandyan,
designated thevictor,atTalaialanganam. Withthis
mishaptotherulertheCheraascendancypassesaway.
ThePandyans ofMadurataketheirturnnow,and
continuedtoholdthepositionofhegemonyuptothe
timethatthePallavasriseintoimportance. This,in
briefandinverygeneralterms,wasthepolitical
history ofSouthIndiaatthebeginningandduring
theearlycenturiesoftheChristianEra.
Passingonfromthepoliticaltotheindustrialcon-
ditionofIndia,wehavealreadydescribedtheprincipal
sea-ports,bothonthewesternandeasternseaboard.
If,ashasbeenpointedout,thereweresomany
thrivingportsand,ifforeignmerchantssoughtthese
fortradeatconsiderable riskofpiratesand,ifthere
wassomuchenterprise insea-goingamongthein-
habitants ofthecountry,theconclusion isirresistible
thatthecountryhadaprosperous industry,andso,
onexamination, itappearscertainly tohavebeen.
Apartfromthecomplaints ofPetroniusthatfashion-
ableEoman ladiesexposed theircharmsmuchtoo
immodestlybyclothingthemselves inthe
'websof
wovenwind
',ashecalledthemuslinsimportedfrom
India,PlinysaysthatIndiadrainedtheEomanEmpire
annuallytotheextent of55,000,000 sesterces,equal
to£486,979'sendinginreturngoodswhichsoldata
hundredtimestheirvalueinIndia.
^Healsoremarks
inanother place,
'
this istheprice "v^epayforour
luxuriesandourwomen.'
Thattheindustrial artshadreceivedattentionand
cultivation inearlytimesinIndia isinevidenceto
thesatisfaction ofthemostscepticalmind.Theearly
Tamilsdividedartsintosixgroups :ploughing(mean-
1Mommen givesthetotal£11,000,000, £G,000,000 forArabia,
££,000,000 forIndia.
'MalabarManual,vol.i,pp.250-1.

83. SOUTHINDIANCOMMERCE 65
ingtherebj-agricultm-e), handicrafts, painting, cona-
merceandtrade,thelearnedarts,andlastlythefine
arts.Oftheseagricultureandcommercewerere-
gardedasofthefirstimportance. Flourishing trade
presupposes aYolume ofindustry,theprincipal of
whichwasweavingthen,as italsohasbeenuntil
recently. Cotton, silkandwoolseemtohavebeen
thematerialsthatwerewroughtintocloths.Among
thewoollenswefindmentionofmanufactures from
thewoolofrats,whichwasregarded asparticularly
warm.Therearethirtyvarietiesofsilksmentioned,
eachwithadistinctiveappellationofitsown,asdistin-
guishedfromtheimported silksofChinawhichhad
aseparatename.Thecharacterofthecottonstuffs
thatweremanufactured isindicatedbythecompari-
sonsinstitutedbetweenthemand,
'sloughsofserpents'
or'vapourfrommilk';andthegeneraldescription of
theseas
'thosefinetextures thethread ofwhich
couldnotbefollowedevenbytheeye.'
Thechiefexportsfromthecountry,astheauthorof
thePeriplussays,werethese :
'Theproduceofthesoil
likepepper,greatquantities ofbestpearlarelikewise
purchasedhere,ivory,silkintheweb,spikenardfrom
theGanges,betelfromthecountriesfurther tothe
east,transparentstonesofallsorts,diamonds,rabies
andtortoiseshellfromthegoldenChersoneseorfrom
theislands offthecoastofLimurike.' This isall
fromtheportofMuzirisonthewestcoast.Hegoes
ontosay :
'There isagreatresortofshipping to
thisportforpepperandbetel ;themerchants bring
outalargequantityofspice,andtheirotherimports
aretopazes,stibium,coral,flint,glass,brass,andlead,
asmallquantityofwineasprofitableasatBarugaza,
cinnabar, finecloth,arsenicandwheat,notforsale
butfortheuseofthecrew'.ThatPliny'scomplaint
aboutthedrainwasneitherimaginarynorhypersensi-
tiveisinevidenceinapassagedescriptive ofMuziris
5

84. 66 ANCIENTINDIA
inoneoftheancientclassicsofTamilliterature*
:
'
Musiritowhichcomethewell-rigged shipsofthe
Yavanas,bringing goldandtakingawayspicesin
exchange.'
Eegardingthetradeoftheeastcoast,herefollows
adescriptionofPuharasaport ;
'Horseswerebrought
fromdistantlandsbeyondtheseas,pepperwasbrought
inships
;goldandpreciousstonescamefromthe
northernmountains
;sandalandaghilcamefromthe
mountainstowardsthewest
;pearlfromthesouthern
seasandcoralfromtheeasternseas.Theproduceof
theregionwateredbytheGanges ;allthatisgrown
onthebanksoftheKavery
;articlesoffoodfromHam
(Ceylon)andthemanufactures ofKalaham(Burma)'
^
werebroughtthereforsale.Theproductsofparticular
importance receivedintheportofTondiareaghil
(akindofblackaromaticwood),finesilkstuff(from
China),candy,sandal, scents,andcamphor. Allof
thesearticlesandsaltwerecarriedintotheinterior
bymeansofwagonsdrawnbyteamsofoxen,slowly
trudgingalongthroughtownandvillage,effectingex-
changeswithcommodities forexport. Tollswerepaid
ontheway,andthejourneyfromthecoastupthe
plateauandbackagainoccupiedmanymonths.A
briskandthrivingcommercewiththecorresponding
volumeofinternaltradearguespeace,andtheperiod
towhichtheabovedescription willapplymusthave
beenaperiod ofgeneralpeaceinthePeninsula.
Theydidnotforgetinthosedaystomaintainaregular
customsestablishment, theofficials ofwhichpiledup
thegrainandstoredupthethingsthatcouldnot
immediately bemeasuredandappraised,leavingthem
inthedockyardscarefullysealedwiththetigersignet
oftheking.'
1Ahananuru, lit).
2Fattinappdlai, 127fi.andTheTamils1300yearsago,p.27.
3Patiinajopalai, 134-6.

85. SOCIALCONDITION 67
TheTamilsbuilttheirownsliips
;andintheother
craftsoftheskilledartisantheyseemtiihaveattained
someproficiency,thoughtheyavaileJthemselvesofex-
pertsfromdistantplaces.Inthebuildingoftheroyal
palaceatPuhar,skilledartisansfrom^lagadha,mecha-
nicsfromMaradam(Maharatta), smitlisfromAvanti
(Malva),carpentersfromYavana,worked*togetherwith
theartisansoftheTamilland.Thereismentionof
atempleofthemostbeautifulworkmanship, inthesame
city,builtbytheGurjjaras.^ Inthebuildingofforts
andintheprovidingofthemwithweaponsandmissiles,
bothforoffenceanddefence,theTamilshadattained
tosomethinglikeperfection.Twenty-foursuchweapons
arementionedamongthedefencesofI\Iadura.
Passingonfromtheindustrialtotheliterary,social
andreligiouscondition ofthesouth,whichwehave
sofarbeenconsidering,wehaveagaintodowith
thethreekingdoms,each \-ith acapitalcityanda
premierport.TheCholashadtheircapitalatUraiyur,
vyithPuharforanalternative capitalandchiefport
;
thePandyashadtheircapitalatMadura,withthe
portandpremierviceroyalty atKorkai ;theCheras
hadtheircapital atVanji,withtheprincipalport
andviceroyalty atTondi.TheCholashadtheirpre-
mierviceroy,whowasgenerallytheheirapparent,
oratleastaprinceoftheblood,atKanchi.These
townsandports,therefore,bulkverylargelyinthe
literatureandliterarytraditionsoftheperiod.The
roadfromKanchitoTrichinopalli appears tohave
passedthroughTirukkoilur.FromTrichinopoly (i.e.
Uraiyrir)toMadura itlayalongthemorearidparts
oftheTanjoredistricttoKodumbai inthestateof
Pudukkritta,andthencetoXedungulam
;fromwhich
placetheroadbrokeintothree,andleduptoAfadura
1Manimekhalai,Cantoxix,11.107andff.
2Ibidxviii.1.115.

86. 68 ANCIENTINDIA
inthreebranches.Fromthislasttownaroadkept-
closetothebanksoftheriverVaigaiuptothePalnis ;.
andfromthereitwentupthehillsanddownagain
alongthebanksofthePeriyartothetownofVanji,.
situatednearitsmouth.Therewerealsootherroads
besides
;one,atleast,fromVanjitothemodernKaroor,.
andthenceontoTirukkoilur. Theseroadswerenot
safeinallpartsalike,therebeingcertainportionsof
themthatpassedthroughdesertregions,inhabitedby
wildtribes,whowereacauseofterrortotheway-
farers,particularly thosewhohadsomething tolose,
notwithstanding thefactthatrobberywaspunished
withnothingshortofimpalement. Journeyswerenone
thelessfrequent forpurposes ofpilgrimage, orin
searchofpatronageforlearning,orfortheprofitsof
commerce.
Therulersinthosedaysheldbeforethemhighideals
ofgovernment. Theirabsoluteauthoritywaslimited
bythe
'
fivegreatassemblies
',astheywerecalled,of
ministers,priests,generals,heralds(spies),andambas-
sadors.Thereappearstohavebeenageneralpermit
foralearnedBrahmintospeakhismindinanydurbar
;
andtheseoftengaveouttheiropinionsmostfearlessly.
Thisprivilegewassimilarlyaccordedalsotomenof
learning. Igiveafewinstancesinillustration :a
BrahminpilgrimfromtheCholacountryhappened
tobepresentattheCheracourt,whentheCheraking
gaveorderstohisministerstosethisarmyinmotion
toavengeaninsultthatsomenorthernprinces,hewas
told,hadgivenhim.Theminister'sremonstranceand
thereluctance ofthegeneralwereoverruled. This
Brahmingotupandpointedout,inaspeech,thathe
hadwarredforthefiftyyearsofhisruleinordertosafe-
guardhisearthlyinterests,buthaddoneverylittleto
provideforhimselfinthelifetocome. Ofcourse
theexpeditionwascountermanded,andthekingbegan
tomakeprovision forthefuture.AyoungPandya

87. EESPECTFOBLEARNING G9
kingofthenextgenerationshowedhimselftooenthusi-
asticforwar,anditfelltothelotofoneofthepoets
atcourttoweanhimofthiswarcraze.Inapoemof
850linesheconveyedthehinttotheking
;iflanguage
canbeconceivedtobetheartofconcealing thought,
hereisaninstanceparexcellence.Thenextinstance
takesustothecourtoftheMalayaman ofTirukkoilur,
whoneglected hiswife.Anumberofpoetsofthe
firstrankintercededandrestoredhimtoher.The
nextcasethatIwillmentionhereisthatofapoet,
whoenjoyedthepatronage ofsuccessiveCholarulers.
Hefoundthatattheendofacivilwarthevictorious
Cholawasabouttoputtodeathhisvanquished cousin.
Thepoetpointedoutthatthevictorytarnishedthe
goodnameoftheCholas,quiteasmuchasadefeat
;
andthathedidnotknowwhether torejoiceforthe
victorious Cholaorweepforthevanquished one.
Theintercessionwascertainlyeffective. Theseillus-
trationsshowinaddition therespectthatlearning
commanded. Ishallpermitmyselfonemoreillustra-
tiontoshowthisrespect.ThewarlikePandyareferred
toalready,cametothethroneyoung.Hehadimme-
diatelytogotowaragainstacombination ofhistwo
neighbours,andhiscourtwasnaturallyanxiousastothe
result.Theyoungprinceinapoem, fullofpoetical
grace,assuredthemthathewouldreturnvictorious,
andthat, ifheshould fail,thepoetsofhiscourt,
includingMangudiMarudan,mightceasetoattend.
Theidealofjusticesetbeforetheminthosedays
wassomethingunattainable. Theystrovetheirutmost
toattaintothesublimityoftheirideal
;andaking
wasjudgedgoodorbaduponthedegree ofsuccess
heachieved inthisparticularbranch ofhisduties.
'Ohtheking !heistoblameiftherainsfail ;heis
toblameifwomengoastray.What isthereina
king'sestate, exceptperpetual anxiety, thatpeople
shouldenvythepositionofakingfor
!
'Learningwent

88. 70 ANCIENTINDIA
insearchofpatronage. Theremusthavebeenavery
considerable outputofliterature. Itwasdoubtlessto
checkthegrowthoftheweedoflearningthatabody
ofcensorscalledtheSangamwasinstituted. Itisa
numberofworks,whichreceivedtheimprimatur of
thislearnedbody,thathasbeenthesourceofallthis
information regarding thisperiod. This isnotthe
placetoenterintothequestionoftheoriginofTamil
literature
;orofitsindependence orotherwise ;orof
itsconnexionwiththeliteratureofSanskrit.ButI
mayremark,inpassing,thatTamilliterature(asdistinct
fromlanguage,)cannotlayclaimtothatindependence
thatitsvotariesdemand foritwithmorezealthan
argument. Learningwassomewhatwidespreadand
muchsoughtafter.AYomenhadtheirshareoflearning,
asthenumber ofwomenpoetsindicates.Norwas
thislearningconfinedtotheBrahmin ;althoughhewas
thesolecustodianofthe'northernlore'.
Inmattersreligioustherewasahappj'confusion.
Jains,Buddhists, Brahmins, Saivas,Vaishnavas,and
peopleofotherpersuasions,bothmajorandminor,all
livedtogetherandatpeacewithoneanother.
'
There
weresplendidtemplesinthecitydedicated tothe
worshipofthecelestialtreeKalpaka,thecelestialele-
phantAiravata,Vajrayudha(thethunderboltofIndra),
Baladeva,Surya,Chandra,Siva,Subrahmaniya, Sata-
vahana,ofNigrantha,Kama(godoflove),andYama
(godofdeath). Thereweresevenviharasreputedto
havebeenbuiltbyIndra,thekingofthegodsinwhich
dweltnolessthan300monks(Buddhistic). Thetemple
ofYamawasoutsidethewallsofthetown,inthe
burialgroundinthecityofPuhar,thecapitalofthe
Cholas.'
*ThethreerivalsystemsoftheBrahmins,
andthoseoftheJainsandtheBuddhistsflourished
together,eachwithitsownclienteleunhamperedby
1PatiinappdJai, etc.

89. POSITIONOPTHEBRAHMAN 71
theothersintheprosecution ofitsownholyrights.
TheBrahminwasregardedasaninconvenience, by
some,butthegeneralfeehngwasthathewasindis-
pensable totheprosperity oftheState.Adevout
BuddhistandanasceticJainprincebothspeakof
himwithgreatrespect.Hewasthecustodianofthe
hiddenlore
;hewastheguardian ofthesacredfire,
thesourceofmaterial prosperity totheState ;he
wasthepersonwhoperformedthesacrificesaccording
tothedifficultorthodox rites,andwhobroughttimely
rain.Thesearethetermsinwhichtheseheterodox
writersrefertohim.Hehadafunction insociety
andhedischarged itfaithfully.Thewholeattitude
bothoftheorthodoxandalsooftheheterodoxin
mattersofreligionwaspityfortheignorance ofthe
other ;butnothingmorebitter,asMaxMnllerhas
verywellpointedout.
Animismseemstohaveplayedanimportant part
inthereligioussystem ofthosedays.Therewasa
templeconsecrated tothe
'ChasteLady ',asshewas
called,whodiedinconsequence ofthemurderofher
husband. Herimagesarepreservedintemplesupto
thepresenttimes,for,accordingtoDr.A.K.Kuma-
rasami,'someoftheimagesdepictedinillustrationof
theancientartofCeylonareofthisdeifiedwoman. Sati
wasinvogue ;butunderwellrecognized limitations.
Thiswaspermittedonlytowomen,whohadneitherna-
turalguardianstofallbackupon,norchildrentobring
up.That itwasnotuncommon foryoungwomen
toreturntotheirparentswidowed, isvouchedforby
acomparison thatapoetinstitutesbetweentheap-
proachofdarknessandthereturnofthewidowedyoung
woman,whosehusbandhadlatelyfalleninwar.An-
nualfestivalswerecelebratedwithgreateclat,andone
ofthegrandestwasthattoIndracelebratedatPuhilr.
1J.RA.S.,1909,p.292.

90. 72 ANCIENTINDIA
IhavegatheredmyfactsfromavastbodyofTamil
hteratureonlyrecentlymadeavailabletothestudent.
Inowproceedtoconsiderthesourcesofthisinfor-
mation,whicharetheclassicalwriters;Indianliterature,
TamilandSanskrit :andtheCeylonesechronicle. Of
thefirstgroup,StrabowroteinthereignsofAugustus
andTiberius,Plinypublishedhisgeographyina.d.77
;
thePeriplusoftheErythraeanSeawaswritteninthe
firstcenturya.d.
;Ptolemywrotehisgeographyabout
A.D.160;thePeutingerian Tableswerecomposedin
A.D.222.Therewereotherwriterswhowrotelater,
butwearenotconcernedwiththemdirectly. Iwould
drawattentiontothreepoints,takenfromtheworks
ofclassicalwriters.
Plinyremarks :
'Atthepresentdayvoyagesaremade
toIndiaeveryyear,andcompanies ofarchersare
carriedonboard,becausetheIndianseasareinfested
bypirates'. Lateronhesays :'It(Muziris) isnota
desirableplaceofcall,piratesbeingintheneighbour-
hood,whooccupyaplacecalledNitrias;andbesides, it
isnotwellsuppliedwithwaresfor traffic '.This
wasbeforea.d.77.PtolemyregardedthisportMuziris
asanemporium,andplacesthecountryofAioisouth
ofBakarai.ThePeutingerianTablesstateclearlythat
twoEomancohortsweremaintainedinthesametown
fortheprotection ofEomancommerce.
Mr.Sewell,whohasmadeanelaboratestudyof
theEomancoinsfoundinIndia,considersthatthe
coinfindsleadtothefollowingconclusions':
1.TherewashardlyanycommercebetweenEome
andIndiaduringtheConsulate.
2.WithAugustusbegananintercoursewhich,en-
ablingtheEomanstoobtainorientalluxuriesduring
theearlydaysoftheempire,culminated aboutthe
timeofNero,whodieda.d.68.
1J.R.A.S.,1904,p,591.

91. CONCLUSIONS 73
3.Fromthistimeforwardthetradedeclined till
thedateofCaracalla, a.d.'217.
4.FromthedateofCaracalla italmostentirely
ceased.
5.Itrevived again,thoughslightly,underthe
Byzantineemperors.
Healsoinfersthatthetradeundertheearlyem-
perorswasinluxuries;underthelateronesinindustrial
products,andundertheByzantinesthecommercewas
withthesouth-westcoastonly,andnotwiththeinte-
rior.Hediffersfromthosewhofindanexplanation
ofthisfluctuation inthepoliticalandsocialcondition
ofIndiaitself,andthefacilitiesortheirabsencefor
navigatingtheseas;andconsidersthatthecauseisto
besoughtforinthepoliticalandsocialconditionof
liome.
Fromanexamination ofthesecond classofmy
sourcesofinformation alone,wefindthattherewas
aperiodwhenSouthIndiawasundergreatrulers,
whogavethecountrypeaceandthusprovidedthe
indispensable securityforcommerce. Thisperiodcan
beshowntocorrespond tothatoftheBomanempire
fromAugustus toCaracalla. Afterthisperiod,we
findthecountryinaconditionofpolitical flux.These
beingsowemaystillfindone,atleast,ofthemost
potentcauses ofthiscommercial decline inthe
internalconditionofIndiaitself.PlinyandPtolemy
donotnaentiontheRomancohortsatMuziriswhich
theFeutingerian Tablesdo.Thefirstexploitofthe
EedChera isthedestruction oftheKadambu tree
ontheseacoast.Anothercomplimentthatthepoets
nevermissanopportunity ofbestowinguponthis
patron isthattheCherafleetsailedonthewaters
ofthatlittoralwithasenseofdominionandsecurity.
TheKadambumentionedaboveisexplainedasatree
ofextraordinarypowerwhichcouldnotbecutdown
byordinaryman. Iratherthinkfromtbecontext

92. 74 ANCIENTINDIA
thatithasreferencetoapiraticalrendezvous. Ifthis
viewbecorrect,theadventofthesaidCherabrought
alongwithitsecurity. Thiswouldbeinconformity
withPtolemy'sreferencetoAay,whowasoneofthe
sevenchieftainsknowntoliteratureas
'thelastseven
patrons'.FromthebodyofworksknowntoTamil
scholars asSangamworks theircontemporaneity
couldeasilybeestablished. Ihaveexaminedthisques-
tionelsewhere inthechapteronTheAugustanAge
ofTamilLiteratureandfindthenameAayadistinctive
nameofanindividual,andnotthatofafamily.
ThenAaymusthavebeenthecontemporary of,ora
littleolderthan,Ptolemy,andtheageofPtolemy
wouldpracticallybetheageoftheBedChera,and
theCheraascendancy. Thisconclusiononlyconfirms
whathasbeenarrivedatindependentl}' ofthisclass
ofevidence. GajabaliuofCeylon,whovisitedtheEed
Cheraalmostattheendofhisreign,ruledaccording
totheCeylonese chroniclefrom a.D.113to135.
Allowing forthedifferencebetween theCeylonese
dateoftheNirvanaoftheBuddhaandthatarrived
atbymodernscholars,asDr.Fleet,namely, sixty
years,thedateforGajabahuwouldbea.d.173to193.
TheCheraascendancythenwouldcoverthelattertwo-
thirdsofthesecondcentury A.D.Herehastobe
broughtinthePaisachiworkBrihatKatJid.Amongthe
templesmentioned ashavingbeenfoundatPuhar
wasonededicatedtoSatavahana. Thispersonagewas
therulerinwhosecourtflourished theminister
Gunadya,whowastheauthorofthisstupendouswork
whichstandsattherootofallromantic literature
inIndia,whetherinSanskritoranyvernacular. It
wasatranslation ofthisworkthatsetthe'fashionin
Tamilforthecomposition oftheromanticepics.The
ageoftheoriginal isstillmatterunderinvestigation.
Thelatestauthorityonthequestion istheDutch
scholarSpeyer,whowouldplaceitinthethirdcentury

93. CONCLCSIONS 75
A.D.attheearliest—adateclearlyimpossibleaccording
toourlineofinquiry. Ishallnotsaymoreabout
itherenow ;butonlyremarkthatoneoftheworks,
clearlybaseduponthis,hastobereferredtoaperiod
anteriortotheastronomer, Varahamihira a.d.533.
Thiswork,Manimelchala referstotheasterismunder
whichtheBuddhawasbornasthefourteenth
;which,
according tothemodern computation, following
Varahamihira,oughttobetheseventeenth. TheCeylon
Chroniclealsodeservestobeinvestigatedmorecarefully.
Sofarinvestigationsfromdifferentpointsofviewonly
appeartoconfirm itschronology,exceptforthecor-
rectionmadeabove.
ThedateofthedeathofCaracallacorrespondsclosely
tothedisappearance oftheSatavahanas oftheDekhan.
According tothelatestopinion thepower ofthe
Knshanas alsovanished aboutthesameperiod.In
SouthIndialikewisethePandyaascendancypassesinto
darkness.Thecenturj'following isoneofthedark
spotsinIndianhistory,untiltheriseoftheG-uptas
inthenorth,oftheChalukyasintheDekhan,andof
thePallavasinthesouth.MoreresearchintoTamil
literatureandtheCeylonMahavamsa wouldyield
resultsworththetrouble, failingcoinsandother
auxiliaries. Theremaybealsosomething tobe
gainedbyacarefulstudyofthetraditionsthatgrew
uplateron.

94. CHAPTEEV
THEMYSOBESTATE—ABETBOSPECT
TheStateofMysoreoverwhichHisHighness Sri
KrishnaKajWadeyarBahadur, G.c.s.i.,presides, lies
between11°38'and15°2'northlatitudeandbetween
74°42'and78°36'eastlongitude. Itoccupies just
theapexofthetrianglewhichisknownastheplateau
oftheDekhan.Mysoreitselfisasomewhatirregular
quadrilateral restingupontheshouldersoftheeastern
andthewesternghats,wheretheymaketheirjunction
inthecluster ofhillsroundabouttheNilgiris.
Eaisedfromtwotothreethousandfeetabovethesea
ithasasalubriousclimate,andfallsintotwodivisions,
eachwithdistinctive physical features.Theoneis
theMalnad(hillcountry)extendingbetweenthewes-
ternghatsandalinedrawnfromShikarpur to
PeriyapatnaandonwardeventoBiligirirangan hills
;
thenthemaidan(plain)alleastofituptotheMadras
frontier.Thequadrilateralmeasures290mileseastto
westand230milesnorthtosouth,occupyinganarea
of29,445squaremiles,ofwhichanareaofthirteen
squaremileshasbeenassignedtoformtheCiviland
MilitaryStationofBangalore,whichisdirectlyunder
theBritishadministration. Thepopulation ofthe
State,excludingthatoftheCivilandMilitaryStation,
wasreturnedinthelastcensus(1901)as5,449,800
(2,751,902malesand2,697,898females),averaging185
tothesquaremile.MorethanfivemiUionsor92'63
percentofthetotalareHindus ;Musalmansnumber
268,131or4-92percent;andChristians32,933or

95. THEBEGINNINGOFMYSOREHISTORY 77
O'Gpercent. Asmanj-as S(.l,021)arereturned as
•animistic
'andtheJainsnumber 13,68-2. Ofthe
totalpopulationonlyfivepercentareliterate. Ofthe
malesonlyninepercentareliterate.
TheState,asitisatpresent,hasbeeninexist-
enceasasinglepoliticalentityonlyfroma.d.1800
onwards
;buttheterritorycomprisedthereinhashad
ahistory ofitsownlonganterior tothisperiod.
Therearetraditions localandgeneral,connectingthis
areawiththegreatepicsoftheBdnidtjaiia-andthe
Mahdbhdrata. Aswecomedownthestreamoftime,
Jaintraditions recordthatthegreatIMauryanem-
peror,Chandragupta, retiredfromtheworldandspent
theeveningoflifeincontemplation atSravanaBelgola.
Hismorefamousgrandson,Asoka, iftheMahdvamsa
istobebelieved,sentmissionaries toMahishamandala.
Thisnamefortheterritory hasnotbeenfound
eitherintheinscriptions ofAsokaorthatofSamudra-
gupta.ThereisnodoubtthatbothAsoka,andafter
himtheSatavahanasandfinallySamudragupta, had
allofthemsomehistoricalconnexionwiththecoun-
try,butitisnotreferredtobythenameMahisha-
mandala.*Bethisasitmay,wehavecertainreference.^
inTamilliterature tochiefswhohavetobelocated
inMysoreandithastobeassumed that,sofaras
canbeknownatpresent,thehistoryofthe?iIysore
countrvbeginswiththeChristianeraatleast.
AtthisperiodtheGangasoccupythesouthernpor-
tionofMvsorewiththeircapitals, firstatKolarand
lateronatTalakad.AmongthosewhomettheChcra
king,Senguttuvan, inhisnorthern expedition were
theGangas,andtheyvi.Mtedhimwhenhewasin
campatthefootoftheXilgiris.Fromthistime
onwardstheprovinceisdividedintothreedistinctparts,
'
IamgladtofindmysslfsupportedbyDr.Fleetinthisposition
videp.425etseq.,I.R.A.S.,p.1910.

96. 78 ANCIENTINDIA
eachwithahistoryofitsown,roughlycorrespond-
ingtothethreeBritish divisions ofAshtagram,
NandidroogandNagar.Theseancientdivisionswere
Gangavadi 96,000,Nolambavadi32,000andBanavase
12,000.1 Ofthesethree, thefirstwasunderthe
Gangasuptotheendofthefirstmillennium after
Christ ;thesecondwasatfirstdividedamongthe
BanasorMahavalis,theVaidumbas,andpartperhaps
amongtheCholasandthePallavas, tillatlastthe
Pallavasconqueredthemandmadethewholean
annexetotheirdominions.TheterritoryofBanavase
maintained itselffromthebeginningoftheChristian
era,possibly earlier,toitsabsorptionbytheearly
Chalukyas,aboutthetimethatNolambavadiwascon-
queredbythePallavas.
UptoA.D.600,then,thethreeparts ofthe
Mysoreprovinceeachhadanindependenthistoryand
wasstruggling tomaintain itsindependence. Then
twoofthemlost it,whilethethirdwasmorefortu-
natethaneitherofitsneighbours. Itisinthehistory
ofthethirdthatwehavetolookfortheearlyhistory
ofMysore,though itw"asnotknownbythatname.
About A.D.600,whentheChalukyas, northofthe
Krishna,whowereinoccupationpracticallyofthewhole
oftheDekhan,andthePallavamastersofthesouth
werefighting forascendency inIndiasouthofthe
Vindhyas,theprovinceofMysore,situatedatacon-
venientanglebetweenthetwogreatpowers,was
allowedtodeveloponherownlinesforashorttime.
ThePallavasandChalukyashadtomaintainan
incessant struggle alongtheTungabhadra-Krishna
1Thefiguresattachedtoeaclinameseemtoindicateeithertherevenue
paidorthevalueoftheproduce, asiscustomary evennowin
certainlocalities. Mr.Riceconsiders ittobetheformer. Dr.Fleet
takesthemtostandforthenumberoftownshipsinthedivision, in.
spiteofapparentexaggeration. Thisdoesnotfindsupportinexist-
ingpractice,whichclearlyindicatesthat itiseitherrevenue,or
income,sometimesthequantityofseedrequired.

97. GANGAS 79
frontier. luthisstruggleBanavaselosesitsindividual
existenceandtheChalukyan frontier isadvanced into
theprovince ofM_ysoreinthewestandtheCircars
intheeast.Inthelatterregionanewviceroj'alty is
createdwithabrother ofthekingforitsviceroy,
andthislatterbecomes thefounder ofaseparate
dynasty,thatoftheeasternChalukyas. Thetwogreat
Powers,however,wearouteachotherinthestruggle,
andwhatfollows,asanaturalconsequence, isthesub-
versionofboth.TheChalukyasareoverthrownbythe
Eashtrakutas andthePallavaempirebreaksupinto
anumberofpettyprincipalities,owinaperhapstothe
temporaryoccupation ofKanchibytheKashtrakuta
DantidurgaYairamegha. Allthesetransactions take
placeabout a.d.7-54 ;andduringthistimeeastern
Mysore iscloselyassociatedwiththefortunesofthe
Pallavasandsouthern^MysoreorGaugavadi isleftfor
awhiletoherself.Thene.xtcentury isaperiodof
steadyadvance oftheGangas. Itisattheendof
thisperiodthattheGangasadvanceinthesouthern
directionandfightabattleagainstYaragunaPandya
atTirupparambiyam, nearKumbakonam. Meantime
theEashtrakutas inthenorthhavehadtimetocon-
solidatetheirnewly-wonempire,shiftingtheircapital
toaninteriorplacefromBadamioncedestroyedby
thePallavas.TheEashtrakuta capitalwasatManya-
keta.whichisidentifiedwith^lalkhedintheXizam's
dominions. Havingsetmattersrightathead-quarters,
theseEashtrakutaswereinapositiontoadvancetheir
armssouthwardandsouth-eastward, andtheabsence
ofapowerfulStatefacilitated thismovement.The
Gangasbecamethefeudatories oftheEashtrakutas,
whoevenoccupyKanchiforatime,stoppingfora
whilethegrowthoftheCholapjwerjustrisingabove
thehorizonofSouthIndianpolitics.Withthebegin-
ningofthetenthcenturyafterChristtheaspectof
affairsinSouthIndiawassomewhat asfollows :the

98. 80 ANCIENTINDIA
Eashtrakata,KrishnaIII,havingbeenintemporary-
occupation ofKanchi, completely shattered the
remnant ofthePallavas,whilebefore histime
theGangashadbeenreduced tosubjectionbyhis
predecessors.SouthoftheMysorefrontiertherearose-
anewPowerwhichhadbeenforsometimeforming
aStateofitsownoutofthedisintegrating Pallava.
dominions. ThegreatCholaParantakaoverthrewthe
Ganga-Pallavas, thenthePandyasandtheKeralas,.
andmadeforhimself,intouchwithallthreeahke,the
Cholakingdomwhichwasdestined toafargreater
future.Thenetresultofallthisactivitywasthat
theEashtrakuta frontierwaspushedbackpastthe
plateauofMysore. Itwastimethenfortherising
Cholas tomeasure theirstrengthwiththatofthe
EashtrakQtas,whentheselatterwereoverthrownby
theChalukyas ina.d.972.Thiseventfacilitated
mattersconsiderably fortheCholas,astheirprevious
attemptsinthisdirectionhadbeenfoiledbythesuc-
cessfulresistance oftheGangafeudatories ofthe
Eashtrakutas. Eajaditya,theheir-apparent totheChola
empire, fellatTakkolamaboutthemiddleofthe
century,andtheCholaadvancehadbeenputback
bythiseventforhalfacentury.
TheoverthrowoftheEashtrakutas ina.j\972was
followedbyacessationofactivityontheirsouthern
frontier,andtheGangaswerelefttodevelopthem-
selvesasbesttheymight.Thiswastheopportunity
fortheCholas,whobynowhadoccupiedtheKongu,
countrybeyond. "BeforetheChalukyascouldconsider
themselvessecureinthenorthofMysore,theCholas
pushed theirarmsnorthward overthepassesand
overthrewtheGangas,occupyingTalakadinthewest
andKolarintheeast.Thenbegan,betweenthetwo
Powers,theCholafromthesouthandChalukyafrom
thenorth,oneofthemostpersistentandwell-matched
strugglesforthepossessionofwhatisnowtheState

99. PIESTilYSOBEDYNASTY 81
ofMysore. During the firstquarter ofthetenth
century,thesouthernPowerunderthegreatKajaraja
andhissonEajendvahadoccupiedthecountrycorre-
spondingtothemaidanpartalmost,andtheChalukj^as
wereleftinpossession onlyofwhatwasBanavase
1'2,000andtheextremenorthernpartofXolambavadi
32,000. AlongafrontierstretchingfromYedatorein
thewesttoHenjeruandChitaldroog intheeast,the
twoPowerscontended formasteryandthecontest
hadbecomeveryearnest,whenAhavamallayiancsvara
ascendedthethroneoftheKarnataka. Ahavamalla's
reignandthatofhissonYikramadityaoccupiedthe
restofthecenturyandthefirstquarterofthenext.
DuringthisperiodtheCholaempireenjoyedasuc-
cessionofgreatrulersendingwithKulottun^a Cholar
'whoabolished tolls
'.Itwasinthecourseofthis,
struggle thatthispartofthetable-landhadthe
chanceofbeingbroughtunderonerule,andthefirst
independentdynastyofMysorecamethenintobeing.
ThiswasthedynastyofHoysalas,sometimeswrongly
designateil Bellalas,whichhavingbeenchieftains of
apetty distL'ictinHassan,advanced tobecomeone
ofthegreatSouthIndianPowers.Thefirstrult-rsof
thisdynasty distinguished themselves against the
CholasonbehalfoftheChalukyas,andobtainedfor
thisserviceagreatlyextended viceroyalty which,
whileyetVishnuvardhana wasruling,embracedthe
wholeofthepresentprovince of^lysore. Beforehe
died,helefttheHoysalakingdomwith it.sfrontier
advancedinthenorthuptotheKrishna.Hisson
andgrandsonwereengagedinconsolidating thisking-
domandputting ituponafootingofpeaceandpros-
perity.Thenextrulerswereinaposition tolead
uptheirforcestobeartheirshareinthebreak-upof
thegreatCholaempireinthesouth.TheC'halukya
empirehadgonepastreclamationandtheKalachurya
usurpershadhadabadtimeof itinmaintaming
6

100. 82 ANCIENTINDIA
themselvesagainsttheYadavasofDevagiri,theKaka-
tiyasofWarangal, andtheHoysalas thenaselves.
Whenthisgreatempirehadbeendividedamongthe
three,theturnfortheCholascame.TheKakatiyas
occupiedKanchiforawhile,thePandyasmarched
uponTrichinopolyandwereinoccupationofSrirangam.
Inthiscondition, theCholasfoundtheHoysalas
readyenoughfriends.TheHoysalaNarasimhaand
hissonSrimesvaradroveoutthePandyasindeed,but
tooktheirplaceandnotonlyoccupiedSrirangam
butdividedthemselves alsointotwobranches,one
rulingtheempireabovetheGhatsandtheotherthat
below.
ItisnowthattheHoysalaempirereachedthehigh
water-mark ofitsprosperity.Thencamethegreat
invasionoftheDekhanunderMalikKafur,followed
withinaquarterofacenturybyamoresystematic
conquestbyMuhammad binToghlak. Firstthe
Yadavas,thentheKakatiyas,andlastofallthe
Hoysalaswereoverthrownbytheformer,whoadvanced
farthersouthandoccupiedMaduraandplacesround
about.WiththereturnofMalikKafur,theHindu
powershadsomerespitewhichtheymadeuseoffor
reconstruction, perhapsnotentirelysuccessful,which
afreshadvanceoftheMuhammadans underMuham-
madbinToghlakforatimekeptback. Itrequireda
manofgeniustogathertogethertheseparateand
isolated effortsofpettychieftains,andthenarosethe
greatVijianagarempire,thankstotheguidance of
Vidyaranya.
TheHoysalaswhohad,sincetheburningdownof
theircapital atHalebidbyMalikKafur,beenat
Tondanur, easilysuccumbed totherisingPowerand
theStateofMysorewasamongtheearliestacquisi-
tionsofVijayanagar. Thevaryingfortunes ofthis
empire, itwillbeoutofplacetotracehere.During
allthewaxingandwaningofthisgreatHinduState

101. THERISEOFTHE\SOnEYAES 88
ontheTungabhadra,Mysoreenjoyedthegeographical
advantages ofhersituationandhadbeendividedinto
threechiefviceroyalties—thatofChannapatna and
Sriraagapatna inthesouth,andBednurinthenorth.
Intheintrigues atthecourtofVijayanaggar, some
oftheMysoreXaiksplayedtheiringlorious parts, till
thegreatcatastrophe thatoverwhelmed thegreat
empirethrewthem allintoconfusion forawhile.
WhenmattersquieteddownafterthebattleofTali-
kota,thewholeempirewasnominally underthe
ruleratPenukonda,buttheviceroys atMaduraand
Srirangapatna regardedthemselvesaspracticallyinde-
pendent. Jagadevarvarayulu orRanapeddajagadevara-
yuluhadbeendisgraced,andhispossessions were
fallingintothehands oftheviceroyatSriranga-
patna.
InthisstateofaffairsinSouthIndiagenerally,
therearoseamongthenumberofchieftains,whowere
theactualrulersoftheterritoryundertheSeringa-
patamviceroy,aWodeyarofremarkable ability. This
wasEajaWodeyarofMysorebelonging,asheclaimed,
totheYadavafamilyofGuzerat.Hisfirstancestor
cameintoMysorefromthe
'banksoftheGodavari
'
twocenturiesbeforea.d.1600,andthefamilyhad
sincebeenintheenjoymentofacomparatively small
bitofterritoryinandaroundthetalukofMysore.
ItwasgiventoEajaWodeyar toenlargehispetty
principality intoacompactkingdom,andthiscouldbe
doneonlybyoccupyingtheviceroyaltyofTirumalaraya
ofSeringapatam.
EajaAA'odeyartookadvantage ofthedifferences
betweenVenkatapariEayaathead-quarters atI'enu-
kondaandhisnephewTirumalaraya ofSeringapatam,
andenlargedhisterritorybyfirstattackingthatofthe
Chennapatna viceroyandthenofhissuzerain, the
viceroy atSeringapatam.Whenmatterswereripe
andhefoundhimselfstrongenough,hebroughton

102. 84 ANCIENTINDIA
aquarrelwiththeviceroy,whicheventuallywastaken
tobecauseenoughtogotowar.Hewhohadtaken
measures carefully fortheforthcoming eventuality
provedthestrongerofthecombatants. Tirumalaraya
hadtofleeforlife,andwaseventually killedand
Seringapatam felltoEajaWodeyar. He,however,
deemed itprudent togethispossession ratifiedby
animperialgrantina.d.1612.Thuscameintobeing
theStateofMysoreproperlyso-called.
UnderEajaWodeyarandhisimmediatesuccessors,
theStateoccupied onlythedistricts ofthesame
name,anditwasnottillthethronepassedintoa
collateralbranchunderanephew,Kantiravanarasaraja
Wodeyar,thatanythinglikeasystematicconquestof
theChennapatnaviceroyaltywasattempted
;andwhen
helaiddowntheresponsibility ofroyaltyhebad
extendedtheboundaries oftheStateveryconsiderably.
NextfollowedDoddaDevaEajaWodeyar,whopursued
thepolicyofhispredecessorsandextendedhisterritory
throughtheTumkurandChitaldroog districtssothat
whenhisnephew,ChikkadevaEajaWodeyar,cameto
thethroneinthemiddleoftheseventeenthcentury,
aboutthesametimeastheEmperorAurangzebruled,
hehadonlytopurchaseBangalorefromEkojeein
ordertocompletethestateofMysore,andtooccupy
themaidanpart,leavingtheMalnad stillunderthe
mostableamongtheXaiksofIkkeri(nearBedniir).
ThemakingofMysorewasnowcomplete,andChikka-
devahadtoorganizetheterritories. Inthisgreat
work,hewasablysupported, firstbyhisJaintutor,
VishalakshanaPunditofYelandur,andthenbyTirumala
lyangar,afriendandfellowpupil.Whenhediedin
A.D.1704,afewyearsbefore hisimperialcontem-
porary,helefttohisdeaf-mute sonawell-ordered
State,includingnotonlythemaidanpartsofMysore,
butalsothebordering districtsbelowtheghats,with
afulltreasury,andacapableandfaithfulminister-

103. THEDALAVAYS 85
regentinthepersonofhislife-longfriendTirumala
lyangar.
Thisstateofaffairsgaveanopportunity forthe
disorderlyelements toassertthemselves,whichunder
thestrongruleofKantlravaNarasa,andbeforehim
ofEajaWodeyar,hadbeenkeptvs^ellinhand.Through
thegreatabilityandmanagement oftheBrahmin
minister,theso-called
'MookaArasu
'
(thedumb-king)
passedawayafterapeacefulreignleavingbehindhim
ason.Underthisson,theStatewasexposedtotwo
greatdangersfromoutside.TheIkkeriNaikshadbeen
vpeakened,andeventuallyreducedtonullity,through
thedoubleattackfromtheBijapurSultansonthe
onesideandtheMysoreWodeyarsontheother.The
removal ofthisbarrierexposedtherisingstateof
Mysoretotheinvasions oftheMnsalmans ofthe
DekhanandtheMahrattas.WhenDoddaKrishna
Eajawasruling ^lysore, theDalavayscameinto
noticeasadistinctfactorinpolitics.Theyrendered
servicetotheStatebyfirsttakingDevanahalliand
Chikkaballapur andthenSavandroog,nearBangalore,
andbysuccessfullywithstandingtheMahrattas.When
KrishnaIpassedawayheleftbehindhimnoproper
heir,andtheusualstruggles atking-making began.
Thefirstnomineedidnotproveaveryapttool,and
theking-makers discovered thattheyhadmistaken
theirman.HewassentawaytoKabbaldroog to
perishthere,andinhissteadabab>-,KrishnaEaja,
wasplaceduponthethrone. Therealpowerinthe
StateactuallypassedoutofthehandsoftheMaharaja
intothehands ofthethreegreatfunctionaries of
State—theDalavay,thePradhanandtheSarvadhikari.
Twobrothers ofthefamousDalavayfamilyanda
cousindividedthethreeplacesamongthemselves,and
theadministrationwascarriedonsmoothlyforsome-
time,whentheMaharajabegantochafeunderthe
yokethusgraduallymadeheavierashefelt.Inthis

104. 86 ANCIENTINDIA
stateofaffairsinMysore,therewascomingintonotice
ayoungMusalman intheMysorearmy,whohad
attractedhisGeneral'sattentioninthesiegeofDevan-
halHbytheMysoreforcesunderNanjaraja, against
theNawabofSira.Theyoungmanwassoonadvanced
tothepositionofasquadroncommander,andfound
scopeforrenderingmoreusefulservicetohismaster
intheoperations roundTrichinopoly duringthe
Karnaticwarsoftheeighteenth century.Dalavay
Devarajahavinggrowntooold,anexchangeofoffices
tookplacebetweenthebrothers,andNanjarajassumed
commandatTrichinopoly,wherefordistinguished ser-
viceHaidarhadbeenrewardedwiththeFoujdariof
DindigLil.WhenNanjarajreturnedtoMysore,matters
weregrowingripeforarevolution. Devarajhaving
retiredfrompubliclife,theMaharajawasgettingtired
oftheyokeofNanjarajawhowasbecomingveryhigh-
handed,andanattemptwasmadebythepalaceparty
togetridofthetroublesome minister. Haidar'said
wascalledinandforthewhileNanjarajawascom-
pelledtoretireonpension. Allthathewasdoing,
andmore,wasentrusted toHaidar,whogotridof
KandeEao,whomhehadmadeuseofasanapttool
inallhisprevioustransactions. Thepoweroverthe
armyandthefinancial controlgiventohimtostop
theinroadsoftroublesome foesliketheNawabof
SiraandtheMahrattas,madehimthearbiterofthe
situation,andhethenbecametheruleroftheState,
though he stillpreserved themonarchy ofthe
Wodeyarsbynominatingonefromamongtheyoung
cousins oftheEoyalfamily,whenKrishnaEajaII
passedaway.Thecircumstances oftheselectionare
thusdescribedbyWilks :
'Heorderedallthechildren
tobecollectedfromthedifferentbranches ofthe
house,who,according toancientprecedent,were
entitled tofurnishasuccessor tothethrone.The
ceremonialobservedonthisoccasion,howeverchildish,

105. THETJSTJRPATION 87
wasinperfectaccordancewiththefeelingswhichhe
intended todelude,andsufficiently adapted tothe
superstition ofthefatalist.Thehallofaudiencewas
strewedroundwithfruits,sweetmeatsandflowers,
playthings ofvariousdescriptions, arms,books,male
andfemaleornaments, bags ofmoney,andevery
variedobjectofpuerileormanlypursuit ;thechildren
wereintroducedtogetherandwereallinvitedtohelp
themselves towhatevertheylikedbest ;thegreater
numberwerequicklyengagedinascramble forthe
fruits,sweetmeatsandtoys ;butonechildwasat-
tractedbyabrilliant littledagger,whichhetookup
inhisrighthand,andsoonafterwardsalimeinhis
left."That istheEajah",exclaimedHaidar."His
firstcareismilitaryprotection, hissecondtorealize
theproduceofhisdominion,bringhimhither,and
letmeembracehim."Theassemblywasinauniversal
murmurofapplause,andheorderedthechildtobe
conducted totheHindupalaceandprepared for
installation.'
ItwastheroleofHaidartoenlargetheboundaries
ofthe^Mysorekingdombeyonditsformerboundaries,
soastoincludewithin itsdominions thecountries
rightuptotheKrishnainthenorthandasfaras
Dindigul inthesouth.Hehadtocontendagainst
theNizamandthemorepowerfulMahrattas inthe
northandtheEnglishCompany intheeastand
south.Inspiteofreverseshemaintainedtheterri-
toriesofMysoreintactandleftthemalltohisson,
whoforthefirsttimedidawaywiththefictionof
aMaharaja. TlpiiSultanfollowed inthewakeof
hisfatherandcherishedambitions,whichconstantly
ledhimtotrampleuponhisneighbour'srights.This
eventually ledtoacombinationamongthemand
TTpuhadtoaccepttheinevitable.Henevergaveup
organizinghimselfforafinalstruggle,whichledtothe
fallofSeringapatam, andtherestorationoftheHindu

106. OO ANCIENTINDIA
dynastyoftheWodeyarsunderKrishnaEajaWodeyar.
Allthisbringsustothenineteenth centurywhich
beginswiththeMysoreStateasitisatpresent.
TheyoungMaharaja's administration wastobecon-
ductedbytheEegentPurniah. SirBarryClosewas
thenBritishEesident,withSirArthurWellesley as
Commander oftheforces.Purniahcarriedonthead-
ministration tillA.D.1812,whentheMaharajaassumed
theresponsibilities ofhishighoffice.Purniahthen
retiredtoSeringapatam, tobringabusylifetoaclose
there,solongthesceneofhisactivity.
TheyoungMaharaja,thusfreedfromtheinfluence
oftheonlymanwhowaslikely,duringthosetroublous
times,tosteerintoasafeharbourtheshipofState,
was,butwithdifficulty,abletoholdhisownagainst
thedisorderlyelementsthenaboundinginthecountry.
Hisgenerositywasproverbialandisrememberedeven
tothisday.Disorders brokeoutsimultaneously in
severalparts oftheStateandintheneighbouring
British districts. ItwasthoughtthattheMaharaja
wastooreadytolistentoadviserswhowerebyno
meanscompetent togivehimwisecounsel. His
princelygenerositywasusedasahandletodepose
him.Somedebts,whichtheMaharajahadcontracted,
werepaidoffbytheBritishGovernment,andthe
Maharajawastoldthat,asthisstateofthingscould
notproceedanyfurther,hewouldhavetoleada
retiredlifewithapensionsuitedtohisrankanddignity.
NeedlesstosaytheMaharaja protested. TheGover-
nor-Generalwas,however,determined toactuponthe
fourthandfiftharticlesofthesubsidiary treaty,and
accordinglyformalnoticewasgiventotheEajah.
Thuscommenced inA.d.1831thefiftyyearsof
Britishadministration ofMysore.

107. FAMILYTREES
[N.B.'
—
Dottedlinesindicatesuccessionnotinregularline.]
Yadu(1399to1423).
I
HiriBetadChamaraj1(14'23to1458).
I
TimmarajaWo.levar(145Sto147S).
r
HiriChamarajarasa II(1478to1513).
BetadChamarajIII(1513to15:V2).
\
Chsamaraja.
I I
I
Timmaraj(1552to1571).Krishnaraj.BoleCliamarajaIV(1571to1576).
BetadWodeyar |
|
(1576to157S).RajadhiRaja.BetadCliamarajaV.MuppinDevaraj.
(1578to1617).
I
\ I
I 1
NarasaRaja.BetadWodeyar.Nanjraj.Chamaraj.Im-
[ madiRaja
ChamarajaWodeyarVI (1637-8).
(1617to1678).
RajaWodey.ir
(diedyoung).
KantiravaNarasa
(1638to105'J)
.
I
I
I
Jr.
DodDevaraj.ChikkaDevarajendra.KempaDevavva. JIariDeva
I
(1659to1672).
ChikkaDevaraj(1672to1704),
KantlravaNarasa(1704to1713).
DodKrishnaRaj(1713to1731).
KantlravaNarasa.
ChamarajaVII
(1731to1734).
ChikkaKrishnaraja
(1734to1766).
Nanjaraja(1767to1770).
H.H.SriKrishnaRaja
Wodeyar(1894—
(ThePresentRuler).
ChamarajaVIII(1770to1775).
ChamarajaIX(1775to1796).
I
KrishnaRajaIII(1800to1868).
Cham'arajendraX(1868to1894).
Prince,KantlravaNarasa
RajaWodeyar
(TheYuvaraj)-

108. CHAPTERVI
THECHOLAEMPTBEINSOUTHINDIA
PARTI—HISTORY
1.TheAncientCholas :ThenameCholaisgiventoa
people,aswellastoadynastyofrulers,notonlyin
ordinaryparlancebutalsoinliterature,andreaches
tothehighestantiquitythatliteratureorusagecan
takeus.Whothepeoplewere,andwheretheycame
from, itseemswell-nighimpossible todetermine at
present.Thattheywereinthecountrythatthey
occupiedinhistoricaltimesverymuchearlierthan
thebeginning ofhistoryforSouthIndia,doesnot
admitofanydoubtwhatsoever. TheCholas,asrulers,
findmentionintheMahdbhdrata andtheEpicand
Puranicliteraturegenerally.Thechronology ofthese,
however, isyetmatterforinvestigation. Thefirst
undoubted historicalmention^ oftheseCholasisin
thesecondandthirteenth rockedictsofthegreat
MauryanemperorAsoka,whoreferstothesefriendly
PowersalongwiththegreatPotentates thatmade
themselvesheirtotheempireofAlexandertheGreat.
Passingdownthestreamoftime,fromthedaysof
thegreatMaurya,whosefamespreadthroughthewhole
ofAsia,andeveneasternEuropeandAfrica,the
Cholasarespokenofasasourceoftroubletothe
Ceyloneserulerssetoveragainstthemintheneigh-
bouringisland.Inthecenturyimmediatelypreceding
'V.A.Smith'sAsoka(2nded.),pp.156and174.

109. TAMILLITERATUKE 91
ChristthereweresixTamilusurpersfromthecountry
of
'Soli
',^accordingtotheMalidvam.ia. Inthecenturies
immediately followingtheadventofChrist,however,
weseemtobeatthegraydawn ofSouthIndian
history.Theperiodbetweenthisandtheriseofthe
Pallavas istheperiodofthehighwater-markofTamil
literature;andourinformation, tlioughnotuptothe
requirements ofmodernhistoricalcriticism, iscertainly
moreinvolumeandnotaltogether viilueless. Itis
mostconvincingly clearfromthisbodyofliterature
thattherewasapowerfuldynasty ofCholarulers
intheearlycenturiesoftheChristianEra.
Beforedealingwiththisdynastyofrulersthereare
afewnamesthatfindmentioninthisbodyoflitera-
turewhichhavetobeconsidered. Thesearemost
ofthemPuranicnames
''
thathavebeenadoptedinto-
thisbodyofliteraturebythegenealogist. Genealogy
makingwasregardedasaparticularpastimeofthe
eleventhcenturybards ;butthesegenealogistsseemto-
havehadamuchanteriorvogue.Amongthenames
mentioned inthismanner arethoseof'Sibi,who
gavehislifetosaveadove;Kaverathefatherof
theriverKavery ;Musugundan whohelpedIndra
;
Manuwhoranhiscaroverhissoninjusticetoa
cow.Passingtheseover,there stillisleftareference
ofadifferent character,whenwecometoaChola
calledPerunjSrruchcholan. Thefirstpartoftheword
means
'thegreatfoodsupplier
'
;andthisisexplained
byreference totheChola'shavingfedthearmiesof
boththePandavaandKauravacombatants onthe
occasion oftheGreatWar. This,however, isa
featureclaimedalikebyallthethree—Chera,Chola
andPandya.Onefactstandsoutclearfromallthis
—
1Upham,Mahdvamsa, vol.i,p.218.
1'Silappadhikdram, Cantoxxiii, 11.58-9andpp.4S8-9 ;Mani-
mekhalai,Canto1,i.5,notePanditSwaminatba Iyer'sedition. Also
VA^iramx'solan uld.

110. 92
ANCIENTINDIA
thatwhentheserulersbegantothinkoftheirpedigree
theyfoundthattheycouldeasily graftthemselves
•ontheheroesoftheMahdbharata eitherdirectlyor
indirectly. Taking leaveoftheseheroes asbeing
beyondthepaleofhistory,therecomeintoviewtwo
orthreepersonageswhomustberegarded asquite
historical.ThefirstgreatCholaamongthemwho
demandsourattention istheCholaKarikala.There
areanumberofhispredecessors mentioned inthe
'Sangamworks;butinourpresentstateofknowledge
oftheseitwouldbehazardous toattemptarranging
themonanyscheme,eithergenealogicalorsuccessional.
Karikala'sgrandfatherwouldappeartobeVerpaha-
radakkai Perunarkilli.* Hewasacontemporary of
Kudakk5Nedumseraladan, theCheraking,andthey
bothfoughtandfellinbattleonthesamefield.Poets
whocelebrated thissadcatastrophewerecontempora-
riesofKarikala aswell.Karikala'sfatherisspoken
ofintheseworksasUruvappaharer IlayonorIlanjet-
-chenni.Thelatterpartofthislongnamemeansa
prince.Itwouldappeartherefromthatheneversuc-
ceededtothethrone.Thefatherdiedaprinceand
thegrandfather fellinbattle,andsothegrandsonwas
left,whenquiteayoungboy,heirtothethroneof
akingdomnotintheenjoyment ofpeace.Norwere
causeswantingforcivildissensions. YoungKarikala
foundhimselfafugitiveatKariirafterthedisastrous
battleinwhichhisgrandfather fellalongwithhis
Cheraenemy. Itwasfromherethathewasfetched
toascendthethronebytheStateelephantfromKalu-
malam(Shiyali).Hemetwithaseriousfireaccident
fromwhichheescapedwithdifficulty,thoughhewas
maimedfortherestofhislife. Itisfromthisearly
accident thathegottheratherpeculiarnameof
1Purananarii. Referenceinpp.Sand9.PanditSwaminatha
Iyer'sedition.

111. KAEIKALA 93
'
blackleg '.Asayoungmanhehadtositasjudge
inacause,thepartiestowhichfearedthattheyoung
manmightmiisjudge.Heappearedasanoldmanto
them,andtheawardhega¥ewasassound,asthatof
ajudgeofthemostmatureexperience.Hehadfor
hisuncleachiefbynamePidarthalaiyan. Hehad
marriedamongtheNangSrVelfamily.Hehadtofight
agreatbattleatVennil(probably Koilvenni inthe
Tanjore district)
,i
boththeCheraandthePandya
havingcombinedagainsthim.HisPandyaenemyis
notspecificallymentionedbyname,thoughtheChera
wasalmostcertainlythe
''SeramanPerumseraladhan'.
ThisCherafeltthedefeatsokeenlythat,liketheItalian
CharlesAlbert,heexiledhimselfandendedhisdays
bystarvation. Notwithstanding thesadfateofthis
greatChera,thewarseemstohaveendedinatreaty
whichwassealedbyamarriage.Theheirpresump-
tive,orheirapparent, totheCherathronemarried,
eitherthenorlater,theCholaprincesswhoiscalled
Narchchonai.^ Peacehadbeensecuredonthatside
andalongwithitonthesideofthePandyasaswell.
Heappearstohavebeenamongthosethatwerea
sourceoftroubletotheCeylonese
;foritwashethat
builtthecityofKaverippattinam, towhichhetrans-
ferredthehead-quarters thathadhithertobeenat
UraivurnearTrichinopoly. Theconstruction oftbis^
cityandthetransference ofthecapitaltoit,perhaps
afterthedefinitive treatywithhisimmediateneigh-
bours,wouldarguesecurityontheonesideandwant
ofsafetyontheother.Thisisexactlywhat isre-
flectedintheMnhavamsa. GajabahuIofCeylonheard
fromanoldwomanwhowasbewailingthelossofher
onlyson,thattwelvethousandCeylonesewerecarried'
1Porunardrruppadai^ 11.143-8andotherreferencesunderKarikfila.
q,V.above,note(4).
3SilappadiJcaram, p.10andCantoxxix.

112. "94 ANCIENTINDIA
awaybytheTamilians, inoneoftheirrecentinva-
sions,toworkinthe
'townofKavery
^'Having
securedhisfrontieronthewestandsouth,hetrans-
ferredhiscapitaltothecoast,bothforpurposes of
•theflourishingcommerce ofthosedaysandforthe
•defenceoftheseafrontier.Heisgivencreditby
thepoetsoftheperiodwithhavingcarriedhisarms
-^victoriously asfarnorthastheHimalayas,onwhich
heissaidtohaveerectedthetigeremblem ofhis
family.Hisnorthernexpedition isspecificallymentioned
intheSi^appadhikdram
;
^and,whatisevenmore,he
issaidbythesameauthoritytohavebeenondiplo-
matictermswiththerulersofMagadha,Vajra(Bundal-
khand)andAvanti,thesecondofthesebeingasubdued
enemyandthethirdapositivefriend.Thesespecific
.assertions ofapoet,onlyonegenerationremovedfrom
him,cannotberegardedasmerefigmentsoftheima-
.gination. Kaverippattinam inthedaysofKarikala
seemstohavebeenagreatemporium oftradeboth
inlandandoversea.ThepoemPattinappdlai isamere
description ofthiscityinthedaysofKarikala.He
isbesidesuniformly creditedwithhavingmadethe
embankments fortheKavery.' TheCholakingdom
(reachedtheheightofitsgloryunderhiminthedays
anteriortoEajarajatheGreat.Hewasnonethelessas
apatronofletters.Pattmappdlaialreadyreferredtowas
composed inhishonourforwhichtheauthorreceived
-therewardofalakhandsixtythousandgoldpieces.
Thisluckyauthorlivedontocelebrateanotherpatron,
TondamanIlandirayan
*ofKanchiofalatergeneration.
Otherpoetstherewerewhoflourished inhistime
andenjoyedhispatronageaswell.Amongthesemust
1Upham'sMahdvamsa, vol.i,pp.228-9,ch.35.
2Page139.
3EpigrapMst'sreport,190P,sec.14.LargeLeydengrantArch.
.SurveyofS.I.,vol.iv,etc.
*Perumbanarrappadai. PanditSwaminatha Iyer'sPattupattu.

113. TONDAMANILANIRAYAN 95
bementionedParanar,Kalathalaiyar,Vennikkuyathiyar,
etc.,allofSaugamfame.Hisreignmusthavebeena
longone,andwhenhepassedawaythesuccession fell
tothelotofason,oragrandson,bynameNedumu-
dikkilli,alsoknownwithmanyanotherattribute. His
reignalsomusthavebeenacomparatively longone.
HebeganwithavictoryovertheCherasandPandyas
atKariyaru.' Ifthisistobeconnectedwithariver
ofthenameintheSalemdistrict,thealliesmusthave
advancedwithaviewtotakingadvantageofthenew
succession. TheCholawasabletomakehisposition
good,withtheaidofavaliant brother,whowas
probabh'theviceroyatXanchiatthenorthernendof
theCholadominions. Killi'scapitalwasalsoKaverip-
patnnamatthecommencement c>fhisreign. Itwas
inhisreignthatKaverippattinam wasdestroyedby
thesea.HewasthefatherofTondamanItandirayan,
therulerofKanchicelebratedbyEudiranga:3nanar
inhisPerumhanarruppailai. ThisTondamanwasthe
offspringofaliaisonbetweentheKilliandaNaga
princesswhosenthimtohisfatherwhentheboy
hadgrownoldenoughtoleavethemother.Amishap
totheshipbroughtabouttheneglect,onthepartof
theanxiousfather,tocelebrate theannual festival
tothepatrongoddessofthecity.^Hencethedestruc-
tionofthecity.Thisgreatcalamitystruckadeadly
blowattheprosperity ofthecityanditsrulers
;and
thismisfortunemayhavebeentheoccasionofacivil
waramongtheseveralbranchesoftheCholafamily.
ItwasinthecourseofthiswarthattheCheraruler
Senguttuvan foundoccasiontointervene inbehalfof
hiscousin,anddefeatinghisenemiesatNerivayil,^not
farfrom Uraiyfir, restoredsomewhat theshattered
1Manimekhalai 1.XS.Vlij—Purananuiu 47.
2Manimekhali xiv,11.55-70
;xxv,11.179-205.
3Silappadhikdram xxvii,II.115-1-25andPadirriippaUu, sec.5,

114. 96 ANCIENTINDIA
fortunesofthefamily.DuringtheperiodoftheChera
ascendencj'thususheredin,theCholaswereableto
maintainanindependentexistence,thoughwithreduced
territoryandshornofmuchoftheirglory.Therise
ofthePandyas,almostsimultaneouslywiththePallavas,
destroyedwhatwasstillleftoftheirgreatnessandthe
Cholasofthisperiodpassintodarkness. Duringthe
periodofdecadenceanddecay oftheCholapower
andtheadvanceoftheChera,theviceroyaltyofKanchi
wascutofffromtheCholakingdombythewedgeof
aCheraviceroyaltyintheSalemdistrict.^Whathad
happened totheTondaman ofKanchi,whetherhe
founded aseparatefamilyofhisownandwhether
thatfamilyhadanyconnexionwhatsoeverwiththe
Pallavasofhistory,areproblemsonwhichmorelight
hastobethrownbyfurtherresearchbeforeanyanswer
canbeventured. DuringthethreecenturiesofPallava
ascendencytheCholasareheardofonlyinageneral
way,andnoparticular detailsareforthcoming. But
thereisoneCholawhomayhavetobereferredtothe
earlypartofthis,ifnottoaperiodsomewhatanterior
even.ThisCholaisknownbythenameKuchchengau.
HeiscreditedwithhavingdefeatedtheCheraKauaik-
kalirumporai,^whomhethrewintoprison.Heisbesides
saidtohavewonabloodybattleatKalumalam (Shiyali),
thoughhiseaemiesarenotspecificallymentioned.The
SaivasclaimedhimamongtheAdiyars,whilethe
Vaishriavasclaimhimequallyamongtheirbenefactors.
Hewasagreattemplebuilder,andamongthese
templesarementionedbothSivaandVishnushrines.
He isdefinitely saidtohavebuiltanddedicated
seventytemplestoSivainaVaishnavawork.
PassingonintotheAge ofthePallavas, the
Cholasfindmentionamongthosedefeatedbothby
1Padirruppattu,sec.5.Silappadhikaram, Cantoxxiv,lastlines.
^Purandniiru 74,Kalavali40,Periatirumoli 6.

115. THEEARLIERCHOLAS 97
thePallavasthemselvesandtheirhereditaryenetnies
theChalukyas. ThewifeofthePandyakingwhom
Tirugnanasambandar convertedwasaCholaprincess.
BeyondthesefewreferencesCholahistoryduringthis
periodisanabsoluteblank.
i.TheEarlierCholas :Themakingoftheempire
nowbegins. AllthetimethePallavaswereintheas-
cendenttheCholashadnotpassedoutofexistence,
ashasbeenpointedoutalready.TheywereaPower
maintaining aprecarious independence,hemmed in
bythePallavasontheonesideandthePandyason
theother.Thereappears tohavebeenabranch of
themrulingintheCededdistricts,^ inthedayswhen
theChinese travellerYuwanChwangwasinIndia.
WhenthePallavasbegantodeclineinpowerinthe
south,thepoliticalcondition ofpeninsularIndiawas
somewhatasfollows.TheDekhanportionwasdivided
intotwoparts,thewesternundertheRashtrakr;tas
withtheircapitalatManyaketa ;theeasternunder
theChalukyaswiththeircapitalatEajamandri. The
southernfrontierofthesewasthePennar,orperhaps
alinesomewhatfarthersouth.ThePallavaterritory
properwasdividedamongthreeconnectedbranches
ofthePallavafamily.Thewesternmost partofit
wasundertheGangas,whonowbegin toplay
adecisivepartinthehistoryofSouthIndia.Next
lastoftnemwastheterritory oftheBanascalled
Ganga-Banas,andfarthereastnearthecoastwasthe
dommion ofthePallavas themselves. Itwasthe
founderoftheEashtrakutas
^thatgavethecoupde
gracetothetotteringPallavaPower ;butthenew
dvnastyhadpresently toturnitsattention tothe
north,wheretheGiirjaraswererisingfast toan
1Epigraphist'sReport,1906,sec.5.
2BombayGazetteer, vol.i,pt.ii,pp.389-90.
Periyatirurtioli III,viii.10.
7

116. 98 ANCIENTINDIA
imperialposition.ThePallavas were,therefore, left
unmolested foratimebythem. ItwasunderGovinda
IV'andhissonKrishnaIII^thattheBashtrakiitas
wereabletoturntheirattentiontothesouth.The
formerwas,however,keptfullyengagedasaresult
ofhisintervention inadisputedsuccession tothe
EasternChalukya throne.Theaccession ofhisson
topowerwascoevalwiththeriseofausurperPeru-
manadiBiitugaintheGangakingdom.TheEashtra-
kutasseemtohavehadahandinthisusurpation
^
asinthedisputed succession inVengi.Govinda's
diplomatic effortsborefruitinhissonKrishna'sreign.
Krishna v/asabletoadvancesouthwards andwas
forsometimeinoccupation ofKanchiandTanjore.
Simultaneously with thissouthwardmoveofthe
EashtrakutaswasthemarchnorthwardsofthePandyas.
Ageneration earlierthanKrishnathePandyaVara-
guna^advancednorthtoextendhispowerintoPallava
territory,andwasbeatenbackbyasupreme effort
onthepartofthethreeconnecteddynasties, ofthe
Ganga, Pallava,andBana.Thebattle atTirup-
parambiumnearKumbhakonam sealedthedoomof
thePandyaagainstachievinganascendency,andthe
occasionwastakenadvantage ofbytheCholas.The
latterthenbegintocarveoutforthemselvesfrom
theirownpatrimony asitwere, asmallkingdom
whichgrewintoamightyempi)'einthehandsof
theirmorepowerfulandenterprising successors.The
CholasbeginningwithVijayalayauptoEajarajathe
Great,canthereforebecalledthemakersoftheChola
empire.
Vijayalaya :ThePandyaVaragunaalreadyreferred
tointhepreviousparagraphcametothethronein
1BombayGazetteerI,pt.ii,p.417.
2EpigraphiaIndicavol.iii,284-285.
3EpigraphiaIndicavol.iv.281.
*Epigraphist'sReportfo-r1906,sees.8-10.

117. VIJAYALAYA 99
A.D.862-3.HeinvadedtheCholacountryanddirect-
edhisattackuponIdavaiinthesamecountry. It
wasinthesamecampaignthathestormedthefortress
ofVembil.'HethenmarchedasfarnorthasAraisur
onthePennarinthesouthernTondanadufromwhich
heissuedagrant. AgainstthisaggressivePandyan
therewasacombinationbroughtaboutbetweenthe
GangasandtheGanga-Pallavas, beforewhichhethought
itprudent toretire.Theallieswerevictorious at
Tirupparambium nearKumbhakonam. Inthebattle
thevictoriousGangaPrithvlpatiIfell,whiletheGanga-
PallavaAparajitatheoverlordwasridofsotrouble-
someanenemy.Heseems,however, nottohave
beenabletorecovermuchofthelostground,perhaps
owingtoothermovements inthenorthofhisterritory.
TheopportunityhadnowarrivedfortheChola. Vija-
yalayawasreadytotakeadvantage
•ofthesituation
thatwasfastdeveloping.Hebeganextending his
humblepatrimonywithoutawakeningsuspicion,andin
thecourseofhislongreignofthirty-fouryearsat
least,hewasabletocaptureTanjoreandmakeitnot
onlyhiscapital,butalsotoleaverecordsofhisreign
insuchdistantplacesasUkkal,Conjeevaram, Tiruk-
kovilurandSuchindram^ nearCapeComorin. Calcu-
latingbackfromtheknownandverifieddateof
Parantaka's initialyear,Vijayalayabeganhisreignin
aboutA.D.846.
Aditya :
^ThesuccessorofParakesarivarman Vijaya-
laya,towhomarereferablesomeatleastofthe
records ofaParakesarivarman without anyother
distinctive appellation, wassucceededbyhisson
Aditya I,Eajakesarivarman. Aditya Icontinued in
1Epigraphist'sBeportfor1906,sec.25.
iEpigraphist'sReportfor1909,sec.35. :
3Ibid.35andreferencesunderKielhorn'sSouthern ListEpi.
Ind.,vol.vii,nos.676-80.

118. 100 ANCIENTINDIA
theforwardpolicyofhisfatherandconquered finally
thePallavaAparajita victoroverthePandyaVara-
guna,andbrought himselfintotouchwiththe
Eashtrakutasonhisnorthernfrontier. IftheKongu-
desardjakkal isworthyofanycredit,hewasalsothe
conqueror ofKongu.Thehistoryofhissuccessors
seemsonlytoconfirmthissofar.Hiswasalsoa
longreignoftwenty-seven yearsandbringsustothe
reignofhissonParantaka I.
Parantaka I,Parakesarivarman, Viranarayana, etc.,
A.D.(907-947). Parantakasucceededtoakingdomof
considerable extent,andhisfrontierstouched the
Pandyacountryinthesouthandsouth-west,Kerala
inthewest,theBanaandVaidumbacountryinthe
north-west,andtheeasternChalukyaandRashtra-
kutacountries inthenorth.Hefirstattackedand
overthrew thePandyaPajasimha inbattlebefore
A.D.910having,perhaps previously, entered into
amarriagealliancewiththeKeralasonhiswestern
flank.Thissecuredhimsafetyonthesouthern side.
Hisnextmoveappearstohavebeenthesubjugation
oftheBanas.Hewasenabled tofollowinthis
policyunmolested, astheRashtrakntas
^werefully
occupiedwiththeirownaggressionsontheirneigh-
bours.GovindaIVofthisdynastywasengagedon
afruitless, nay,suicidalintervention inadisputed
succession totheeasternChalukya throne.When
ParantakahadrepeatedlyoverthrowntwoBanas in
successionheconferred theirpatrimonyuponhisally
theGanga-Bana Prithvipati Hastimalla.^ Hisnext
conquestwasthatoftheVaidumbas,andtheacqui-
sitionoftheirterritory oftheVadugavali (theroad
totheAndhraorTelugucountry).Heensuredpeace
tohisvastconquests insuchawaythathisreign
1BombayGazetteer,vol.i,pt.ii,pp.416-7,
2SouthIiid.Ins.,vol.ii,no.76.

119. paeantaka 101
marksthebeginning ofthereHgiousactivitiesofthe
period.TheKalamukha^andPasupataSaivasbegin
tofindfavour,andtheearliestVaishnavaAcharyas^
commence theirapostoKcwork.Parantaka himself
appearstohavebeenaSaiva^anddidhispiousduty
tothegreatshrineatChidambarambyrenewingthe
goldplatingofthegreathallthere.Inhisthirty-
seventh*yearorsomewhat earlierhefelthimself
strongenoughtoventureonasuccessfulinvasionof
Ceylon. Afteralongreignofatleastfortyyearsduring
whichheextendedandconsolidatedhispatrimony,and
securedhisfrontiersfromhostileattackbothbycon-
questanddiplomacy,Parantakapassedaway.Heleft
behindhimfivesons,amongwhomthreeappearto
haveruled.HiseldestsonEajakesarivarman Eajaditya
succeeded Parantaka. Theapproach oftheCholas
towardstheirsouthernfrontierputtheEashtrakutas
onthealert,andtheirhandisclearlydiscerniblein
theusurpation oftheGangakingdombyPerumanadi
Butuga,^ason-in-lawofAm5ghavarshaandabrother-
in-lawofKrishnaHI.Thisthrewthatfrontierinto
confusion andinsecurity, andEajaditya promptly
marchedforthtosetmattersright.Abloodybattle
atTakkSlamwastheresult. Eajadityawaskilledon
thefieldofbattlebyBiituga,whomanagedtomount
theelephantoftheCholaandkillhim.Thisevent
tookplaceina.d.949-50,*KrishnaIIItookadvantage
ofhisvictorytothe full,marched intotheChola
countryandwasinoccupation ofKanchiforawhile
;
and,whatwasevenmoreofacalamitytotheCholas,
1Epigraphist'sReportfor1909,sec.37.
2VidetheChaptersonRamanujaandTirumangai AlvSr.
3LeydengrantandKaUngattupparani.
iReferenceundernote2above.
!>BombayGazetteer,vol. i,pt.ii,pp.304and418.
6J.R.A.S.for1909,pp.
443-5.

120. 102 ANCIENTINDIA
helaidsiegetoTanjore.* Gandaradittan, thesecond
sonofParantaka,succeededhiselderbrotheranddid
hisbesttobeatbacktheenemyandpreventhis
gettingapermanentholdupontheCholakingdom,
notaltogether without success. TheEashtrakuta
powerhadhardlytwentymoreyearstorun,andthere
werealreadythepremonitorysymptomsofthecoming
storm.AnyhowtheCholashadsomelittlerespite
giventhemtorecover lostground. Gandaradittan
hasleftbehindhimmemorials ofhisruleinthe
townthatbearshisname,andthefifth
'Tiruvisaippa
'
inwhichhecallshimselfrulerofTanjore.His
devotedandpiouswidowbuiltatempleatKoneri-
rajapnram,^anderectedastatueofherlatehusband
which istobeseeninthetempleevennow.He
leftbehindhimason,probably ababy,andwas
succeededbyhisbrotherAiinjaya,orasheissometimes
called,Arjuna.TheothertwosonsofParantakawere
princeUttamaslliandoneArikulakesarin,whoheld
highcommandbothunderhisfatherParantakaIand
underhiselderbrotherEajakesarivarman Arinjaya.
'
Thislastmayhavebeenthepersonreferredtobythe
nameMadiraikonda Eajakesarivarman. Theattribute
Madiraikonda maybeduetoeitheraparticular
achievement ofhisownorborrowedfromhisfather's.
ArinjayawassucceededbyhissonParantaka II,
Sundarachola. Inthisreignthereappears tohave
beentroubleonthePandya side,andthisendedun-
favourably fortherebelsthroughtheexertions of
theChola,ablysupportedbytheeffortsofhisgeneral
^iriyavelan.ThePandyakinghadtofind
'
shelter
inthedesert '.
•
Thisseemstobetheachievement
1SouthInd.Ins.,vol.iii,7.
2Kpigraphist's Report,1909,sec.41.
3EpigraphisVsReport,sees.38-9.
^Ibid.sec.40.

121. UTTAMACHOLA 103
thatisreflectedinthestatementthatAdityaII
'
while
aboyplayedsportively inbattlewiththeheadof
ViraPandya
'.Theyetunidentified battleofChevur
mayalsorefertothesameachievement againstthe
Pandya. Parantaka IIwassucceeded byhisson
Aditya II,Karikala,ofwhombutlittleisknownbe-
yondtheachievementagainstthePandya,asaboy.
Hewasfollowedonthethronebyhisfirstcousin
Parakesarivarman UttamaChola.Hisaccessiontook
placeina.d.969-70.Hissuccessiondoesnotappear
tohavebeenaltogether beyond question. Ifthe
recentlydiscovered Tiruvalangadu plates*aretobe
believed Eajarajawasprobably thefavourite. He,
however,wouldseem tohave declined tobethe
causeofacivilwar. IfRajarajareallydidthisheought
inthecircumstances, tobecountedagenuinepatriot.
TheaccessionofL'ttamaCholawascoevalwiththe
invasionoftheRashtrakutadominionsbytheParamaras
ofMalvaunderHarshaandhissuccessorMunja,who
carriedtheirarmsuptothecapitalManyaketa itself-
Thiscatastrophewastakenadvantage ofbytheir
enemywithin,theChalukyas,whounderTailaII
overthrewtheEashtrakQtasandrestoredtheirfallen
dynastytopower.Thelatter'srelativer^Iarasimha,the
sonoftheGangaBiituga,wasabletodonothing
morethanrecognizeone ofhisnephews asthe
paramount ruler.^Thisnaturallybroughtonastrug-
glebetweentheGangasandtheChalukyas,andgave
themuch-longed foroccasiontotheCholas.Atthis
criticalmoment inSouthIndianHistoryappeared
Bajaraja,theGreat.
3.TheGreatCholas :Rajarajawasnominated suc-
cessorwhenMadhurantakaUttamaCholaascendedthe
throneinA.d.969-70;andbecameSovereign inhis
1EpigrapMst'sReportfor1906,sees.11andff.
2BombayGazetteer, vol. i,pt.ii,pp.i22-4.

122. 104 ANCIENTINDIA
ownrightinA.D.985.ExceptforthePandyasin
thesoutherncornerandtheKeralasbeyondtheghats,
hewasmaster oftheTamilcountrysouthofthe
Pennar.ThePandyaswerelikelytogivetrouble
;
theKeralasmight stir ;butthegreatestvigilance
wasrequiredonthenorth-westwheretheChalukyas
werefastsetting theirnewlyacquired territorym
ordertobringtheloyalGangakingdomintoallegiance
tothemselves. IntheeasternChalukyadominions
matterswerenotmoresatisfactory either.Therewas
aboutthistimeaninterregnum, whichmayhave
beentheresultofacivilwar.Thesetworegionswere
ripeforinterventionbyapowerfulrulerinclinedto
makehisinfluence felt.Noprudent rulerofany
ideasoflastingambitioncouldthinkofadvancingso
faroutwithoutsettinghisflankandrearinsafety.
ForthefirsttenyearsEajaraja Iseemstohave
devotedhimself tothisworkentirely. Itistohis
twelfthyearthatwemustreferforhisfirstcon-
questandthatisavictoryovertheCherafleetin
the
'EoadsofKandalur
'.Inthecourseoftwoyears
hehadconqueredGangappadi,Nulambappadi, Tadigai-
vali,andVengainadu. Ofthesethefirsttwocon-
stituted thebulkofMysorewhich,forthenext
centuryandmore,wastheboneofcontention be-
tweentheCholasandtheChalakyas. Thelastwas
theterritoryoftheEasternChalukyasandtheinter-
regnumwastakenadvantageofbytheCholatoim-
posehisdominiononthem.Thisseems tohave
beensuccessfully donebyEajaraja,whogavethe
secondruleraftertheinterregnum bynameVima-
ladityahisdaughterKundavvai inmarriage.The
EasternChalukyas fortherestoftheperiodofthe
Cholaascendencywereloyaltothesupremacy ofthe
Cholas. Tadigai-vali wasbetweenthetwoformer.
HehadalsoputdowntherebelPandyasbythe
fourteenth year.BythesixteenthyearEajarajahad

123. EAJAKAJA 105
addedtohisconquestsKollam(QuiloninTravancore)
andKalingam(Orissa).Bythetwentiethyearhehad
asserted hisauthority overllam (orCeylon).The
conquestoftheGangaandNolambaterritorieswere
notacquiesced inbytheChalukyas aswasaUeady
pointedout
;andnowbeganthatduelwhichlasted
ontotheyeara.d.1117. Itwasbetweentheyears
twentyandtwenty-four ofEajarajathatheissaidto
haveinvadedEattappadisevenandahalflaccountry
;
andheclaimshavingdefeatedtheChalukyaSatyas-
raya.Thistwenty-sixth year istheyearinwhich
Eajarajagotthebulkofhisinscriptions incisedin
theTanjoreTemple,arecordofgiftsandofferings
madebyhimself,hisqueens, hissisterthePallava
ladyKundavvaiyar,andothers.Hislistofconquests
comestoanendwiththementionofhisacquisition
of
'thetwelvethousandancientislandsofthesea
'
inhistwenty-ninth year.Thisyearappearstohave
beenhislastandwouldtakeusontotheyearA.d.
1012.Eajaraja'sconquestscametoaclosepractically
inA.D.1005.Hehadsettledtheboundary ofthe
Cholaempireonthenorthernandnorth-western side.
Asomewhat irregularlinedrawnfromYedatoreXad
2,000totheTungabhadraalongthelineofseparation
betweentheMalnadandMaidandistrictsofMysore,
andthencontinuedalongtherivertowhereitmeets
theKrishna,andthenontothesea,thislinewould
markofftheCholacountryproper.Alongthecoast,
however,theCholapowerextendedthroughthedis-
trictsoftheMadras Presidency toVizagapatam,
althoughKalingam farthernorth isalsoamongthe
conquests ofEajaraja. HissonEajendrawasevi-
dentlycrownedwhileyetthefatherwasaliveina.d.
1011-2. EajarajawasknownasArumoliDevawhen
heirapparentunderMadhurantaka. Heassumedinthe
thirdyearofhisreignthetitleMummudichola and
towardsthecloseofhisreign,thetitleJayairngonda,

124. 106 ANCIENTINDIA
HeisalsoknownasEajasraya.Hewas,allthings
•considered,thegreatestofthesegreatCholas,notonly
becauseofhisgreatconquests,butalsointhemore
humanefieldofconstructiveadministration.
Bajendra, theGangaigondachola, otherwise Mudi-
gonda,NigariliandUttamachola,wasquiteaworthy
sonofagreatfather.Asaprincehesecondedwith
energytheeffortsofhisfather,andthatthiswasso
isborneoutbyhisearlyrecords,whichstatethathe
'conqueredwithhisgreatandwarlikearmyIdaitturai-
nadu,Vanavasiwhosewarriors(wereprotected by)
wallsofcontinuous forests,Kollippakkai,whosewalls
weresurroundedbysulli(trees),Mannaikkadagam (a
townintheNelamangala Taluk, oftheBangalore
District,perhapsrepresented byBiidihalu), ofun-
approachable strength '.Alltheseareplacesalong
thefrontierbetween theCholasandtheChalukyas
andaresituatealongtheboundarymarkedoutabove
HisnextexploitwastheconquestofI'am.Hetook
fromthekingofthisisland
'
thecrownoftheking,
theexceedingly beautifulcrownofthequeen, the
crownofSundaraandthepearlnecklace ofIndra,
w'hichthekingofthesouth(thePandya)hadprevi-
<3uslygivenuptothat(kingofIlam)
;thewholeof
Ilamandalam '.This,togetherwiththecrown,
'the
garlandofthesun',andthefamilytreasuresofthe
kingofKeralaentitledhimtothesurnameMudi-
gondacholawhichheassumedbeforethesi.^thyear
ofhisreign.Theserecordslayclaimtotheconquest
ofmanyancient islands. This isprobablyamere
echoofhisfather'sachievements. Byhisninthyear
headdedthe
'impregnable SandimattivuwherePara-
suramahadlodgedagoldcrownworthyofLakshmi
thegoddess ;defeatedtheChalukyaJayasimha at
MuyangiandconqueredEattappadisevenandahalf
laccountry ;andtheprincipalgreatmountains(which
contained)theninetreasures (ofKubera).' Eecordsof

125. GANGAIKONDACHOLA 107
histwelfthyearclaimforhimthefollowingadditions
tohislistofconquests :
'Sakkarakottam (Chakra-
kota)belonging toVikramavira
;Madura-mandalam
withthefortofMudiri-pada
;Namanaikkonam
;Pancha-
ppalliofYenjilaivira
;Masuni-desam
;thefamilyand
other treasures ofDhlraratha oftheraceofthe
Moon,afterdefeatinghiminthehallofAdinagar
Oddavishayawhosewaters areJmrdtoapproach
Kusalai-nadu whereBrahmins assemble ;Dandabntti
(Dandabhukti) afterhavingdestroyedDharmapala in
hotbattle ;DakkanaLatam afterhavingforcibly
attackedKanasura
;VangaladesamfromwhichGovinda-
chandra fled,havinglosthisfortune ;elephants of
rarestrength afterahotbattlewithMahlpala of
Sangukkottam whichtouchesthesea ;andGangn,
whosewaterssprinkletirthasontheburningsand
.'
Manyofthedetailsinthislonglisthavetobeleft
unexplained inourpresentstateofhistoricalknow-
ledge
;butitwouldberashtodismisstheseasmere
figments ofadiseasedimagination inthefaceofthe
recentlydiscoveredTiruvalangada plateswhichappar-
entlyconfirmseveralofthesedetails.Theseplates
werecomposedinthesixteenthyearofRajendra,and
containwhatlookslikeaquiteunvarnished taleof
thecontemporary politicalconditionofIndia,although
Rajendramaynotbegivencreditforallthatthere-
cordmayclaimashisconquest. According tothis
recordRajendra firstconqueredthePandyacountry
andappointed hissonChola-Pandya asviceroy ;he
thenturneduponKeralaandadded itontohisson's
charge.Hethenstarteduponhismoredistantex-
peditionsovercomingtheChalnkyaJayasimha. After
thishesenthisgeneraltothebanksoftheGanges.
Indraratha ofthelunarracewasovercome, the
wealthofRanasilrawasseized,andthecountryof
Dharamapala wassubdued.TheCholageneralgot
thevanquished kings—amongwhomwasMahipila

126. 108 ANCIENTINDIA
(ofBengal)—tocarrythewateroftheGangesforhis
master. Thisisplainlyanimitation ofthesupposed
achievement of^enguttuvan Seraofthe^ilappadhi-
karam ;butnonethelessdoes itseemtobetrue
thathebroughttheGangeswatertopurifythegreat
tankwhichheconstructed atGangaikondasolapuram,
andwhichhenamedwithpardonable egotism
'the
pillarofVictory '.Thisagain isanimitationofthe
deedascribedtoanancientCholawholetthewater
oftheGangesintothatoftheKavery.TheChola
generalthencapturedthekingofOrissawithhis
younger brother, beforeEajendra returned tohis
capital.Onasubsequent occasionhecrossedthesea
andcapturedKadaram,havingtakenonthewaythe
Nicobarsandotherplaces.Thisoverseaachievement
ofEajendra isfoundgraphicallydescribedininscrip-
tionsofhisnineteenthyear,andisbelievedtobethe
sourceoftheKanaresedramaBajasekheravilasa. This
nineteenthyearisprobablythelastofhisconquering
years.Allowingthefullestforthepossibleexaggera-
tionofthepanegyrist, there isstillenough leftto
regardEajendra asoneofthegreatest ofIndian
conquerors.Theremainingtwelveyearsofhisreign
hemusthavedevotedtoimprovingtheefficiency of
theadministration, whichhadbeenlaidoutand
handedonbyalineofrulers,whotakehighrank
amongtheworld'srulers.Devoteeofthewar-godas
heseemstohavebeen,hecouldnothaveneglected
theartsofpeace, ifheappliedthegreataccumu-
lationofwealth,notonlytooutdohisfather'smag-
nificenceinthebuildingofacapitalandtempleat
Gangaikondasolapuram ;butalsointhebuildingofa
magnificenttank,thebundononesideofwhichran
sixteenmilesinlength,andwhichwasintendedto
irrigateahalffromeachoftwodistricts. Itwasan
actofmodernandcivilizedvandalism thatpulled
downthebundandtemplewallstobuildthelower

127. EAJADHIEAJA 109
anicutontheKoleroon. Perhaps itwasah-eady
falling,orhadfallenintodisrepair verybadly ;all
thesamethereisnotmuchleft, itissaid,ofthis
magnificent piece ofwork,asPharaoh's Gazetteer
oftheearlynineteenth century calls it.Eajendra's
lastknownyear isthethirty-firstandthiswould
takeustotheyeara.d.104'2-3.Hehad,according
tothecustomofthefamily,associated withhimself
oneofhissonsfromtheyear a.d.1018.Thisson
wasEajadhiraja thoughhewasnottheeldest,for
amongthosehonouredwith titlesbyhimonhis
accession wereanuncle(paternal) andanelder
brotherbynameAlavandan.
Eajadhiraja, Jayarugondachola :Eajadhiraja ruled
from1012,thethirty-firstyearofEajendraItothe
year a.d.1052,theyearofthebattleofKoppam
wherehefell.HeandhisbrotherEajendra are
regardedasbrothersofEajendra IbyMr.Eice,who
doesnotassign,however,anyreasoninsupport of
theview.Fromthestatementmadeastothebreak
ofsuccessionbythedeathofEajendra (bymistake
forEajadhiraja) inthebattleofKoppam, itwould
appearthatthesetwobrotherswerethesonsoftheir
predecessor, forotherwisethesuccessionneednotbe
considered ashavingceasedintheregular line.The
twobrotherssucceededEajendraIoneaftertheother.
Eajadhirajahadanuncle(ayoungerbrotherofhis
father),andanelderbrotherashasbeenalreadystated.
ThefactthathewascrownedbyEajendraIinlOlS,
whileyetthelatterwasalive,wouldconfirmtheview
thathewasthesonofhispredecessor. Ofthisruler
awesternChalukyainscription ofa.d.1071,atAnni-
gere
^
intheDarwar districtstatesthat
'thewicked
Cholawhohadabandoned thereligiousobservances
ofhisfamily,penetrated intotheBeluvolacountry
1BombayGazetteer,vol.i,pt.ii,p.441.

128. 110 ANCIENTINDIA
andburnttheJaintempleswhichGangaPerumanadi,
thelordofGangamandala, v/hilegoverningBeluvola,
hadbuiltinAnnigerenad
;
'andthat
'theChola
eventually yieldedhisheadtcSomesvara inbattle,
andthuslosinghislifebrokethesuccession ofhis
family.' Thisquotation shov7sthattheGholacon-
questofGangavadiwasnomereidleboast ;that
theGangaswhohadbecomethefeudatories ofthe
westernChalukyasdidnotacquiesceintheconquest
;
andthatatonetime,atleast,theCholascarriedfire
andswordthroughthesouthernpartoftheEatta
country. Eajadhirajawhereverhewasengagedbefore,
hadtoconcentrate allhisenergies inkeepingthe
frontiersquietassoonashebecameindependent ruler
aftera.d.1042.Thereseemstohavebeenatendency
tothrowofftheyokeonthepartofallthesubordinate
alliesoftheChola.Hebeganbyconferringupon
hisuncle,elderbrotherandfourofhisyoungerbrothers
thedignitiesofrulersovertheCheras,theChalukyas,
thePallavas,theGangas,thePandyasandthepeople
ofLankha. Theseweresomanyprovinceswhich
carriedalongwiththemtheresponsibilities ofLords
orWardens oftheMarches. Astothe
'Lordof
Kanouj
'
itisonlyatitle,probablytakenfromthe
victory os'erakingofCeylonwhowasreputed to
havecomefromKanouj. Thisdone,hemarchedupon
hisenemiesinsuccessiontakingtheeasiest firstand
metingoutexemplarypunishment tothetraitors.He
attackedthethreealliedPandyas.Thefirstofthem,
jNIanabharana,wasdecapitated;thesecond,Vira-Kerala,
wastrampledbyanelephant ;andthethird,Sundara
Pandya,wasexpelledtoMuUaiyur.Hedestroyedone
ofthekingsofVenad(Travancore), andwearingthe
garlandofvanji(symbolical ofgoingtowarwitha
playupontheword,thenameoftheoldcapital)put
toflightaCherakingandwonanavalvictory in
the
'EoadsofKandalur.'

129. KAJADHIEAJA 111
Henextturned hisattention totheChalukya
frontierandthistimeactedthrough hisi^eneral
Kevadan.TheChalukyashadtoretreatunderthe
princesVikramaditya, ^'ijayadityaandJayasimha,leav-
ingtwogeneralsGandappaiyanandGangadharandead.
ThevictoriousCholastookadvantage ofthissuccess,
pressedontheretreatingforceandsettiretoKoHip-
pakkaioneoftheChalukyacapitals.Havingdisposed
ofhisotherenemies,hecouldnowturntoCeylon
wherefoursuccessiverulerssuffereddisgraceanddeath
athishands. TheywereYikramabahu, Vikrama
Pandu,Virasalameghan andSrivallabha Madanarajan.
SincetheMahdvainsa concedesthesevictoriesover
theCeylonkings,Rajadhirajamaybegivencreditfor
theseachievements ofhis.OnhisreturnfromCeylon,
hedefeatedinanexpeditionnorthward Gandardina-
karan,Naranan,GanapatiandMadhusCidhanan, before
enteringtheChalukyadominionsanddestroyingtheir
gardensandpalacesatKampili. Collectingthetributes^
fromoneandallofthesePowerswithoutremission,.
andcollecting
'hissixthshare 'oftheproducehe
could wellassume thetitleJayanigondachola and
enjoyabriefrespitebeforehelosthislifeinthe
battleofKoppamontheTungabhadra, whichwould
bettersuitthecircumstances ofthecasethanKoppam
onthePalar. Thistaleofconquests ofRajadhiraja
showsthatbutforhisenergetic actiontheempire
builtbyhistwopredecessorswouldhavegonetopieces.
Hebrought alltherevoltedprovincesbacktotheiralle-
giance,andhandedtheempiredowntohissuccessors
intact ;butitwasevennowthatwefindamonothe
feudatoriesoftheChalukyaSOmesvarathenameofthe
HoysalaVinayaditya,inwhoselinewastobebornNara-
simhaandhissonYiraSomesvani,whoweretoplay
theroleofprotectorsoftheCholaswhentheirempire
wasfastcrumblingthroughinternecinedissensionsand
theonsetsoftheP'andyas.. Thisisyetfarahead.

130. 112 ANCIENTINDIA
Eajadhirajawassucceededbyhisyoungerbrother
Eajendra,whowaspresentat,andplayedaprominent
partin,thebattleofKoppamwherehisbrother fell.
Theearliest ofhisinscriptions, thatofhisthird
year,mentions hisachievement atthebattlewhere
hewas
'crowned ',andsohisreigncouldnothave
begunmuchearlier.Thisdoesnotdebarhishaving
beenassociated withhisbrother inhiscareerof
conquest.Aninscription atHeggadedevanakOte inthe
Mysore districtcouplesSaka984withhistwelfth
year,andthiswouldgiveSaka972ora.d.1050for
thecommencement ofhisreign,althoughthebattle
ofKoppamhasbeencalculated tohavetakenplace
onMay23,A.D.1053.Eajendrathenruledfrom
1050toatleasta.d.1062.Hischiefachievement
istherestoration ofthefortunesoftheCholasinthe
battleofKoppamwhichprovestobetheturnin
the tideoftheCholaconquest. Perhapsalready
troublewasbrewing athomeandtheremighthave
beenotherswhowouldhavecontested thesuc-
cession. Hisotherachievements areareconquest
ofCeylon,but certaindiscrepancies ofthenames
oftheconquered Ceylon rulerswould leadone
tosupposethattheachievements ofEajendramight
havebeenonlywhathehaddoneonbehalfofhis
brother. ThathewasinCeylon isborneoutby
inscriptions ofhisreignbeingfoundthere.Eajendra
iscreditedwithhavingerectedapillarofvictoryat
Kollapui-am (Kolhapar). Hisdaughter,Madhurantaki,
wasmarriedtotheeasternChalukyaPrinceEajendra,
thesonalreadyofthedaughter oftheGangaikonda
Chola,bynameAmmangadevi. Thisprincewasto
become laterontheCholaemperor Kulottunga
EajendrawassucceededbyhissonEajamahendra of
whomnothingmoreisknownthanthathedispensed
justiceevenbetterthanManu,theancientCholawho
rodehiscaroverhisownson,injusticetoacow

131. SUCCESSIONORUSURPATION 113
whichlostitscalfthroughthenegligence oftheprince.
Heissaidtohavemadesomebenefactions tothe
templeatSrirangam. Thereisavailableaninscription
ofthesecondyearofhisreign. Itwasinsuccession
tothisrulerthatwehaveanothergreatChola,whose
connexionwithhispredecessors isnotsoclearand
whoseaccessionatthetimeseemstoberegardedan
actofusurpation. Tounderstandthenatureofthe
complications thusintroduced,wehavetogoback
uponageneration ortwoofSouthIndian history.
Ahavamallaandhisimmediatepredecessorshavehad
onesingleobjectbeforethemconstantly ;namely,the
keepingbackoftheadvancingtideofCholaaggression.
InthisAhavamallawasinthemainsuccessful.The
titleAhavamalla,thegreatinwar,waswell-deserved
byhimandhecarriedonsuccessfullythewarswith
theCholasbequeathed tohimbyhispredecessors.'
Itwasalsohewhoeitherfounded(orenlarged)the
Chalukya capitalKalyaniintheNizam'sdominions,
andheshiftedtoitthehead-quarters oftheempire
fromYatagiri alsointheNizam'sdominions (thirty
miles,southofMalkhed'.^ Inthisattemptatholding
thesouthernfrontieragainsttheCholas,hewasably
secondedbyhissons,SumesvaraandVikramaditya,
theviceroysrespectively ofBanavaseandGangavadi.
WhenAhavamalla diedina.d.1068.^(March29),he,
wassucceeded naturallyenoughbyhiseldestson,
Somesvara Bhuvanaikamalla ;butunfortunately for
theempire, hisyoungerbrotherVikramadityawas
certainlythemorecapableofbearingtheburdensof
1Sataya^ryaandJayasimhawererespectively, rivalsofRijaraja
andhissonEajendra.BombayGazeteer,vol.i,partii,433.
2Fleet450. Ibid.Epi.Car.VII.Sh.20a.JayasimhaDevar
NijaVijayaKatakaSamanvitamLilaVilasadindEtagirilaNelevldinol,
etc'
'Epi.Car.vol.vii,Sk.136,Shimoga,pt.i.

132. 114 ANCIENTINDIA
empire. TheothersonsofAhavamalla,Jayasimha
andVishnuvardhana Vijayaditya,weremoreinclined
tosupportVikramaditya ratherthanSomesvara.
Dm-ingAhavamalla'slifetimetheseyoungprinceswere
alreadygivenimportantviceroyaltiesandweremade
toregardthemselves
'
Pillars ofEmpire 'astheir
respective titleswouldshow. Somesvara, Vikrama-
dityaandJayasimhaappeartohavebeensonsofthe
samemother,theGangaprincess 'astheVikraman-
tkadevaCharitamappearstowarrantandasinscrip-
tions
^
ofSomesvaraIIhimselfwouldleadustobelieve
;
whileVijayaditya waspossibly theirhalf-brother.
"WhileinvestingLakshmana asgovernorofBanavase,
inreturnforvaluableservicesrenderedtotheempire,
Somesvarasays :
'juniortomeisVikrama,tohimis
'Singhijunior ;tome,Vikrama,andtoSinghiyouare
juniorandalltherestarejuniorto5'ou'.
ButfromthetitlesofeachoftheseprincesMr.Eice
would inferthatVikramaditya wasthesonofa
Ganga princess,Jayasimha ofaPallava-Nolamba
princessandVijayaditya ofaneasternChalukya
princess. Thisisnotanecessaryinference,thetitles
oftheseprincesbeingexplainedbythemerefacts
oftheirconfermentupontheprincesbytheruling
emperor. Suchinvestitures havebeenthefashion
among theCholaemperors, theircontemporaries.
Eajadhiraja,EajendraVirarajendra insuccessionmade
itapointtoholdinvestitures ofthesortanda
numberoftitlesimportingauthorityoverforeignstates
hasbeenbestowedonCholaprincesoftheblood.'''
AhavamallaSomesvara leftbehindhimfoursons,the
eldestsucceedinghim,whilethesecondhadcherished
imperialambitionforsometimeatleast.
iDr.FleetthinksshewasaPallavaPrincess, Iv.D.i40,note3.
3Vol.vii,Sk.136,Epi.Gar.
3Videtheinscriptionsoftheseinvol.iii,pt.i,SouthBid.Ins.

133. RETROSPECT 115
TounderstandthesituationamongtheCholas,we
havesimilarl)'togobackupontheriseoftheirpower.
TheCholaPowerrosefromtheashesofthePallavas
theearhestconquestsoftheCholashavingbeenthe
Tondamandalam, re-namedJayamgondaCholamandalam
andKongu.Oneofthemightiestandthemoststates-
man-likeexploitsofthesi'eatEajaraja(a.d.985-1016^
wastheconquestandthesubsequent conciliation of
theeasternChalukyadominions ofVengi, i.e.the
Telugucountry.Toattachthistohimpermanently
hemarriedoneofhisdaughtersKundavvaiyar tothe
ChalukyaYimaladitya. Thiswasfollowedinthenext
reignbyamoreimportantmarriage—morefruitfulof
consequences totheEmpire. Kajendra, theGangai-
kondaChola,hadadaughterAmmangaDevi,whohad
beengiveninmarriagetotheeasternChalukyaEaja-
raja,probablyherownC(iusin.Theoffspringofthis
happyunionwasaEajendraCholawhowastobecome
famousasKulottunga,
'theupraiserofthefameofthe
twofamilies .Thisgrandson ofGangaikondaChola
hadmarriedthedaughterofBajendra,thevictorover
AhavamallaatKoppam,andwhenthisEajendradied,
theson-in-law aspiredtotheCholaempire,although
therewasabrotherandatleastanumberofsonsof
Eajadhiraja. Thisambition, unwarranted though it
appears,seemstohavehadsomesupportamongthe
royalfamily. Thisinfactwasthediscordantelement
intheCholaEmpire. About a.d.1070,therefore,
SomesvaraBhuvanaikamalia wastheemperorofthe
Chalukyadominions,whilehisyoungerbrotherYikra-
madityawasanaspn-anttotheimperialposition. In
theCholaempireEajendrawassucceededbyhis
youngerbrotherVirarajendra, whileliajondraCholaof
theeasternChalukyadynastywasequallyanaspirant
totheempire,whichbroughthimwithinanaceof
losinghisownpatrimony oftheChalukyakingdom.
Thesetransactions,weshallnowtakeupinsomedetail.

134. 116 ANCIENTINDIA
TheChoiaemperorVirarajendrahadthefollowing
amonghistitles,whichheprobablyassumedasare-
sultofhisachievements againstthewesternCha-
lukyas,namely,Sakalabhuvanasraya, Srlmedhinivallabha,
andMaharajadhiraja. HeassumedalsoanotherEaja-
sraya,whichbeforehimhadbeenbornebyEajaraja,the
Great.Twoothers,bytheformerofwhichalonehe
wasspokenofbythewesternChalukyas,^wereVira
ChoJaandKarikala. InoneofBajendra'sinscriptions
wefindabrother ofhis,bynameViraChola,on
whomheconferredthetitleKarikala,andifthese
twopersons,Virarajendra theemperorandViraChola
theprince,couldbeidentified astheMysoreinscrip-
tionwouldjustify,Virarajendrawasabrotherofthe
twobrothersEajadhirajaandEajendratheheroesof
Koppam. Thisalongwith
'thetwenty-thirdyearof
(my)father (Suj/t),whowaspleasedtoconquerthe
easterncountry, theGrangaandKadaram 'ofthe
Gangaikondasolapuram inscription ofthefifthyearof
Virarajendra, wouldsolveanotherpuzzle ofChola
genealogy. Thisquotation referstothegreatcon-
querorGangaikonda Chola,Eajendra thesonand
successor ofEajaraja theGreat. Hisconquests of
territoriesonthebanksoftheGangesandtheIra-
waddyhavenowhappilybeenplacedbeyondadoubt,
thanks totheresearches ofMessrs.Venkyya and
Kanakasabhai Pillai,'bytheidentification ofNacca-
varamwiththeNicobarsandPappalamwhichaccord-
ingtotheMahdvamsa ofCeylon isaportofEa-
mahha, i.e.theTalaingcountryportionofBurma.
Thusthentheknownfactssofarclearlypointto
Virarajendra astheyounger brothersucceeding the
elder,althoughaccordingtotheKalingattuparani and
1E]ji.Car.vol.vii.Sk.]36.
2ArticleintheiladrasBeiieu;jSTovember,1903.

135. CHOLASANDCHALUKYAS 117
afewinscriptions
'wehavetoaccoiumoilate aRaja-
mahendrabetweenthevictor atKoppamandhis
successorbrotherVlrarajendra. EitheritisthatKaja-
niahendra diedaYui'araja without independently
reigningorhewassetaside
;butthelatterconclusion
doesnotappear tobewarranted, asthis^^Irara]-
endrahadanelderbrotherinthepersonofAlavaiulau
aliasEajaraja.and,aswillappear,^'u•arajend^ahim-
selfwasassociated -withliisbrotherRajendra inhis
expeditionsintotheChalukyaterritory. Rajamahendra,
thesonofEajendra,thendiedsoonafterhisfather
andA'lrarajendraascendedthethrone.
Forthreegenerations theCholasandtheChalu-
kyaswerecontending forulaster^ inPeninsularIndia.
TheRashtrakuta KrishnaIIIablysecondedbyhis
feudatoriestheGangashadbroughttherisingChola
powerlowindeed.AstheseEashtrakntas themselves
weresubverted,theopportunity fortheCholasarrived
andthefatherandson,RajarajaandEajendra,took
thetideattheflood. Wliilethefatherconquered
andorganizedtheyounger,thesonwentonadvanc-
ingtheCholaarmsintotheMysorecountry,tookpos-
sessionofeasternandsouthernMysoreandadvanced
theCholafrontiertoYedatorenad '2,000inthewest
andKollippakkaiontheBanavasefrontierinthenorth-
west.Lattalur,Kollippakkai andHenjeru (Penjeru)
werethegatesoftheChalukyaempirefromthe
south.Thiswasregarded asofsomuchimportance
thatthewardenofthisfrontierwasamarkedofficial,
oftenarelativeoftheChalukyaemperors. Ina.d.
1060aEatta,namedSinganaUeva,wasrulerofthis
partofthecountry.Hehasbeendescribed as'a
dwellerathislotusfeet(ofTrail^kyamalla), entitled
tothefivebigdrums,Mahamandalesvara, (lordof)
1AlangudiIns.ofRajardja11,page191;South.Tnd.Ins.,vol.
iii,pt.ii.

136. 118 ANCIENTINDIA
Lattalur, ornament oftheYa,duvamsa, chief of
Kollippakkai, determinedchampionoverthechiefof
Penjeru(Henjeru,)anelephanttothelotus-garden of
theCholaandLalafeudatories,thedoorofthesouthern
region,'theKalakuta poisontohostilekings,his
father-in-law's lion,theMeruoftheEattas—with
theseand alltitlestheMahamandalesvara Singana
Deva,wasrulingthekingdom (composed of)the
Qchchangi thirty,theSiilengal seventy,theMandali
thousand,thefourCholavillages,withthestones
andtreasures, thethousandforceandothers,putting
downtheevilandupholding all.'
HavingdonethisgreatworkEajendra laiddown
thisearthlyauthorityandposition,andthenthe
troublesroseupalloveragain,asasuccession isthe
occasionforenemies.Therulerswhofollowednext
hadtofightthewarsoveragain ;butthenthesewere
onlyinthefarthestfrontiers. Ceylon,Maduraand
Malabarwereeasilybroughtback toasense of
allegiance,butnotsothisTungabhadra frontier,where
itwasnotaquestionofallegiance butofmastery.
Thewarswere,therefore,prolonged andcontinued
almostfromyeartoyear.Invasionsandcounterinva-
sionsweretheorderoftheday.TheCholashadtaken
occasiononcetoplantapillarofVictory atKolla-
puram(Kolhapur).
ThegreatbattleatKoppamin10-53didnotsettlethe
matterfinally.Eachpartyclaimedthevictorythough
theadvantagecertainlylaywiththeCholas.TheChalu-
kyascontinued toappointgovernors ofGangavadi
(withhead-quarters firstatBalgamveandthenat
Halebidu), although theCholashadtheterritory
certainlyunderthem.When,therefore,Virarajendra
cametothethroneaboutA.D.1062-3hehadtobe
1(SeeShikarpur 32.3,Epi.Car.VIIKoUippakke, thedoorof
thesouth.)

137. ViEARAJBNDBA 119
veryactiveonthisside.Fromhisinscriptions it
appearsthathefivetimesfoughttheChalukyas in
theregionoftheTungabhadra. Inthreeofthesehe
foughtagainstSOmesvaraAhavamalla (a.d.1044-68).
Rajendrawascrownedonthebattle-fieldofKoppam
inA.D.10-53,andaninscriptionofthetwelfthyearof
hisreignisknown,althoughthisoughttobe,accord-
ingtoProf.Kielhorn'scalculation,theeleventhyear.
Thiswouldtakeusontoa.d.106'2,butthisneednot
bethecase,aswithrespecttotheCholastherewas
alwaysanoverlapping ofreignsowingtothepractice
ofYuvaraja'sbeingassociated intheadministration
bythereigningmonarch.'' Thefirstachievement of
VirarajendrawasthebeatingbackofprinceVikra-
madityafromGangavadi.
'(He)drovefromthebattle-
fieldinGangap-padi intotheTungabhadratheMaha-
samantas,whosestronghandswieldedcruelbows,
alongwithVikkalanwhofoughtunderabannerthat
inspired strength.' Ina.d.1050Vikramadityawas
rulerofGangavadi96,000,Banavase12,000withHari-
kesarinofthefamilyoftheKadambasofHangal,as
hisdeputyinchargeofthelatterdistrict.^ Ina.d.
1058Kadambalige thousand isplacedunderChalukya
GangaPerumanadi. Twoyearslater,Trailr.kymalla,
Chalukya,GangaPerumanadiVikramadityaDevawas
ruhngtheGangavadi 96,000. Thesemscriptions at
Davanigere' areborneoutbytheShikarpurinscrip-
tions.' According totheselatterhewasviceroy,
withheadquartersatBalligave(Balgame), ofGanga-
vadi,withBanavdse, Santahge andNolambavadi.
Duringthefiftiesoftheeleventhcenturya.d.Ahava-
1Inthiscase,however,theYuvarajawasEajamohendra and
notVirarajendra.
'^
Fleet :Bomhty Gazetteer, vol. i,pt. ii,p.440,note4;also
Ind.Antiquary(IV.103).
3Nos.153and140,Epi.Car.vol.xi.
iNos.83and152,Epi.Car.vol.vii.

138. 120 ANCIENTINDIA
mallahadoneofhissonsSomesvaraBhuvanaika-
malla,governing intheBellaryDistrictandanother
governing practically thewholeoftheMysorePro-
vince,with,ofcourse,deputies tohelphim.Later
onVishnuvardhana VijayadityawasgovernorofNolam-
bavadi32,000(easternMysore)withthetitleVengi-
mandalesvara
^andhead-quarters atKampili(Kampli)
andJayasimha, rulerofBanavasealone.Thus itis
clearthatinawarwiththeCholaalltheseprinces
wouldfigure,andsoitisstatedintheCholainscription.
Sincethefirstachievement ofVirarajendra isagainst
princeVikrama, itisclearthatalterthebattleof
Koppam theChalukyas wereslowlyworkingtheir
wayuptoGangavadi. Virarajendra naturallyhad
topushbackVikramaditya duringtheyears a.d.
1055-1060. Thisachievement wouldfallwithinthe
periodofthereignofRajendra, as,accordingtoProf.
Kielhorn'sastronomical calculations, Virarajendra as-
cendedthethroneina.d.1062-3. This,together
withEajamahendra's^
^sonofKajendra)havingfought
againsttheChalukyaAhavamalla,wouldindicatethat
Virarajendradidnotcometothethronebyanyactof
usurpationonhispart.
Virarajendra apparentlyhadtwoobjectsinview
now :(1)thekeepingbackofthisChajukyaaggression
whichwasalwayspossible,andwhichwasquiteareal
danger atthetime;and,(2)hisactiveinterference,
withaviewtoachievethis,intheaffairsoftheVengi
kingdomofhisbrother-in-law,whodiedaboutthis
time.TheTelugucountrysafeonhisside,theCha-
lukyaadvanceinthesouthwouldbeimpossible. These
objectsoftheCholanaturallyledtogreatactivityon
1NotbecausehewassonofaneasternChalukya Princessbut
hehadchargeoftheVengifrontier
;andwarswithVengiwerehis
province.
2SouthInd.Ins.,vol. iii,pt.,ii,p.191,Epi.Indica., vol.vi,
pp.20-4.

139. KUDALSANGAMAM i'21
theseveryfrontiers. Hencetheappointment ofa
frontierwarden,aroyalprince,withhishead-quarters
atKaniphatthesalientanglebetweentheCholaand
theVengicountry. Thesecond exploitofYirara-
jendra,therefore, isasuccessfulinvasionoftheCircars
topreventVikramaditya gaining aholduponthe
country.HowVikramaditya's interventionwasbrought
aboutisnotdetailedinanyoftheinscriptionswhich
statethat :
'He(theCholaEmperor) attackedand
destroyed theirresistible, greatandpowerfularmy
whichhe(Vikkalan)hadagaindispatched intoVengai-
nadu .
'Thismusthavebeenbroughtaboutsomewhat
inthiswise.TheeasternChalukya Eajaraja, the
son-in-lawoftheGangaikonda Chola,diedandhadat
leastasonEajendrabetterknownasKulottungaand
adauuhterKandavvai
;butweseethat,theYengi
countrypassesintothepossession ofA'ijayaditya, an
uncleofKulottunga,throughthegoodofticesofYirara-
jeudra. Thisdisputedsuccessionoughttohavebrought
Yikramadityauponthescene.ButYirarajendra \vas
nevertheless victorious atlast,andplacedhisnominee
Vijayaditya oftheeasternChalukyafamily,(notofthe
westernChalukyafamilyaswashithertosupposed),upon
thethrone,afterabattleatA^ijayavadi(Bezwada).
Thenextgreatachievementwashisgreatvictory
atKjdalSangamamovertheentirebodyoftheCha-
lukyaforces. Thisplace isatthejunction ofthe
KrishnaandtheTungabhadra, justtheregionwhere-
froujtheChalukyaswouldhopetobarthenorthward
andnorth-eastward progressoftheChola.
'Theenemy
fullofhatred,metandfoughtagainst(him)athird
time,hopingthathis(former)defeatswouldberevenged.
(TheKing)defeatedcountlessSamantas,togetherwith
these (two)sonsofAhavamalla,whowerecalled
VikkalanandSinganan atKudalSangamamonthe
turbidriver. Having sentthebravevanguard in
advance,andhavinghimselfremained closebehind

140. 122 ANCIENTINDIA
withthekingsalliedtohim,(he)agitatedbymeans
ofasinglemustelephantthatarmy(oftheenemy),
whichwasarrayed (forbattle),(andwhich)resembled
thenorthernocean.Infrontofthebanner-tophecut
topiecesSinganan,theKingofwarlikeKosalai,along
withthefuriouselephants of(his)vanguard. While
Kasavadanda-nayaka, Ketarasan, Marayan oigreat
strength,thestrongPottarayan (and)Irachchayanwere
fighting(he)started,saying:"FollowMuvendi,(who
wears)agarlandofgold!
"
andcuttopiecesmanySaman-
tas,whoweredeprivedofweaponsofwar.ThenMadu-
vananwhowasincommand fled
;Vikkalan fledwith
dishevelled hair ;Singananfled,hisprideandcourage
forsaking (him). Annalanand allothersdescended
fromthemaleelephantsonwhichtheywerefightingin
battle,andfled ;Ahavamalla too,towhomtheywere
allied,fledbeforethem.Thekingstoppedhisfast
furiouselephant,putonthegarlandofvictory,seized
hiswives, hisfamily treasures, conches, parasols,
trumpets,drums,canopies,whitechamaras,theboar
banner,theornamentalarch,thefemaleelephant(called
Pushpakaandaherdofwar-elephants, alongwitha
troopofprancinghorses,andamidst(general)applause
putonthecrownofvictory, (setwith)jewelsofred
splendour.' 'ThiswasthebattleofKudalSangamam
andIhavequotedtheinscription infulltogiveanidea
ofhowbattleswerefoughtinthosetimes.Whilethe
Chalukya recordsmention ingeneraltheprowess
oftheChalukyas, theydonotgiveuscircumstantial
detailsofanyparticular battleagainstVirarajendra
inperson. Bilhana'sVikramankadeva Charitamno
doubtdepictsprinceVikramaditya asconductingexpedi-
tionstowardsthesouthandcreditshimwiththe
occupationbothofKanchiandofGangaikondasola-
puram.ThisisnotduringthereignofVirarajendra
iNo.20,SouthInd,Ins.,vol.iii,pt.i.

141. VIEAEAJENDEAANDAHAVAMALLA 123
butafterhisdeath,asweshallhavetorelate.That
heinvadedVengiisnodoubtlikely,butevenherethe
result isentirelydiiiferentfromvyhatthepanegyrist
wouldhaveusbelieve. Beforethecloseofhisfourth
year,i.e.priortothedeathSomesvara I,Virarajendra
hadconqueredotherchiefs.^
Butinscriptions ofhisfifthyear,theyearofthe
deathofSomesvaraAhavamalla, statethattheChola
emperor,havingdefeatedtheKeralasatUlagaiand
defeatedandimprisoned thePandyas(Kanniyas)and
Chalukyas, thekingoverthrev? severalchiefsamong
vphomfiguretheGangaandNolambachiefs. AVhen
heretired toGangaikondasolapuram hereceivedan
autograph letterfromtheChalukyaSomesvara chal-
lengingtheCholakingtomeethimoncemoreat
KtidalSangamam. Vlrarajendra accepted thisand
marched totheappointedplaceKandai.Notfinding
theChalukya Somesvara there,hewaitedamonth
andthenputtingtoflightsuchoftheChalukyaarmy,
ashadbeentheretowatchhimand,havingerecteda
pillarofvictoryontheTungabhadra, inscribedupon
itanaccountofhisconquestofEattappadisevenand
ahalflaccountry.
Thenhe
'appointedtheliar,whocameonasub-
sequent day,asVallabha(Chalukyaking),andtied
(roundhisneck)abeautifulnecklace.' Thesetransac-
tionshavetobeaccountedforinthiswise :thefifth
yearofVirarajendrawastheyearofthedeathof
SomesvaraAhavamalla,whopassedawaybydrowning
himselfintheTungabhadra, owingtoanattackof
malignantfever.Thiswouldaccountforhisabsence
fromKudalSangamam. Hisdeathbroughtmattersto
anissuebetweenthetwobrothersSomesvaraIIand
1ThechiefsofPottappi(Kalahasti)
;VaranofKerala,theyounger
brotherofJananatha ofUharaandthePandyaPrinceprobablyone
VirakesarinsonofSrlvallabha,

142. 124 ANCIENTINDIA
hisyoungerbrotherVikramaditya, ofwhomthelatter
wasthemoredistinguished intherecenttransactions.
Itwasthenthatheappearedsomewhatbelatedat
theCholacamp,andnegotiatedsuccessfully forChola
helpintheeventofhisattempttogainthethrone
asagainstSomesvara. Thetreatywassealed, of
course,bythemarriageoftheChalukyaprincewith
thedaughterofthereigningChola.Thoughsomeof
theCholainscriptions givealudicrouscharacter to
thisparticular traasaction, thatthiswasthereal
import isamplyclearfromtheseinscriptions them-
selves,whiletheVikramdnkadeva Charitam gives
naturallyenoughaglossedversionofitinfavourof
theheroprinceVikrama. ThisdoneVirarajendra
marchedintotheVengicountry.Havingmoved (his
camp)hedeclared :
'(We)shallnotreturnwithout
regaining thecountry ofVengai,which(wehad
formerly,subdued.You(whoare)strong,comeand
defend (it)if(you)areable !
'
Thatarmywhichwas
chosenforthisexpedition,droveintothejunglethat
bigarmy,whichresisteditsenemyonthegreatriver
closetoVisayavadi(Bezwada),andwhichhadforits
chiefs,Janaoathan, theDandanayaka Rajamayyan,
whosemustelephantstrumpeted inherdsandMiip-
parasan.
'HiselephantsdrankthewateroftheGoda-
veri.HecrossedoverKalinganandbeyond itdis-
patchedforbattlehisinvinciblearmyasfarasthe
furtherendofSakkaragottom (Chakra-kotta). He
re-conquered Ihegoodcountry ofVengaiandbe-
stowed itonVijayadittyan, whosebroadhandheld
weaponsofwarandwhohadtakenrefuge athis
lotus-feet.'
This last affair, ashasbeenexplained already,
istheoutcomeofadisputedsuccessionintheVengai
country. AfterthedeathoftheeasternChalukya
Eajaraja (a.d.1060-1),Kulottunga (Rajendra) ought
tohavesucceeded,butthissuccessionappearstohave

143. VENGISIICCESSION 125
beendisputed.TheKalinqattupparani recordsthatthe
wifeofGangaikooda Cholatookupthedearchild
whenitwasborn,andfromthesignsuponitsfeet
predicted hisupUfting boththefamihes infame.
Thiswasnothingmore,probably, thanthepious
grandmotherlywishfortheadvancementofhergrand-
son. Itisveryprobablethatthechildwasbrought
upinthegrandfather's house,withalltheparaphar-
naliaofempiresurrounding theyoungprince.Thus
itwasmadepossibleforhisuncleVijayaditya to
makeasuccessfulattempt toplacehimselfonthe
throne ofVengai, aswefindinscriptions ofKulot-
tunga'searlyyearsonly inthesouthernendof
hispaternal dominions, i.e.theterritoryround
aboutMadras. Inhis difficulty Vijayaditya pro-
bably sought thestrongarm ofVirarajendra, to
whomafriendlyVengiwasofparamount impor-
tance.Thiswould, interse,bedetrimental tothe
interestsoftheChalukyas ofKalyani.Henceallthe
warliketransactions between therivalpowers, in
regard toVengi inwhich neitherwasdirectly
interested. Returningfromthisvictorious expedition
toGangaikondasolapuram, Virarajendra assumed the
paramount titleofEajadhiraja or,asotherinscrip-
tionssay,EajadhirajanKajaraja,
'
aswasthecustomcf
thefamily.'
Inscriptions ofthesixthyearofVirarajendraand
alsothoseofhisseventhyear,addanotherengage-
mentbetweenthecontendingpowers atKiJdalsun-
gamam,forthethirdtime,whenVirarajendra
'
burnt
KampilibeforeSomesvara coulduntiethenecklace
whichhehadputon,andsetupapillarofvictoryat
Karadikkal.' ThisSomesvara iscorrectlyidentifiedby
Dr.Hultzsch withSomesvaraBhuvanaikaiualla, the
sonofA-havamallaandtheelderbrotherofVikrama-
dityaandJayasimha,whowas,accorJing toDr.Fleet,
sometime governor oftheBeluvola, Purigere, etc.

144. 126 ANCIENTINDIA
countryearlier ;butonathirdoccasion,heburntthe
cityofKampili,before
'Somesvaracoulduntiethe
necklacewhichhehadputonandsetupapillar
ofvictoryatKaradikkal.'
^Theuntyingoftheneck-
lacereferstotheuntyingofthenecklaceofYuvaraja
toassumethehigheroneofthereigningsovereign,
ratherthan,asDr.Hultzschconsiders, totheinci-
denthavingtakenplaceinthelifetimeofSomesvara
I.Inaninscription atShikarpur,^ Somesvara II
assumed theroyalinsigniaonthefourteenth day
afterthedeathofhisfather,asistheHinducustom
evennow ;andtheinscription 83ofvol.Illof
SouthIndianInscriptions impliesthatVirarajendra
actedpromptlyafterthedeathofAhavamalla, forthe
ShikarpurinscriptionsaysthattheCholakingthought
oftakingadvantage ofthechangeofrulersandex-
claiming !'Anewreign ;akingdom fitonlyfora
hero
;nowisthetimetoinvadeit;Iwillsurround
Guttiandbesiege it 'Theinscription statesfurther
downthatViraCholaturnedhisbackafteracavalry
skirmishbetweenthevanguards. Ifthisinterpretation
iscorrecttheseeventsmusthavetakenplaceinA.d.
1068.Beforethenextyear,Virarajendraaddedtohis
laurelsbytheover-seaconquest ofKadaram inthe
TalaingcountryofBurmah.
Allthistimeofactivewarfare,wehaveevidence
ofVirarajendra's transacting businessofacivilchar-
acter.WheneverhewasatGangaikondasolapuram,
hiscapital,hissecretarieswerebusybringingpapers
anddispatcheswhichhedisposedofpromptly. Itis
apitythattherearenoinscriptions togiveusahint
astohowhearrangedforthiscivilbusinesswhilehe
wasengagedinwar.Promthefewinscriptions of
histime,whichwehave,heshowshimselftohavebeen
1Thisreferstothepromptnesswithwhichthevictorywasgained.
2Sk.136,Epi.Car.,vol.vii.

145. ViRASoLlYAM 127
anactivemonarch,whoacteduptohisresponsibihties,
andwhenhepassedawayabouttheyearA.d.1070,
heleftbehindhimacompactkingdom tohisson
Adhirajaraja, buttheopportunity forKulottunganow
arrivedafterhavingwaitedforovereightyears.
Onemorepointdeservesmentionherebeforewe
closetheaccountofYirarajendra. There isaTamil
grammar,bynameVira.^3lii/am,writtenbyBuddhamitra,
withacommentarybytheauthor'sdisciplePerunde-
vanar. ItiscalledVircc^oliyam fromthepatronof
theauthorwhowasbornatPonparviinMalaikurram.
ThisMr.YenkayyawouldidentifywithPonpetriinthe
Patuikottai Taluka, asthiswouldbringhimnear
Tondi,ofwhichBuddhamitra issaidbyhispupil,the
commentator, tohavebeenlord.Thatthepatron,
whosenamehasbeenassociatedwiththegrammar, is
noneotherthanVirarajendra isborneoutbyrefer-
encestoandquotations ofinscriptions ofEajendra
CholaIandthosereferringtothebattlesofKoppam
andKudalSangamam.Noinscription ofalatertime
ismentioned,andthenameofA^irarajendra asthe
author'spatron isfoundinthetextofthegrammar
itself.ThismakesanotherlandmarkinTamilliterary
historyandgivesthecluetomanyaknottypointin
theliterarychronology ofTamil.
ThedeathofVirarajendra ina.d.1070,marks
anotherstaL;einthestrugglebetweentheCholaand
ChalukyaPowers. Ithasalreadybeenpointedout
thatprinceVikramaditj'ahadenteredintoanagree-
mentwithVirarajendra ontheTungabhadra
;but
thedeathofhispowerfulallyandfather-in-lawmade
himhaltinhiscoursetowardsachievingtheusurpa-
tionthathemustnowhaveplanned already.We
havenoticedbeforethatthedisputed succession at
VengibroughtboththeChalukyaandtheCholaupon
thescene,buttheCholahadthebestofitintlie
fightandVengiwasyetfaithful totheCholas

146. 128 ANCIENTINDIA
underVijayaditya. Kulottunga allthisperiodhad
beengoverning, eitherinhisownnameorasit
appearsmorelikely,asaviceroy oftheemperor,
theterritoryinthemiddle,includinginittheregion
embracing Tiruvorriyur, Tiruvalangadu intheKar-
vetinagarZemindariandKolar.^Vikramaditya took
ameasureofthesituationataglance,andsetabout
puttinghisneighbourhood ingoodattitude forhis
crowning act.PrinceEajendraCholawaslikelyto
strikeinfortheCholaempire,anditwasofimmense
importance tosecuretheCholasuccession tohis
brother-in-law,whohadalreadybeenassociatedwith
hisfatherVirarajendra. Thishedid,andwehave
therulerAdhirajarajendra insuccession tohisfather.
Wehaveinscriptions ofhisthirdyear,whileVira-
rajendra'sdatesrunintotheyear,A.D.1070. So
AdhirSjarajawouldhaveruledindependently foronly
partofayear.According totheVikramdnka Deva
Charltam,Vikramaditya installed hisbrother-in-law,
andtheKalingattupparani andVikkirama Solanuld,
mentionakingbetweenVirarajendraandKulottunga.
Thisapart,aninscription ofthethirdyearofVira-
rajendramentionsthatthemagistrateEajarajamuvenda-
velanandtheSenapathiRajarajaParanriparakshasan
aliasVirasolaIlango,metatKanchipuramandheldan
inquiryintotheadministration ofagrantmadein
theeighthyearofVirarajendrdeava. ThissameSena-
pathiRajarajaParanriparakshasan aliasVirasolaIlango
figuresinthesamecapacityunderKulottunga inan
inscription ofhissecondyear (i.e.107'2)atTiruvor-
riyur.ThusthenitisclearthatAdhirajaraja suc-
ceededhisfatherbuthadonlyashortreign,forinthe
sameyearEajendra Chola aliasKulottunga also
1ThisIinferfromthefactthattheearliestinscriptionsofKulot-
tungaarefoundinthisregion
;butthismaynothavebeenthe
case.

147. kdlottunctA 129
ascended thethrone oftheCholaempire. This
unsettledthearrangements ofVikramaditya,whohad
tobidehistime,and itisprobable, astheVihra-
manhadevaCharitmn states,thathewasonthebest
ofterms,inthemeanwhile,withhisbrotherSomes-
vara.
LeavingA'lkramaditya aside,wehavetoconsider
thepositionoftheotherj'oungprince^^'hosename
bulksoutsolargelyintheSouthIndianpoliticsof
thetime,namely,Eajakesarivarman RajendraChola
aliasKulottungaChola. Ithasalreadybeenpointedout
thathewasthegrandsonoftheGangaikonda Chola,
andthatitwasprobablethathewasbroughtupin
hisgrandfather's house,whetherhewasactually
adoptedbyhimornot.Therewas,infact,noreason
fortheadoptionasthegrandfather appearstohave
hadanumber ofsons,whowere (atleastoneof
themwas) associated aslieutenants ofthegreat
conquering Chola.Onewouldnaturally expect this
Bajendratosucceedhisfather,whenhediedin1061-'2
orthenextyear. Inallthetransactions aboutthe
appointment ofYijayadityaYIIasviceroy ofVengi,
wedonothearofthenameofKulottunga,andthis
wouldsuggestthatthisyoungambitiousprincedid
notregard itasamatterofmuchmoment tohim
whetherhewasviceroy ofYengi ornot. His
ambitionwasimperialandnotviceregal, inthis
resemblinghisgreatcontemporary Vikramaditya,who
formanyyearshadpractically thewhole ofthe
southernhalfofhisfather'sandbrother'sempire
underhiscontrol. Thereisyetanotherreasonfor
thisindifference,butthisseemstobethensainreason,
though itappearstohaveescapedthenoticeofthe
experteditorsoftheseinscriptions. Dr.Hultzschand
Mr.Venkayya. Theearlierinscriptions ofKulottunga
statethat,asYuvaraja,heaccomplished twogreat
feats: (1)thecapture ofelephants atVairagaram
9

148. 130 ANCIENTINDIA
and(2)thecaptureofthefortress ofChakrakottam.
Hisinscriptionstakeusontohisforty-ninthyearas
emperor,andsohemusthaveascendedthethrone,
acomparativelyyoungman.Thenhomayhavebeen
Yuvarajatohisfather,theeasternChalukyaKajaraja I,
orhisgrandfatheranduncles. Ifhehadbeenat
Vengiallthewhile,Vijayaditya's succession could
nothavebeenpossible,altogether settingasidehis
nephew ;butgrantingthathewasatVengi,where
wasthisVairagaramandwhat istheachievement of
catchingelephants?Ifagainhewasevenoustedby
Vijayaditya hisuncle,thefactofhisaccessiontothe
easternChalukyadominions, specificallystatedbythe
Pitapuram pillarinscriptions andthecopper-plate
grants,isnotborneoutbyanyofhisinscriptions,
allofwhicharedatedasfroma.d.1070,theyearof
hisaccessiontotheCholathrone.Thereappearsto
beonlyoneexplanationforallthis.Vairagaram is
Wairagarh intheCentral Provinces,^ north-east of
Ajanta,anditisherethatastheCholaYuvaraja,
ontheoccasionoftheinvasion ofVlrarajendra, or
hisgrandfather,Eajendra I,hedistinguished himself.
Hisearlyinscriptions affirmthat
'
(He)gentlyraised
withoutwearying(her)intheleastthelotus-likegoddess
oftheearthresidingintheregionoftherisingsun.'
(^^(r^is^lZBi^Lu^ firr^sas^iiSleS(T^i(^tl,SLDeoisiiesTuj S'HeoLD.ssir ^sstSebt"
QpcsreisPiTS(^eifl^^eue!!r(SS)efr
^
^Q^LDirsCiT^dQsjfisoirQ erQ^^ekssr inrr
^^).^ Thislandoftherisingsuncannotwellbethe
country ofVengi,and iftheconquest ofpartof
BurmahbyBajendraIisaccepted, asitmustnow
11amgladtofindPunditHiraLaisupportmeinthissugges-
tiontowhichIwasledbyMr.Veukayya'sobjectiontomyprevious
identification ofVairagaramwithaplaceofsimilarnameinBurmah
videEfigraphiaIndicax.26-7.
2Notealso :•»w«i_/i)n9»r*4r^^li yu»«irfihujO^Sfte»«ugO*iiJ)«a»^ Qf^ptSpu.
SouthInd.Ins.,No.76,vol.iii,pt.2,p.169,1-4.

149. KUL5TTUNGAANDCHAKRAKOTTAM 131
be,thiswouldonlymeanthatEajendraKulottunga
distinguished himself asaprince intheeastern
exploits of'hisgrandfather, either during,Eajendra
Chola's,orunderVirarajendrawhenhereconquered
Kadaram. Thiswouldalsosatisfactorily account for
theideaofthePandithaChola(Rajendra, theGan-
gaikondaChola)havingbeenhisfatheraccordingto
theKalingattupparaiii (XIII.62).
Thereisstillthemention ofhisruleoverVengi
tobeexplained. This iseasilydonebythemere
factthathewasthelegitimate heirwhoeverelsehad
beenviceroy(andVijayaditya claimedtobenothing
else),andwhenKulottungabecameemperorhedid
notwishtoasserthisclaimsto,ormakeaboastof
whatwascertainlyamuchinferiorposition.
IfthisviewofKulottunga's earlierpositionbe
correct,thenhisachievement againstChakraknttam,
againsttherulerofDharamighthavebeenaccom-
plished,whenVirarajendra dispatchedanarmy into-
KalingamandacrossintoDharaafterhislastexpe-
ditionintoVengi.TheKalingaruleratthetimewas
EajarajawhosewifeEajyasundari, daughter ofthe
Dramila (Dravida)KingEajendra Chola,wasthe
motheroftheKalinga rulerAnantavarman Choda
Ganga.'ThisEajendraChola,Dr.Hultzsidisuspects,
isidenticalwithVirarajendra. Betinsas itmay,it
isprobablyinthisinvasionthatKulottunga found
occasion todistinguish himelfagainstChakrakoUam.
Thisviewoftheearly lifeofKulottunga differs
fromthatofDr.HultzschandMr.Venkayya,whoinfer
itwasonlyaquestion ofusurpationonthepartof
Vijayaditya, assistedby A^irarajendra. Thiswould
accordvery illwithKulottunga's position inthe
1Itisquitepossible tliatthisEajendraCholawastheGangai-
kondaChola,orRajendraKulottunga asMr.Venkayya infersin
hisReportfor1905.

150. 132 ANCIENTINDIA
interim. IfhehadremainedanywhereintheChola
empire,Virarajendra wouldhavetakenstepstokeep
himoutofever-aspiring tothethrone.Nordoeshe
figureamongthewesternChalukya relationswith
Virarajendra. Itappears, therefore, thathewas
bidinghistimeasdidVikramaditya fornineyearsto
workhiswayuptotheempire.
Inscriptions ofthesecondyearofKnlottunga lend
supporttothisview,asNo.64.vol.iiioftheSouth
Indian Inscriptions implies
'thathefelthimself
alreadyatthattimeasamemberoftheCholafamily
towhichhismotherandgrandmother belonged,and
notasaneasternChalukya,because itmentionsas
hiscrestthetigerandnottheboar.'Ininscriptions
ofhisfirstfouryearshestyleshimselfEajakesarivarman
EajendraCholaDeva,whilethatinhisfifthyear
ascribestohimthetitleKulottunga. Inadditionto
theachievementsalreadyreferredtowhileyetaprince
only,theinscriptions ofhisfifthyearaddthathe
vanquished thekingofKuntala,thathecrowned
himselfaskingofthecountryonthebanksofthe
Kavery,andthathedecapitatedanunnamedPandya
king.
'Havingmadethewheelofhis(authority) to
goasfarastheGoldenCircle (i.e.MountMeru),on
theearth,whichwassurroundedbythemoatofthe
sea,thatwas(again)surroundedby(his)fame,(the
king)newlywedded,inthetimewhen(hewasstill)
heir-apparent (ilango),thebrilliantgoddessofvictory
atSakkarakkottambydeedsofvalour,andseizedaherd
ofelephants atVayiragaram. (He)unsheathed (his)
sword,showedthestrength of(his)armandspurred
(his)war-steed,sothattheKingofKondala(Kuntala),
whosespearhadasharppoint, losthiswealth.
Havingestablishedhisfame,havingputon(agarland
ofvictory over)thenorthern region,andhaving
stoppedtheprostitution ofthegoddesswiththesweet
andexcellent lotus-flower (i.e.Lakshmi), ofthe

151. vikramaditta's usurpation 183
southernregion,andtheloneliness ofthegoddess
ofthegoodcountrywhosegarment isthePonni
(Kavery),(he)putonbyright(ofinheritance)thepure
royalcrown ofjewels,whilethekingsoftheold
earth'borehistwofeet(ontheirheads)asalarge
crown.'Thiswouldbetheyeara.d.1015andthe
Kuntalasherereferred tomustbethegeneralsof
Somesvara II,particularly hisbrothers,Vikramaditya
andJayasimha, thelatterhavingbeenatthetime
viceroyofBanavase. Thismerelyreferstoanattempt
atintervention onthepartofVikramaditya, asa
resultofthemisfortunetohisbrother-in-law andthe
consequentchangeofrule.Butbeforetheeleventh
yearofKulottunga's reign,hehadtointervenewith
greatervigourintheaffairsoftheMysorecountrj^
Buthowthiswascalledforhastobeexplainedbefore
proceedingfurther.
SomesvaraBhuvanaikamalla ruledovertheChalukya
empirefroma.D.1068toa.d.1076whenhisreign
cametoanend.Theonlyepigraphical information
available isthatSomesvara, havinggotintoxicated
withprideafterafewyearsofrule,neglectedthe
governmentbadly,andbisvirtuousbrotherVikrama-
dityaoverthrewhimintheinterestofgoodgovern-
mentandestablishedhimselfinstead.Turningtothe
Vikramankadeva Charitamagainfordetails,wehave
thefollowingwhichIextractfromDr.Fleet.'
'
Bilhanatellsus,that,foratime,thetwobrothers
livedinfriendlyfashionatKalyana
;theyoungerduly
honouringtheelderasthechiefofhishouseandhis
king.Somesvara,however, fellintoevilcourses,and
eventriedtodoharmtohisbrother.ThereuponA"ik-
ramaditya leftKah'anatakingwithhim allhisfol-
lowersandalsohisyoungerbrother,Jayasimha III,
1SouthInd.Ins.,p.142,vol.iii,pt.ii.
2BojnbayGazetteer,pt.ii,vol.i,pp.
•141-5.

152. 134 ANCIENTINDIA
who,heconsidered, couldnotbesafelyleftwiththe
king.Somesvarasentforcesinpursuit,tobringthe
brothersback.Buthewasunsuccessfulandatlast
desistedfromtheattempt.Vikramadityawentonto
theTungabhadraonthebankofwhichriverherested
hisarmyforsometime,withtheintentionoffighting
theCholaking. Itappears,however, that,forsome
unexplained reason,hedeferredthisprojectinfavour
ofmakingatriumphalprogressthroughthesouthern
andwesternpartsofthekingdom ;for,thenarrative
goesontosay,thathavingspentsometime inthe
Banavase province,hemarchedthroughtheMalaya
country,thatJayakesinthelordofKonkan, i.e.the
firstJayakesininthefamilyoftheKadambas ofGoa,
cametohimandbroughtpresents,andthatthelord
ofAlupamadesubmissionandreceivedfavours in
return. ItalsoimpliesthathevisitedKerala,and
inflictedsomereversesonthekingofthatcountry.
Hethenseemstohavetakensomedefiniteaction
againsttheCholas.BatitwasstoppedbytheChola
king,Eajakesarivarman otherwise calledVirarajendra
DevaI,makingovertures offriendship,andoffering
himadaughterinmarriage,ontheconditionthathe
retiredtotheTungabhadra. Vikramadityaacceptedthe
proposals andthemarriage wasdulycelebrated.
Shortlyafterwards,however,thenewsreachedhim
thathisfather-in-lawwasdead,andthattbeChola
kingdomwasinastateofanarchy.Hethenpro-
ceededatoncetoKanchitheCiiolacapital
;putdown
therebellionthere,andgoingtoGangakunda, secured
thethroneforhisbrother-in-law, probablyParakesari-
varmanotherwise calledAdhirajarajendra. Hethen
marchedbacktotlieTungabhadra. Butheheard,
almostimmediately, thathisbrother-in-law hadlost
hislifeinafreshrebellion,andthatEajigathelord
ofVeiigi,—i.e.theeasternChalukyakingKulrittunga
CholaDevaI,whoseoriginalappellationwasRajendra

153. BILHANASACCOUNT 135
€hola—hadseizedthethrone ofKanchi.Heat
onceprepared tomarchagainst Kaj'iga.Thelatter
inducedSumesvaraIItoenterintoanallianceagainst
theirmutualenemy.WhenVikramaditya atlength
reached Eajiga's forces,Somesvara'sarmywasen-
camped,withhostileintentions,notfaroffinhisrear.
Andinthebattlewhichensued,andinwhichVikra-
madityawasvictorious,EajigafledandScmit'svarawas
takenprisoner.ThenarrativesaysthatVikramaditya
attirstintended torestorehisbrothertolibertyand
tothethrone.Buteventuallyhedecidedotherwise.
Hehadhimselfproclaimedking,andthenappointing
Jayasimha III,viceroy atBanavase, proceeded to
Kalyanaandestablishedhimselfthere.'
TheaboveistheaccountofVikramaditya's Vidya-
pati(poet-laureate)
;and,apartfromalittleglozingin
favourofhispatronandacertainwantofchronological
sequence,thenarrationofeventsisinthemaintrue.
Apartofthisstoryhasalreadybeendealtwith
before—Vikramaditya's actualmotiveandhowhe
enteredintotreatywithVirarajendra,whathedidto
hisbrother-in-law andhowtheaffairended.What
hastobespeciallynotedhereisthelasttransaction
ofthenarration :howS5mesvarawasactually over-
thrown. Itisverylikelythisachievement ofKul5t-
tunga,thatisdetailedininscriptions ofhisfifthand
sixthyears, i.e.a.d.1075-6. Itisveryprobablethat
Vikrama's elderbrotherwasanincapable ruleror
evenworse.ThereisnodoubtthatA^ikramadityahad
distinguishedhimselfevenduringhisfather'slifetime.
Nevertheless, hehadcarefullyprepared hisscheme
andputitintoeffectatthepsychologicalmoment,and
thusshowed clearlytotheworldthatindiplomacy,
hewasnotbehindanybodyatthetime. Itwas,
however,notacold-bloodeddeedofunscrupuloususur-
pation,foritisquitepossiblethatSOmesvara'sregime
mighthavebroughttheempiretothevergeofruin.

154. 136 .ANCIENTINDIA
seeingtheyhadtoreckonwithaneiglibour like
Kulottunga. Inthisenterprise,Vikramadityahadthe
support oftheviceroys of firstrankamong his
brother's officers,andthiscouldnothavebeenob-
tainediftherehadbeennocounterbalancing virtues
inhim.SeunaChandraIIoftheYadavafamily,the
premierviceroyofthenorth-west,JayakesinKadamba
ofGoa
;AchugiIIoftheSindafamilyofYelburga
;
EreyangaHoysalaofGangavadi,thesonofVinayaditya
therighttrustylieutenant ofSnmesvaraAhavamalla
;
andIrukkapala,thebrotherofthegovernorofNolamba-
vadi ;alltheseheartilyhelpedVikramadityaandwere
themainpillarsofhisempireforthefollowing half
centuryandmore.ThusthenVikramaditya allowed
Kulottunga toboastofavictorywhilehehadtobe
busyathead-quarters tocompletehisusurpation. This
done,therebeganthebattleroyalbetweenthecontend-
ingnationsorratherrulers.
Thenextwar,undertaken againsttheChola,also
appearstohavegoneagainsttheChalukyas. Inscrip-
tionsofthefourteenthandfifteenthyearsofKulot-
tungalayclaimtohavingturnedbackaninvasionof
VikramadityafromNangali(about sixmileseastof
Mulbaga!) viaManalur (otherinscriptions have it
Alatti)totheTungabhadra ;andtohavingcaptured
Gangamandalam andSinganam. Havingsecuredhis
frontierinthenorthheturnedhisattention tothe
southagainstthePandyas,andsubdued thesouth-
westernportion ofthePeninsula including inhis
conqueststheGulfofMannar,thePodiyilmountain
(intheTinnevelly district),CapeComorin Kottaru,
theSahya(thewestern ghats)andKudamalainadu
(i.e.Malabar). Aboutthistimeheappears tohave
effectedconquests intheMalabarcountry, Viliiiam
andSalaihavingbeenoccupied according tothe
Kalingattuparani andtheVikkiramasolanula. That
thisisnotamerehigh-falutinassertionofatriumph

155. THEFIRSTWAE 137
without success isamplyborneoutbytheutter
absenceofpurelyChalukya inscriptionsbeyondthe
ShimogaandtheChitaldroog districts,thecapitalsof
theso-calledviceroysofC-iangavadihavingbeenbeyond
theGangavadi itself(namely,Belagamve firstandBelur
next)
;andtheappointment ofparticular governors
toholdthesoathernfrontieragainsttheCholain
northernMysore.
'Lakshmana becoming lordoftheGreatBanava-
senad,Yikramanolamba becomingthelordofXolamba-
Sindavadi, Gangamandalika (probablyUdayaditya) be-
coming lordoftheterritoryfromAlampara,Bhuva-
naikamalla, inviewoftheirbeingasalongbartothe
south,gavethemthesecountries
'}Although this
arrangementwasactuallymadeinthereignofSom-
esvaraII,therewasnomaterialalteration offrontier
tillabouttheearlydecadesofthefollowingcentury.
Theseachievements ofKulottungamusthavetaken
placeaboutA.d.1085.
ItVikramadityamovedsouth,abouta.d.1080,then
theopportunitywouldhavebeentakenadvantage of
bythePandyas ofthesouth,andKulottunga had
notonlytakensteps
'
tofixthelimitsofthesouthern
country,'butalsohadsettledsomeofhisofficerson
theroadsthroughKottarutoholdthecountry in
check,
'
while alltheheroes inthewestern hill
country(Kudamalainadu) ascendedvoluntarilytolieaven,
(he)waspleasedtobestowonthechiefsofhisarmy,
whoweremountedonhorses,settlcmenUoneveryroad,
including (thatwhichpassed)throughKottaru, in
orderthattheenemiesmightbescattered,andtook
hisseatonthethroneacquiredinwarfare."
ThiswarmusthavetakenplacesoonafterVikrama-
dityaascendedthethroneina.d.1076andboththe
'Epi.Car.,vol.vii,p.202ofthetranslation.
iVideKo. 73,Southhid.Ins.. vol. iii,pt.II;theofficerin
chargeofKottaruwas a.manoftheCholacountry.

156. 138 ANCIENTINDIA
emperorshadlearntbya.d.1080(orthereabouts)that
itwasimpossibletodecideonceforallonthisfrontier,
andmatterswerelefttosettlethemselvesbyefSuxof
time.During therestofhisreigntheChalukya
emperordevotedhimself topeace.Hisreignhada
spanofhalfacenturyand,duringthislongperiod,Bil-
hananoticesaninvasionandevenoccupation of
KanchiandtwoinvasionsacrosstheNarbudha.The
occupationofKanchiwasnothingmorethantheat-
temptedinvasionoftheCholaempirewhichendedin
failure.Theothertwoinvasionswereactiveinter-
ventionsintheaffairsofMalvaandChediorDhara
andDahala, as,afterthedeathofBhojaofDhara
andKarnaofDahala,therewasconstantwar.His
invasionofBengalandKamarupa (orAssam)arenot
likelywiththeCholasconstantlyonthealert,unless
thesehappentobemerecontingents ofarmiessentto
helpafriendlyPower.
Jayasimha,whohadactedwithhimandhadbeen
rewardedwiththeviceroyalty ofBanavase,aposition
whichVikrama himselfoccupiedunderhisfather,
revoltedandevidentlytherevolthadbeenputdown
;
butnothingfurtherwasheardeitherofJayasimhaor
ofhisotherbrotherVishnuvardhana Vijayaditya. With
thischangeVikramaditya effectedanimportantmodi-
ficationofdomesticpolicy,whichproducedconsequences
thatcouldhardlyhavebeenforeseenbyhim.He
gaveimportant vicerovalties tochieftainswithgreat
localinfluence ',sometimesscionsofoldfamilies,and
thesebecamefoundersofthegreatfeudatorydynasties
thatplayedsuchimportant partslateron.Wesee
thischangetakingplaceduringthepeacefulregimeof
thegreatChalukyaVikramaditya. Hisempireextended
fromtheNarbuddasouthwards totheTungabhadra
;
1Hissonsweregivenonlyvioeroyalties, etc.,nearheadquarters,
e.g.Jayakarna,Bombay Oazetteer, p.455,vol. i,pt.ii.

157. DIVISIONSOPTHECHALUKYAEMPIEE 139
andfromthejunctionofthelatterwiththeKrishna,
ifalinebedrawnnorthwardsmoreorlessina
straightlinetowheretheWardhameetstheGodavari
andcontinued \vpthisaffluent,weshallhavemarked
theeasternboundaryoftheChalukyaEuipire. Allthe
eastofthisfromthesouthernportionofGanjamwas
theChelaempireunderhisgreatcontemporaryKulot-
tunga,whosesouthernlimitwasCapeComorin itself
exceptforasmallpart—theMadura district—which
wasunderthePandj^a.Thecountrybeyondthewestern
ghatstotheseawasundertheChera orKerala
rulerinthesamesubordinate positionasthatofthe
Pandya,thoughunwilling.
ThisextensiveempireoftheChalukyaswasdivided
intoEashtra,VishayaandGrama,answeringexactly
totheAfandalam (province)Nadu(division)and\]r
(township). Hitherto viceroyswereappointed over
thelargerdivisions,sometimesovermoredivisionsthan
one
;buthereafter itisgenerallytherulethatthere
isaviceroyovereachoftheselargerdivisions. Over
theVishaya,orthedistrict,therewasagovernorwho
happened tobealocalchief.AVehearofGanga
chiefswithhead-quarters atYedehalliandatAsandi
inKadurdistrict.Eachvillageortownshipconstituted
theunitofadministration, andhaditsownassembly
orgovernoraccordingtoitshistory. Besidesthevice-
roysofprovincesthereweregreatgenerals,ministers
forpeaceandwar,commissioners offinance,and
greatnoblemenin^lahasenapalis orDaridanayakas,San-
dhivigrahius (oftenthereisahigherothcertheHeri
Karnata-Lata-Sandhivigrahin, greatministerforpeace
andwaroftheKarnatakaandtheLataterritories),
controllers ofthepannaya,perjjunkaandothertaxes
andlastlytheMahasamantadhipatis—theselastbeing
keptatcourt,perhapsbecausetheyweredangerous
elsewhere.TheemperorhadhiscapitalatKalyana
;
buthebadalsohalfadozenotherplacesinimportant

158. 140 ANCIENTINDIA
positions, oftenreferred toasRajadhanis, oralter-
nativecapitalswhich, tojudgefromtheirlocation,
woialdbeforadministrative convenience,morethanto
satisfythevanityoftherulerforthetimebeing.These
citiesvs^ereKalyana,thecapital ;BanavaseandBalagamve,
thehead-quarters ofthesouthernviceroyalty ;Nadaviyap-
paiyanabidu, inthenorth-east ofBijapuronthefron-
tieroftheNizam'sDominions ;Etagiri,themodern
Yetagiri,thirtymilessouthofMalkhed ;Vijayapura,
themodernBijapur ;Manneyakere, alsointheNizam's
Dominions,andVikramapura orArasiabidu. Mostof
thesewerehead-quarters ofviceroyalties,whileEtagiri
wastheoldcapitalofthedynasty.EvenTiruvikra-
mapura(namedaftereithertheemperor orVishnu
Kamalavilasin) wasacapitalunderSomesvara,with
thenameArasiabidu (thepalaceofthequeen),be-
causeoneofanumberoftheladyviceroys\during
theruleoftheChalukyas,hadherhead-quarters there.
Amongtheviceroys ofVikramadityawefindthe
namesofanumberofchiefs,whobecamelateronthe
foundersofthegreatfeudatoryfamilies,thoughforthe
whiletheirchargesoftenchanged. Thishasbeen
statedalready.Withoutfollowingthedetailsofthe
changeofviceroys,theprovinceswere :(1)theYadava
territory ofDevagiri or,as itwasknownbefore
this,SeunaDesawithcapitalsatSiiinarandthenat
Devagiri,includinginitalltheterritoryinthenorth-
westoftheempire
;(2)theSilaharasofnorthernand
southernKonkan,thecountryalongthecoastbelow
1AkkadevitheauntofSomesvara I,wasgoverningKiSukadseventyin
A.D.,1022.
ThequeensofSomesvara I,andsomeofhissuccessorshadsmall
territoriestoadminister,sometimesdirectly,oftenbyDeputy.
Vikramadityahadsixqueens.Ofwhomwehaverecordsoffour
atleast,ingovernmentofsmalldistrictsoradministration ofrevenues.
OneofthemwasgoverningthecapitalKalyapaandanotherhada
districtallottedtoherforpin-money. (Angabopha).
Fleet,BombayGazetteer, vol.i,pt. ii.

163. KISEOFTHEHOYSALAS 141
Bombay
;(3)theSilaharas ofKolhapur
;(4)next
cometheKadambas ofGoa
;(5)totheeastofthese
theircousinstheKadambas ofHangalinDbarwar
;
(6)eastofthesecometheSindasofYelburga
;(7)
thentheGuttasofGuttalinDharwar
;(S)nextthe
Eattas ofSaundatti
;(9)Banavase, oftenunderthe
Kadambas ofHangal, afterJayasimha's rebelhon
;
(10)Xolambavadi, under thePandya chiefs of
Uchchangidurg; (11)GangavadiundertheHoysalaEie-
yangaandhissonsBellalaandA'ishnuvardhana
;
(1'2)
Tardawadi roundBijapur. Besidesthese,therewere
theviceroyalties inthehead-quarters territory,namely,
roundGobbur,Kammaravadi aadSitabaldi inthe
iS'izam'sDominionsandtheneighbouring partsofthe
CentralProvinces
;thesethreehavingbeenunder
Kashtrakuta (thefirsttwo)andtheHaihaya chiefs,
respectively.
Exceptfortherebellion ofprinceJayasimha, vice-
royofBanavaseandthetwoinvasions acrossthe
Xarbadlrabeforetheyearsa.i>.1088-9,andbetweenthat
yearanda.d.1098,therewaspeacethroughout the
empire.Butthemonotony ofitwasbrokenbyan
invasion,probablyoftheeasternChalukyadominions.
Thereareinscriptions referring themselves toYik-
ramaditya'sreignatDraksharamaandatotherplaces
beyondhisdominions,althoughBilhanasaysthathe
wasforsometime inoccupation ofKanchi. Bat
towardstheendofhisreign,thedangertotheem-
pirealreadyshowed itselfintheadvancing po\er
ofaMysorechief. Ithasmorethanoucebeennoticed
beforethatthesouthernprovinces oftheempire
constitutedthepremierviceroyalty,anditisherethat
thegreatestgeneralshipwascalledforth.TheHoy-
salasweremakingthemselvesmastersinrealityofthe
Gangavadi96,000,ofwhichtheyhadbeennominal
viceroysfortwogenerations. Yinayaditya first,then
Ereyangahisson,andthenthelatter'ssonA^ishnu-

164. 142 ANCIENTINDIA
vardhana,throughtheloyalexertionsofGangaEaja,
adispossessed scionapparently oftheGangafamily,
nowturnedouttheCholasandtookTalakad,the
head-quarters oftheCholaviceroyalty onorbefore
A.D.1117. Thisenhancedthereputation,andnotless
theresources oftheHoysala,whowasadvancing
hispowernorthwardsbyattackingNolambavadiand
Banavase. Thismovement appears tohavebeen
synchronouswiththatoftheKadambasofGoaandthe
Silaharas ofKonkan. Theempirewassavedthis
dismemberment bythewatchful activityandenergy
oftheSindachieftain,Achugi II,whodefeatedthe
HoysalaforcesunderGangaEaja,(whichhadmarched
uptotheKrishnaveni (theKrishna river),inanight
attackatKannegalaandchasedthemtoBeliir.He
thenturnedintheotherdirectionandchasedthe
othersacrossthewesternghatsandtookGoa.
Notwithstanding this,Vikramaditya continued to
ruletilltheyeara.d.1126,orpossibly a.d.1127.
Heappearstohavebeenaliberalpatron ofletters
andreligion. InhiscourtflourishedtheKasmirian
poetBilhana,whoevidentlywanderedthroughthe
countryinsearchofapatron,asdidVijiianesvara the
authoroftheMitdksharasystemofHinduLaw.In
religionhedisplayedtheusualliberalism ofIndian
monarchs.Frominscription124ofShikarpur,wefind
thatasvicero}'hegotaJinalaya constructed at
Balligave. Hisfather,beitremembered, diedaSaiva.
Fromthefounding ofTiruvikramapura andthecon-
structionofpalaces,temples, etc.,nearthetempleof
VishnuKamalavilasin, asBilhaparecords,heprobably
wasaVaishnava. Nevertheless aDombalinscription
ofA.D.1095,recordsgrantsmadetotheViharasof
BuddhaandAryaTaradeviatthattown.ThatBud-
dhismhaditsfollowing isborneoutbyinscription
170ofShikarpur/ thatthegreatminister, the
*Epi.Oar,yoI.vii.

165. THECHOLAEMPIRE 143
Dandanayaka Eiipabhattayya,whowasinchargeof
the(Vaddaravula) principal taxesandtheeighteen
Agraharas, established theJayantiBauddhaVihara
inBalligaveandmadegrantstoitandfortheworship
ofTaraBhagavatI,andofthegodsKesava,Lokcsvara
andBauddhawithalltheirattendant gods,etc.,in
A.D.lOlin.Vikramaditya hadatleast sixwives,
allofwhomprobablywerenotaliveatonce
;butofhis
childrenweknowofonlythree ;Jayakarna, viceroy
ofsometerritoryintheBijapur divisionwhichhe
ruledbydeputy
;SomesvaraIIIBhulokamalla,who
succeededhim
;andadaughter MailalaDevi,who
marriedtheKadamba Jayakesin IIofGoa.He
startedanerafromA.u.1076knownastheChalu-
kyaMkrama,whichdidnotgetintosuchgeneral
vogueastosupersedetheSakaera. Itwentoutof
useinthecourseofacentury. Usurpingtheempire,
Vikramaditya perhapsrendered aservice toitby
preserving itfromdismemberment foranother half
acentury,andwemightsaythatheaddedtoit
southernandeasternMysore. Itwasthissameaddition
thatcarriedwithitunmistakablegermsofdismember-
ment,and,aswillbeseenlateron,theHoysala
benefactors oftheempirewerethechiefinstruments,
whichcausedittobreakup.
TurningnowfromtheChalukya totheChola
empire,Kuluttungahadhyhisfifteenthyearintro-
ducedorderintotherevoltedprovinces, inthemost
persistentofwhichheevenwentthelengthofplant-
ingmilitarycoloniesnotintheEomanfashion,but
byallotting territory tohisofhccrs,whowould
occupythesettlement attheheadoftheforcesat
theircommand.'Thenextyeara.d.1086,ayear
1ThisisborneoutbyhisinsoriptionsbeingfoundatMavamanga-
1amandAkka^alaionthesiteoftlieancientKorkai,thussupporting
Kulottunga'sclaimtohaveshutinthePandyaonthesideoftheGulf
ofMannar. Epigraphist'sReportfoili04,p.12.

166. 144 ANCIENTINDIA
beforethedomesdaysurvey,heseemstohaveunder-
takenare-survey ofsomeparts,atleast,ofhis
dominions. Thisfactisreferredtointv^oinscriptions
intheTanjoredistrict,andtheunitofmeasurewas
theSiipada(theroyalfoot)ofKulottunga. Butthat
suchsurveysusedtobe,andhadbeen,accurately
carriedoutmuchearlierisattestedbythereferences
tothebook{l^^^swiintheTamilandKadithainthe
Kanaresecountries.'
Oneachievement ofKulottungawhichdeserveda
wholeworktocelebrate itintheestimation ofhis
contemporaries,andperhapshimself,istheconquestof
KalingamforhimbyhisgeneralKarunakara Tonda-
manofVandai,orVandaliir.Theworkreferredto
istheTamilpoemknownastheKalingattupparani
ofJayaipkondan, whowastheKavichakravarti at
thecourt ofKulottungaasBilhanawastheVidya-
patiatKalyana. ThisconquestofKalingam isalso
amongtheachievements ofVikrama Chola.Sofar
asKulottunga isconcerned thereareclearlytwo
invasions ofKalingam referred to.TheTiruvida-
marudurinscriptionofhistwenty-sixthyearreferstoan
invasionofKalingam,butstrangelyenoughhislater
inscriptions,whichnarrateaccuratelyhisotherachieve-
ments,omit it.Thiswouldwarranttheinference
thatitwasnottheachievement whichinvitedthe
classicofJayanikondan. Thenextreference toa
conquestofKalingam isintheinscriptions ofhis
forty-secondandforty-fifthyears.Thisgreatconquest
thereforeoughttohavetakenplaceinorbeforeA.D.
1112,whilethe firstonewasbeforeA.d.1095-6.
Kalingam figuresamongplacesconqueredbyEajaraja
theGreatandhissonEajendra. Afterthedeath
inA.D.1078ofEajaraja ofTrikalinga, hissonAnanta-
varmanChodaGangawasonthethronetilla.d.1146.
1SeeGovt.Epigraphist'sReportfor1900,sec.25,p.11.

167. CONQUESTOPKALINGAM 145
According totheTekiplates* ofRajarajaChoda
Ganga,vcieroj'ofYengiandtheeldestsonofKulot-
tnnga,issuedinA.d.1084,theboundaryoftheVengi
wasManneruintheNellore districtinthesouthand
Rlahendragiri inGanjam inthenorth.Thiswould
showthatsouthKalingamwasalreadyundertheCholas.
"Whilethereforethefirstinvasionmightpossiblyhave
beentodriveoutsomeintruder intothisremote
frontierwhichwaseasyofaccomplishment, thenext
onemusthavebeenofaformidable character. This
probablywastheoccasionwhen^'ikramaditya pene-
tratedintoVengi(whichwouldaccountforinscriptions
ofhisreignatDraksharama), according toBilhana,
afterlongyearsofpeace.Hemusthavebeencom-
pelledtoretire.WehaveseenalreadythatA'lrara-
jendramarchedintoKalingam,andifMr.Venkyya's
identification oftheRajendra Cholathefather of
Eajyasundari, wifeoftheKalingaEajarajaandmother
ofAnantavarman ChodaGanga,withRajendraChola
IIbecorrect,then itispossiblethatKulottunga
undertook thegrandinvasionofnorthernKalingam
orSaptaKalingam, thekingofwhichaccording to
theKalingattupparani failedtoappearwithhistribute.
Thisappearstoreceivesupportfromthefactthatthe
KalingaChodaGanga'sincreaseofpowertookplace
duringtheyearsa.d.1087toa.d.1118-19. Inthe
Vizagapatam plates ofthelatteryearheassumes
titlesandamagnificent genealogy,whicharenot
foundintheplatesoftheearlieryear.Hefurther
boastsinthelatterofhavingrestored
'thefallen
lordofUtkala(Orissa) intheeastern region,'and
the
'waninglordofVengi 'inthewestern.
'
>EpigraphiaIndica,vol.vi,p.334,etseq.
2VideGov.Epigraphist'sReportfor1905,p.53.Itmaybenoticed
herethattherewassomedirectrelation ofafriendlycharacter
betweentheCholasandtherulersatKanoujatthetime,Madana-
palaandhissonGSvindachandra. VideEpigraphist'sReportfor1908,
10

168. 146 ANCIENTINDIA
Ifthisbethecorrectviewoftheevent,thenthe
composition oftheKaliiigattupparani willhavetobe
broughtdowntosomewherenearA.d.1112,rather
thaiitoaperiodofaboutfifteenyearsearlier,adate
hithertofixedforit.Thecreditofthisexpedition,
accordingtothiswork,isentirelyduetoKarunakara
Tondaman ofVandai(Vandalur),buttheinscriptions
ofVikramaCholalayclaimtosomeverycreditable
performanceonthepartoftheprince. Itisvery
probablethattheprincedidbearhisshareinthe
glorious achievement oftheconquest ofnorthern
JSalingam.
Beforebringingthej-eignofKulottunga toaclose,
thereisonemoreeventofimportance tobediscussed
"whichtookplaceduringthelastyearofhisreign.
Itistheconquest ofGangappadi, fortheChalukyas
•ostensibly,bytheHoysalachief,BittaDeva,helpedby
hisgeneralGangaEaja.Thisisrecorded indetail
onlyininscriptions ofa.d.1116andA.d.1117,andthe
conquestcouldnothavetakenplaceverymuchearlier.
GangaEajaclaimstohavedriventheCholaarmy
acrosstheKaveri,andhavingoustedAdiyamanand
NarasimhaBrahma.ThegeneralthenoccupiedTalakad,
theCholacapitalontheKaveri.Thiswasthecrowning
achievement ofaseriesofenterprisesbytheMysore
chiefstoshake offtheyokeoftheChoiasimposed
uponthemoveracenturysince,byanotherEajendra
Chola.Thenceforward, theChalukyaboundarynomi-
nallyatleastextendedtoKongu,NangaliandKoyatiir
inthesouth.Sofarasweknowatpresent,Kulot-
tunga'sforty-ninthyearisthelatest,andthiswould
bringhisreigntoanendina.d.lllS,justsixyears
beforethatofhisrivalcontemporarywhichtookplace
inA.D.1126.
sec.58,Ins.atGangaikondaSolapuram,containingtheGahadwal-
genealogy.

169. PERIODOFCONSOLIDATION 147
Thishalfcenturywasaperiodofconsolidation for
theCholaempire,asitalsowasfortheChalukya.
Theadministration wascarriedononthelineslaid
down,asinfactmusthavebeenthecaseevenbe-
fore,toagreatextent,byEujarajatheGreat. Itisthe
ideaofpermanentpeacethatledtoKulottunga's mili-
taryoutsettlements inthePandya,andKeralafrontier,
forwefindaTanjoregeneralendowing atemple,
withtheemperor's sanction,atSOlapuramnearKot-
taruwhichwasnotfaroffCapeComorin,whichisnow
intheTravancorecountry.Exceptthelossofsouthern
andeasternMysoretheempireremainedintact.When
hedied,itwasatpeace,surroundedbyfriendlypowers
allround,exceptontheMysorefrontier,wherefurther
aggressionwasverycarefullychecked. Thedanger
whenitbefelltheempirecamefromallquarters,but
inthemeanwhile,thattheempireheldtogetherwas
duetothefar-seeingarrangements ofthegreatChola
monarchs ofwhom,wemaysay,thiswasthelast.
Kulottungahadthreequeens,namely,DinaChintamani
(probablyMaduiantaki,daughterofEajendra),Elisaival-
labhiandTyagavalli. Thislastwasthequeenentitled,
according totheKalingattupparani, toissueorders
alongwithSenni(Kulottunga I).Shebecamechief
queenonlyina.d.1095.Hencethelatterworkmust
havebeencomposedbetweena.d.1095anda.d.1118.
Ishallshowalittlelateronwhattheruralgov-
ernmentwas,anddescribe insomedetailtheactual
machinery oftheCholaadministration. Thatthese
werenottheinventionevenofthegreatEajaraja is
borneoutbytheinscriptions atTirupparkadal, near
Kaverlppak(thenknownKavidippakkam), ofdatesbe-
tweenParantaka IandEajaraja.Wefindmention
hereofanumberofvillagecommittees inadditionto
thosedetailedinthefollowingpart
:
—
Thetankcommittee,thegarden-supervision commit-
teeandthegeneralcommittee ofmanagement. The

170. 148 ANCIENTINDIA
newonesare
:—
(1)thegreatmenforthesupervisicn
ofwards(Kudumbu), (2)thegreatmenforthesuper-
visionofthefields
;(3)thegreatmennumberingtwo
hundred; (4)thegreatmenforthesupervision ofthe
village
;(5)thegreatmenforsupervisingUdaslnas
(ascetics). Thesecommittees,togetherwiththelearned
Brahmans (Bhattar)andotherdistinguishedmenof
thevillage,constitutedthevillageassembly.Wesome-
timescomeacrosstheGramaKon(chiefofthevillage)
.
Thereappeartohavebeenindividuals inchargeof
particularwardsofthevillage.Thefollowing isan
extractfromaninscription atPerumbiirnearMadu-
rantakamofa.d.1081.
'Theabove(grant)wasordered
bySattaiGovindbhattar ofIrayur(inchargeof)Srima-
dhurantakacheri, KunrakuliSomayajiar ofUruppattur
(inchargeofSriParantakachcheri ;KattugaiKara-
yana-kramavittar ofNambur(inchargeof)SriIrumu-
disolachcheri ;SrTKrishnabhattar ofAranlpuram (in
charge of)SriSimhlantakachcheri
;ISTarayanabhat-
tar-Sarvakratuvajapeyayajiar ofPippirai(inchargeof)
Srlvirasrilachcheri, etc.
Withreferencetothere-surveyundertakenina.d.
1086,IhavehadtodifferfromthelateMr.Srinivasa
EaghavaAiyangarastotheinterpretation of
'
calcu-
lated
'
and'settledproduce' larrassflssi—sir and^i<snp
siLis/.'sm-^ 1Thatthesemeantthetaxasassessedand
thatassettledafterexperience, ifnotexperiment,and
thatsuchrevisionsandreductions oflandrevenue
wereknowninthosedaysareinevidenceinthefol-
lowing extract.
'To(thegod)Mahadeva of(the
templeof)EajendraSulisvara,whichAraiyanMadhu-
rantakan aliasKulottunga-Sola-Keralarajan, thelord
1Thesewereinterpreted asgrossproduceandthegovernment
demandbytheaccomplished author ofTheFortyyears'Progress^
buthewassogoodastoadmitinakindletterthatitwaspossible
'hewasallwrong',ashetoo'ktheinformationfromDr.Burnell's-
Palmographyanddidnotconsulttheinscriptions firsthand.

171. EESETTLEMENT 149
ofMulanjurinManuinada, adistrictofSolamandalam
hadcausedtobebuiltatKottaru aliasMuiuiuudi
Solanalliir, inNanjinadu (asub-division) ofUttama
Solavalanadu, adistrictofRajarajaPandinadu, shall
bejjaid,fortheexpensesrequiredbythisgod,from
thethirtiethyear(ofmyreign)forty-fiveandahalf,
three-twentieths, and one-fortieth, Madai,bythe
villageofAndaykkudi inthesameNadu.According
to(thesettlement of)payments(thathadtakenplace
intheseventhyearaftertheaccession ofEajendra
SolaDeva),(this)taxwaspaidinsteadofthe(original)
landtaxofseventy-nineKasuandthree-hundred and
twenty-fourkalamofpaddy.Thepreviousnameof
thisvillagehavingbeencancelledandthenameof
EajendraSolanallur(havingbeensubstituted), letitbe
enteredintherevenueregister (vari)asataxfree
Devadanafromthethirtiethyear(ofmyreign)including
rents,internalrevenue,andsmallrightssuchasUrk-
kalanju,Kumarakachanam, thefishingrent,thetaxon
looms,therentonthegoldsmiths, Madaikiili,Dasa-
vandam,andKalalavukrdi).' ^Thegovernmentshewed
itselfotherwise interested inruralprosperitybythe
establishment ofanagriculturalsettlementoftwenty-
fourfamilies atTiruvalangadu.^ TheTiruvanaikkaval
inscription oftheyeara.d.1117statesthat
'asthese
fourandthree-quarters (veli)oflandhadbeenlying
fullofholesandsandasuncultivated dryland,until
theforty-seventh yearofthisking,we(theassembly)
agreedtosellthelandtoMuiiayanArumolidevau alias
Villavaraiyan forpurchasemoneyof4,^^,-^rjgoodkasu
currentatthetime.'Aboutthistimelandwasselling
intheUdaiyarpaliam Taluka,notveryfaroff,attwenty
kasuperveli^'Havingdugandreclaimedthefourand
threequarter(veli)ofland,hehastosupplyforthesefour
1SouthInd.Ins.,vol.iii,pt.ii,p.IG'2.
2No.65,vol.iii,pt.ii.SouthInd.Ins.
3SouthInd:Ins.,vol.iii,pt.ii,p.152.

172. 150 ANCIENTINDIA
andthree-quarters (veli)oflandtothetempletreasury
twenty-threekalam,twotuniandonekuruniofpaddy
bythemarakkalcalledafterEajakesari ;viz.fivekalamfor
eachveliattherateofdryland,etc.'* .. .Sucharethe
fewglimpseswegetintotherevenuearrangements of
thosedays.Thestandardcoinnowappears tobe
themadai,sometimes calledmadhurantakan madai.
Thiswasequaltotwokasuandtofiveandahalf
kalamsofpaddy,thepriceofwhichvariedsharplyac-
cordingtolocalityandtotime.Thetaxmadaikkuli,
asaminortax,perhapsreferstotheseigniorageupon
coining.Thestandarddrymeasurewasthemarakkal,
eitherrajakesari asaboveorarumolidevan, bothof
thedaysofEajaraja ;andtheEkanathmeasureforghee
orarumolidevanulakku. There ismention alsoof
canalsandroads,asinotherCholainscriptions,and
oftheuseoftherodofsixteenspansformeasuring
land.Morethan all,thisKulottunga'sfamestood
highasthe
'Sungandavirta Chola
'
(theCholawho
abolished tolls'*.Thathewasregardedwithsomuch
gratitudeforthisactshewsthatthetaxwasoppressive,
andthattherulerwiseandstatesman-like. Thisone
actgavehimaplaceinthepopularesteemalongwith
the'goodCholasofyore'.
Kulottunga's agewasalsooneofgreatreligious
andliterary revival. Inhisreignflourished the
Vaishnava reformerEamanuja,whohadtobetake
himselftoMysore toavoidthedispleasure ofKulot-
tunga. Jayarnkondan washisKavichakravarti and
possiblythecommentator oftheSilappadhiJcdram,
Adiyarkkunallar didnotlivemuchlater,ashequotes
twicefromJayarnkondan, onceacknowledging the
authoritybynameandanothertimebythesimple
mentionKavichakravarti. Thiswouldhavebeenfar
fromclear,ifmademuchafterJayairikondan's timeas
1SouthInd.Ins.,vol.iii,pt.ii,p.171.

173. LITERARYACTIVITY 151
therewereotherKavichakravartis intheinterim.The
SaivawriterSekkilar,authorofthePeriijapumnam,
alsoflourishedinhiscourt.Whiledealingwiththelite-
raryactivityofKulottunga's reign,wemightmention
thataninscription ofhiseighteenth year(a.d.1088),
atSrirangam settlesapointortwomuchanimadverted
uponrecently,consequentontheideaofCaldwell,who
thoughtthatbeforethetwelfthorthethirteenthcentury
A.D.therewasnotmuchTamil literatureworth
thename,andthattheVaishnavaAlvarslivedaboutthe
sametime.Thisinscription referstothetext
'
Tettar-
undiraL
'ofKulasekaralvar, oneofthelatestAlvars.
Ifhistextbegantobechanted inpresence ofgod
Eanganathaonafestivalday,hemusthavelived
sometime beforeatleast ;butprinceSolaKerala
alittleearlierthanKulottungamadeprovisionforthe
recitalofthisandanother setofTirumangaialvar's
versesalso.AllthiswasbeforeKamanujahadmade
himselfthechiefoftheVaishnavas atSrirangam. In
spiteofthis,Mr.GopinathaEao*wouldhaveusbelieve
thatthesewerecontemporaries ofAlavandar,thegreat
grandfather ofEamanuja,whodiedwhenEamanuja
hadgrownuptobeapromisingyoungman. Itwould
appeartoomuchofanidiosyncrasyonthepartofthe
Srivaishnavas toregardAlavandaronlyasanAcharya
andhisTamiliancontemporaries Alvars.
Thesecondpointraisedbythisinscription isabout
Nammalvar, theauthoroftheTiruvoymoli. Three
SrivaishnavaBrahmans arenamed,Shatagopadasar,
Tiruvaludinadudasar andKurugaikkavalan, allnames
andsurnames ofNammalvar. Aninscription at
Ukkalofthetime ofEajaraja Inamesthegod
himselfTirvoymolideva. Theseleadustobelieve,with
Dr.Hultzsch,thatNammalvar livedmuchanterior
totheeleventhcentury a.d.
1VidearticlesintheMadrasBeview,for1905,FebruaryandMay.

174. 152 ANCIENTINDIA
WenowcometothedeplineoftheCholaPower.
Withthedeath ofKulottunga theperiod ofthe
greatCholascomespracticallytoaclose.Asalready
stated,hehimselfhadtoacquiesceinthelossofthe
Grangavadi countryHissuccessors, eventhemost
capableofthem,couldbarelymaintan theirposition
intactforjustacenturyandnomore. Allthetime
theChalukyaempirewasasmuchonthedecline;and
itisonlywhenthenewpowers,thatroseoutofthe
ashesofthisempire,begantheiraggressionsthatthe
positionoftheCholasbecameseriouslyendangered.
Vikramachola,Akalanka,Tyagasamudra :Kulottunga
wassucceededbyhisfourthsonA^'ikrama,whowas
viceroyatVengionbehalfofhisfather.Heseemsto
havebeenawarlike prince,andengagedearlyin
thewarsofthisfather.Hedistinguishedhimselffirst
against
'TelungaBhima 'ofKolanu(BhimaNayaka
ofEllore).Heisalsosaidtohaveburntthecountry
ofKalingaandthismusthavereference tosome
achievement ofhisduring hisfather'sinvasions of
Kalingam.^HewasthenappointedviceroyofVengi
insuccession tohistwoelderbrotherswhopreceded
himinthe viceroyalty. Itwasfromthishigh
positionthatheproceededtotheempirealmostat
theendofhisfather'sreign,inA.D.1118.The
latestknowndateofhisreignsofarishisseven-
teenthyear.Hisreignseemstohavebeenotherwise
uneventful.Hecontinued thepolicyofhisfather
andmaintained courtonthesameenlightened lines.
Heiscreditedwithhavingacceptedthededication
oftheKaUngattupparani^ bytheauthorJayrpgondan,
whointheworkcelebratedtheexploitsofKaruna-
karaTondamanontheoneside,andthegreatnessof
hismasterontheother.He isbelieved tohave
1Epigraphist'sReportfor1906,sec.IS.
2KulottungaChglanuld.

175. KTJLOTTUNGA. II 153
beenaVaishnava,anditseemstobethismonarch
whoismentionedbyKambanas
'Tyagamavinodan.''
Itwasperhaps inhisreignthatEamanuja, the
Vaishnavaapostle,returnedtohisnativecountry,after
havinggoneintoalongperiodofexile.
KulottungaIIKajakesarivarman, Tribhavanachakra-
vartin:Vikrama's sonKulottunga IIsucceeded his
father.Hisinitialdatehasnotyetbeenascertainedwith
certainty,thoughhislatestregnalyearisthefour-
teenth year.He istheKumara Kulottunga of
literature.Hehasbeencelebratedbyhistutorand
courtpoet,Ottakkuttan, inmorethanonepoem
ofhis. Itisinthisauthor's Kuldttunijaclwlan Via
andTaTihaijdga'i^parani thatthefactismentioned,with
somelittleelation,thattheVishnushrineatChidam-
baramwasremovedandtheimagethrownintothe
sea. ItwasthisimagethatwastakenoverbyEama-
nujaandestablished atTirupati. Afterareignof
fourteenyearshewassucceededbyhissonEajaraja
II.Thelatestknownregnalyearofhisisfifteen.
HewassucceededbyEajadhiraja II.Yearthirteen is
hislatestknownyear.Theperiodbetweena.d.1118
and117.Sisoccupiedbythereignsofthesefourrulers.
Theirperiodwasoneofconsiderable literaryactivity.
Sekkilar,Kamban,Ottakkuttan,Pugalendiandpossibly
Adiyarkkunallar arenamesthatanyagemightwell
beproudof.Itwasinthereignofthelastofthese
thatacivilwarbeganinthePandyadominionsand
involvedinittheCholasandtheCeylonese. There
weretworivalsforthecrown ofthePandyasat
Madura.Parakramabahu theGreat,kingofCeylon,
espousedthecauseofParakramaPandya
;whilehis
rivalKulasekharahadthesympathy oftheCholafor
thetimebeing.Some,atleast,oftheCholafeuda-
toriesregarded thepresenceoftheCeylonese asa
1KambaBdntdyanam,Yuddliahhandam,Mamthuppadalam, 58.

176. 154 ANCIENTINDIA
menacetobegotridofatanycost,andoneofthem,
Pallavaraiyar sonofBdiriliSolaSambhuvarayar, dis-
tinguishedhimselfinthisaffair.LankhapuraDanda-
natha,theCeylonese general,capturedandplundered
Eamesvaram,andtookTondiandPasaandmarched
uponMadura. Meanwhile theirprotegeParakrama
Pandyawasmurderedbyhisrival,whodrovehis
sonafugitive forshelter. Theapproach ofthe
CeylonesewasopposedbyKulasekhara,whowas
defeatedanddrivenintotheCholacountry forpro-
tection. TheCeylongeneralhavingfetched Vira
Pandya,thesonoftheirally,placedhimonthe
throne,andadvancedupontheCholacountry itself.
ItwasthenthattheCholageneral,byasupreme
effort,managedtocompeltheCeylonarmytoretreat.
Thiswarwascontinuedlateroninthereigninbehalf
ofVikramaPandya,thesonoftheformerCholaally
Kulasekhara. TheCholaarmyadvanced thistime
rightuptoMadura,putViraPandyaandhischildren
todeath,andtookpossession ofMadura. Having
erectedapillarofvictorythere,theygavethekingdom
overtotheirallyandreturned. Itisthisachieve-
mentthatwasthecauseoftheassumption ofthe
title
'
theconquerorofMaduraandIlam 'byEaja-
dhirajaIIandhissonKulottungaIIIlateron.*
Kulottungachola III,Parakesari, Tribhuvanachola
Virarajendra, andK5nerinmaikondan, a.d.1178to
1216 :KulottungaIIIalreadydistinguished himselfin
thewarofthePandyasuccessioninthereignofhis
father ;buthehadagaintointerveneintheaffairs
ofthePandyakingdom. Beforethenineteenthyear
ofhisreignhehadtooverthrow thesonofVira
Pandyawhowasabletorestorehimselfbyoustingthe
CholaprotegeVikramaPandya. ThistimetheChola
notonlydefeatedhimatNettur,butalsoputtodeath
1Epigraphist'sReportfor1899,sees.23-39.

177. FEUDATOEYFAMILIES 156
theformer'ssonandplacedVikramaPanJyaonthe
throne.HethenpardonedYiraPandyaandhisallyVira
Kerala.Hehad,aboutthesametimetomarchupon
Kanchiandbeatoffanenemy,whomayhavebeen
aTeluguCholachiefofthefamilythatcametopro-
minence inthenextreign. Kulottunga IIIwasa
greatbuilderandrenovator oftemples,particularly
thoseofSiva.Heappearstohavebeentheoriginal
ofthestoriesregardingsomeofthegreatSivashrines
intheTanjoredistrict'.
Itwasinthisreignthatsomeofthosefeudatory
familiesbegantoappear,whocontributedeventually
theirsharetothegeneralbreakupoftheCholaempire.
WehavealreadyreferredtothefamilyoftheSambu-
varayannearKanchi.Anotherfamilythatofthe
Adigaimans,descendants ofElini(Yavanika)appearat
andaboutTagadur(Dharmapuri).Athirdfamilyofim-
portancewasthatoftheTeluguCholasofNellore
(Trivikramapura). Thesewerebeginning togrowin
influence andimportance, perhapsowing tothe
fluctuatingwarsofthePandyasuccession inwhich
manyofthesehadeachitsshare.Kulottunga,how-
ever,enjoyedpeaceduringhisreign,exceptforthe
disturbances inthesouthernfrontierandinthenorth,
alreadyadvertedto,whichlastedforthirty-sevenyears.
During thislongperiodgreatchangeshadtaken
placeinthepolitics oftheDekhan. Thegreat
Hoysalachieftains,whoweresuchstoutpillarsofthe
empireundertheChalukyaVikramaditya,begantheir
movementstowardsindependenceevenwhilethatem-
perorwas alive. Theirnorthern neighbours, the
Yadavas,hadsimilarly laidtheirplanstodetachthe
north-western partsoftheempire. TheKakatiya
chiefsintheeasternpartshadtheirownambitions
aswell. Itisthesethreethatstandoutamong
1Epigraphist'sBeportfor3908,sees.63-8.

178. 156 ANCIENTINDIA
ahostofthefeudatories ofalldegrees ofVikra-
maditya.Whatwaswantedfortheactualdismem-
berment oftheempirewasacivilwar,orinternal
dissentions endinginausurpation. Thiswasjust
thecourse thateventstookinthispartofIndia
atthetime.MuhammadofGhaznihadcomeandgone,
andtheEajputsweregivingthefullestplaytotheir
pettyjealousies. Similarfeelingsactuatedtheprinci-
palSirdars oftheempireintheDekhan, except
forafamilyortwoofloyalists.Theweaknessand
ineptitude ofthesuccessors ofVikramaditya ledto
theKalachurya usurpation,andthecontestlateron
betweenthisdynastyandtheloyalistgeneralBamma
(Brahma). ThesechangesrelievedtheYadavasand
Hoysalasoftheirfeelingsofloyalty,andtheybegan
tosettletheirfrontiersbywar.AstheHoysalas,under
oneoftheirgreatrulers,werethusfullyoccupiedin
carvingoutforthemselvesanempireoftheirown,the
Cholafrontieronitsmostvulnerable sidewassafe
fromaggressivemovements tilllateinthereignof
KulottungaIII.ThedeathofViraBellalaIItookplace
justafewyearsearlierthanthatofhisCholacon-
temporary.HissuccessorNarasimhaIIfelthisKrishna
frontiersosafethathecouldturnhisattention to
thesouthwheremattersweredeveloping fastforhis
intervention. ItwasinthereignofKulottungaIII
thattheTamilGrammarNanniilwaswrittenbyits
JainauthorBhavaNandin.'
Tribhuvanachchakravartin Eajaraja III,Rajakesari-
varman,succeededtothethroneoftheCholasinthe
yeara.d.1216.Hislatestknownyearisthetwenty-
eighthyearandinallprobabilityhisreigncameto
anendinA.d.1'24:3-4. Attheoutsetofhisreign
thereseemstohavebeenacontest,althoughthereis
nothingknownastoitsparticularcharacter.Thefact,
^EpigrapliiaIndica,vol.vi,p.281.SouthInd.Ins.,vol.iii,No.62.

179. HOYSALAINTERVENTION 157
however,thatNarasimhaHoysalafeltitnecessaryto
advanceasfarasTrichinopoly,andevenfurther,and
thathefeltjustifiedinassumingthetitleofbenefac-
toroftheCholawouldwarranttheinferencethatthere
wasacivildisturbance ofsomesort. Itwouldseem
asthoughthePandyasweremovingintotheChola
kingdominrevengeforthehumiliation towhichthey
hadbeensubjected solatelybyKulottunga III.
NarasimhaIIpromptlymarchedforthinsupportof
hisally,themorereadilyasthePandyas,atleastthe
sectionhostiletotheCholas,foundreadysupport
amongtheKongus.Hereachedtheheartofthe
Cholaempire,compelled thePandyastoretreatand
evencowedtherecalcitrant barons oftheempire
intosubmission,andthenreturnedtohisdominions.
Thesetransactionshavetobeascribedtoaperiodbefore
A.D.12'23-4.Thenexttimeheintervenedwasabout
theyearA.D.1232.Thistimehecamehavingheard
thatEajarajawasaprisoner inthehandsofthe
KadavachiefKGpperunjingadeva, ashestyledhimself
lateron.ThisPallava cliiefcameintoprominence
duringthePandyainvasionandaswasonlytooproba-
ble,asaconsequence thereof.Hishead-quarterswere
atSendamangalam intheSouth Arcot district.
'
Narasimhamoveddownasquickl\' asbeforeand
restoredtheCholatohisown.Twoofhisgenerals
wereordered tocontinueoperations tillthedisturb-
ancesinthecountryshouldbeputanendto,andas
wastobeexpectedtheycarriedouthisordersso
wellthattherestoredCholacontinued toruleun-
disturbed tillabouttheyearAD.1242-3.Butthe
stormwasgathering allthe.same.TheTclugnChola
Tikka,otherwiseGandagopala, wasinclined tomove
downfromhiscapitalatNellore. Maravarinun Sun-
daraPandyawasadvancing fromthesouth,and
1EpigraphdIndica.volii,p.163.

180. 158 ANCIENTINDIA
Kopperunjingawasreadytotakeadvantage ofitall
intheinterior.Theconfusionwasworseconfounded
byarivalinthepersonofEajendraCholadevaIII.
Kopperunjinga assumesroyaltitles,SundaraPandya
crownshimslfatMudikondasolapuram, andViraSomes-
varaofMysoreprideshimselfuponhavingrestored
theChola.Thelastofthese,forsometimehada
capitalatKannanurnearSrirangam,andthePand-
yasandtheHoysalas fightinthisvicinity. The
feudatory Kopperunjinga beatsbackthenorthern
invader,andestablisheshimselfindependently inthe
northernpartsoftheCholaempire.
'
Itwerelong
totell,andsadtotraceeachstepfromruintodis-
grace.'TheempirethatthegreatCholasbuiltat
sogreatanexpenseoflabourandskillthuspassed
ingloriouslyoutofexistencethroughtheineptitudeof
arulerorperhapstwo,whowhileoccupying the
positioncouldnotcommandtheresources,eitherof
abilityinthemselvesorthesagacitytofindanduse
itinothers. Thisisquitethewaywithearthly
empiresandtheCholaempirecouldnotbeanex-
ception ;butthi^mustbesaidtothecreditofits
foundersandmaintainers thattheydidtheirwork
wellandwiselysofarastheycould—naysofaras
mancould.
PABTII—THECHOLAADMINISTEATION
(A.D.900'to1300)
Havingattempted, intheprevious parttogivea
connected accountoftheCholaempire, letmenow
proceedtobringtogetlierwhat little isknownof
theirsystemofadministration.
TofollowinthewakeofSirWilliamLee-Warner,
Ishallbeginwiththeunitofadministration ofthe
Cholas,whichwasthevillage-community, composed
eitherofasinglevillage,oroftenerofagroupof
villages. ThisunionwascalledinTamil
'kurram
'

182. PEDIGREEOFTHECHOLAS
1.Vijayalaya. (Parakesarivarman, thirty-fouryears.)
2.AdityaI.
3.Parantaka. (a.D.907tocirca947.)
I
4.Rajaditya
d.A,D.949-50.
5,Gandaradittan
956-7.
9.Madurantaka
Parakesari
;
Uttamachola
969-70and16years.
PrinceUttamalili. IMnoe
Arikulakesari,
6.Arinjaya.
MadhuraikondaandRajakesari.
I
7.ParantakaII
Parakesari,SundaraOhola
anddestroyerofViraPandya.
_ I
I
I
8.AdityaH Kundavvaiyar, 10.I4ajarajaI
(Karikala) m.PaUavaraiyar (A.d.985tocircaA.D.1013).
Kajakesari. Vandj^adevar. I
11.Eajendra,theGangaikondaGhola
(1011-2tocircaa.d.1042-S).
Kundavvaiyyar,m.EastChalukya
Vimaladitya (a.d.1011to1022).
12.Eaiadhiraja,
JayamgondaChola
(A.D.1018'to1052).
I
13.Bajendra
(1050to1062-3).
I
15.VirarSjendra
(1062-3or1063-4,
toA.D.circa1070)
.
I
,
.
I
Ammangadevi,m.Eajaraja I
1022to1061-2
oroneyearlater.
16,Adhirajarajendra. Adaughter,m.
VikramadityaVI.
I
TijayadityaVII,
viceroyofVengi
(1062-3to1076).
14.Rajamahendra. Madhurantaki, m.17.BajendraChola,otherwise
KulSttunga(a.d.1070to1118).
I
Oho(j.aganga,
viceroyofVengi,
A.D.1084.
MummadiGhola,
viceroyofVengi,
A.D.1077.
VlraChoda,
viceroyofVengi,
1078to1088-9.
Note.Thedatesofcommencement ofeachrulerarethoseofthe
astronomically verifiedonesofProf."Kielhorn
;while
theterminaldatesarebaseduponthelastregnalyears
asyetavailablefromepigraphical sources.Thenames
ofthemonarohsthatruledarenumbered.
18.VikramaGhola Threeother
(a..d.1118tocirca1136). sons.
IS.KulottungaCholaII
(1123circato1146).
20.RajarajaII
(1146circato1178).
21.RajadhirajaII
(A.D.1171to1186).
I
22.KulottungaCholaII
(a.d.1178to1216).
1
28,EajarajaIII
(1216circato1248).
24.RajendraCholaIII
(a.d.1245to1267).
25.TribhuvanaVlraDeva
(A.D.1831-2).

183. EURALADMINISTRATION 159
(orsub-division). Eachoneofthesesub-divisions
hadanassembly ofitsowncalledtheinahasabha.
Thisassembly,thoughsubjecttosupervision bythe
divisionalofficersorintendants(Adhikarins),exercised
analmostsovereignauthority inallthedepartments
ofruraladministration. Toillustrate thisruralad-
ministration, Ishalltakeasaspecimenthevillage
ofUkkalnearMamandurontheroadbetweenConjee-
veramandAVandiwash. Thefourteenpublished in-
scriptionsfromthisplacegiveusabetterinsightinto
theruraladministrationthananyotherequalnumberI
couldchoose. Iextracttherefore,fromtherecords
thefollowingaccountofthepowersanddutiesofthe
assembly
:
—
Ukkal'wasinPagurnadusub-divisionoftheKaliyur
kottamintheTonda—ortheJayarngondaChola—manda-
1am.According tootherrecordsUkkalbelongedtoits
ownsub-division ofthesamekottam(Sans-koshtaka).
No.1.Theassemblyreceived200kalanjuofgold
fromTiravikrama BhattaaliasBrahmadhirajar, one
amongthecommissioners ofUttarameruchaturvedi-
mangalam(Uttaramallur) forfeedingtwelveBrahmans
beforet-hegodofPuvanimanikkavinnagar receivedhis
noon-dayofferings.'
No.2.Statesthattheassemblyreceived550kuliof
landmeasuredby
'
thegraduatedrod
',madeoverto
thembyNarayanaEajasimha, anativeoftheChola
country,tosupplythegodwithfournaliofrice
daily.'Havingreceivedtherevenueofthislandand
havingexempted itfromtaxesforaslongasthe
moonandsunexist,we,theassembly,engraved this
onstone.'
No.3.RecordsthatacertainPerranAdittanof
theCholacountrypurchasedtwopiecesofland,the
firstfromaprivatepersonandthesecondfromthe
iSouthInd.In'i.,vol.iii,pt.i.

184. 160 ANCIENTINDIA
villageassembly,andmadeoverbothpiecestothe
villagersformaintainingaflower-garden.
'Thesame
personhadpurchasedfromns,theassembly, fora
flower-garden 501kulioflandmeasuredbythegra-
duatedrodtothewestoftheirrigationchannel,etc'
'Havingreceivedinfullthepurchase-money andthe
revenueoftheland . . .andhavingexemptedthe
flower-garden and(thelandassigned") forthemain-
tenanceofthegardenfromtaxesforaslongasthe
moonandthesunexist,we,theassembly,engraved
thisonstone.'
'Havingbeenpresentintheassembly
andhavingheardthisorder,I,thearbitrator,Ayir-
attunurruvan aliasBrahmagunakhara Vidhyasthana
MangaladityaSamanjasapriyan, thesonofNalayiravan
wrotethis.'
No.4.KannanAruranoftheCholacountryand
aservantofEajaraja,whogotawellsunkanda
cisternconstructedbytheroadsideinthenameofhis
royalmaster,madeassignments ofpaddyfortheup-
keepofthischarity. Inordertosupplythispaddy,
we,theassembly, ofthisvillagehavingreceivedfrom
himtherevenueandthepurchase-monej% andhaving
exemptedthelandfromtaxes,etc. . . .
No.5.Wehavereceived,1,000kadiofpaddyfrom
Sadayan.We,theassembly,shallclose(thesluiceof)
thetank(tocollectwaterforirrigation)andshall
cause600kadiofpaddytobesuppliedeveryyear
asinterestonthose1,000kadiofpaddy.Thegreat
menelectedfortheyear(thePerumakkal) shallcause
thepaddytobesupplied.
No. 6.We,thegreatassembly ofSivachulamani-
chaturvedimangalam, includingthegreatmenelected
for (themanagement of)charitiesduring thisyear
...inourvillageandthecommissioners (incharge
ofthetemple)ofSattaninourvillage.'Theymake
agranttothetempleofMahasasta.
'Thecommis-
sionersofthetemple ofSattan shallprotect this

185. UKKALEECOBDS 161
charity.'
'Thegreatmenelectedforthesupervision
ofthetanksshallbeentitledtolevyafineofone
Kalanjuofgoldinfavourofthetank-fund,fromthosse
betel-leaf sellersinthisvillage,whosell(betel-leaf)
elsewherebutatthetempleofPidari.'
No.7.Theinhabitantsofourvillage . . .thelands,
everything elsethatisnottheobject ofdeedsof
gift,intheenvirons ofthevillage, thecommon
property(madhyama) oftheassembly.Weshallsell
thislandv^hichhasthusbecomecommonproperty
(oftheassembly) tothoseinhabitantswhopromise
topaytaxesoneachkuli.Nopersonshallbeallowed
toproducedeedsofgiftordeedsofsale(avanam)in
ordertoshowthatthelandthussoldbelongs to
himself.We,theassembly,shalllevyafine.
'
Those
inhabitantswhodonotsubmit to this, shallbe
liabletopayintoCourt(Dharmasana) afineof108
kanam . . .perday. Ifthroughindifferencethough
. . .wasthusgiventothosewhopaythefine,and
theythemselveshavefinedthem,theyarenotable
toremovetheobstaclestothepossession, thegreat
menelectedfortheyearshallbeliabletopayan
additionalfineoftwenty-fourkanam.'
No.8.Theassemblyreceived400kadiofpaddyfrom
SadayantofeedtwoBrahmansfromitsinterest of
100kadi.
No.9.ThelordSriRajarajadeva, beinggraciously
seatedinthecollege (kallOri),onthesouthorthe
paintedhall(chiirakiJta atthegreathippodromegate
inTanjorewaspleasedtoorderasfollows:
—
'(Theland of)thoselandholders invillages of
Brahmans, invillages ofVaikanasas (asection of
Vaishnavas), invillagesofPnimanas(Jains),in^onadu,
inToiidanadn,andinPandinadu aliasRajarajavala-
nadu,whohavenotpaidonthelandowned l)ythem,
thetaxesduefromvillages,alongwiththeotiur
inhabitants ofthosevillages,forthreeyearsofwhich
11

186. 162 ANCIENTINDIA
twoarecompletedbetweenthesixteenthandthe
twenty-third yearofmyreign,shallbecomethe
propertyofthevillagesandshallbeliabletobesold
bytheinhabitants ofthosevillagestotheexclusion
ofthe(defaulting) landholders. Also(theland of)
thosewhohavenotpaidthetaxesduefromvillages
forthreeyears (ofwhich),twoarecompleted,from
thetwenty-fourth yearofmyreignshallbeliableto
besoldbytheinhabitants ofthosevillagestothe
exclusion ofthe(defaulting) landholders.'
'Accord-
ingly,havingbeenwrittenbytheroyalsecretary,
Bajakesarinalliir Kilavan,andhavingbeenapprovedof
bythechiefsecretaryMummudicholaBrahmamarayan^
andMummudichola Pfisan(Bhoja), thisorderwas
engrossedfromdictationonthe143rddayofthe
twenty-fourth(yearofmyreign).'
No.10."Wehavesoldandexecutedadeedofsale
for (i)3,000kulimeasuredbytherodofsixteen
spansbeginning (tomeasurefromthewestofthe
landwhichwasthecommonpropertyoftheassembly
.(ii)fiveleverstotheeastofthisland,etc.Having
receivedinfullthepurchase-moneyandtherevenueof
theland,we,thegreatassembly,solditfreeoftaxes
andexecutedadeedofsale.Havingbeenpresent
intheassemblyandhavingheardtheorder, I,the
accountant andarbitrator ofthisvillage,Porl-ikuli
KalidevanaliasIrancjayirattunurruvan wrotethis.
'
No.11.We,thegreatassembly,includingthemen
elected fortheyear,andthegreatmenelectedfor
thesupervision ofthetanks,assignedattherequest
ofChakrapani Nambi....
'
Halfameasure of
landinthefreshclearing(Puduttirutta-m onthewest
ofthevillageofSodiambakkam.'
No.12.We,theassemblyofSivachulamanichatur-
vedimangalam, (ordered asfollows)
:—
'Tothegod
ofPuvanimanikkavishnugriham inourvillage shall
belongasadivinegift(devabhdga),.thevillagecalled

187. POWEESOFTHRASSEMBLY 163
Sodiambakkam, etc.Weshallnotbeentitled to
levyanykindoftaxfromthisvillage. "We,(thegreat
men)electedfortheyear,we,(thegreatmen)elected
forthesupervision ofthetanks,andwe,(thegreat
men)electedforthesupervision ofthegardens,shall
notbeentitledtoclaimattheorderoftheassembly,
forcedlabour(vetti),vedili,valakkanam,fromthein-
habitantsofthisvillage. Ifacrimeorsinbecomes
public,thegod(templeauthorities)aloneshallpunish
thisvillage.'
No.13.AcultivatornamedSenaigrantedonepatti
(Sans,nivartana40,000Sij.hastasorhands)fromthe
proceedsofwhichwaterandtire-panshadtobesup-
pliedtoamantapa frequentedbyBrahmans. The
greatmenwhomanagetheatt'airsofthisvillagein
eachyearshallsupervisethischarity.
Thisseriesofextracts,frominscriptionsrangingin
timethrough threecenturies, sayfrom A.d.800to
1100,showsclearlyhowruraltractsweregoverned
duringthosecenturies.Thevillageassemblywerethe
solegovernmentofthevillage(orvillage-unions) inall
itsdepartments. Theyweretheabsoluteproprietorsof
thevillagelands.Whenfreshclearingsweremadethe
assemblybecameproprietorofthenewlyacquiredlands.
Whenlandswerethrownoutofcultivation,theSabha
tookoverthelandstogivethemtoothers,whowould
paythestipulatedtaxesperkuli. Itwasthebusiness
oftheassemblytoseethattheactualcultivatorwas
notmolestedinthepossession ofhisholding. Failing
intheirduty,
'
the,yreatmenoftheyear 'laidthem-
selvesopentobefinedbythegeneralassembly.The
assemblyreceiveddepositsofmoneyandgrantsofland
forcharitable purposes,andadmmistered thetrusts
bvaboardofcommissioners, speciallyappointed for
thepurposefromyeartoyear.Theyoftensold
commonvillagelandsforthesepurposes,andreceived
inreturnthepurchase-money andanadditionalsum,

188. 164 ANCIENTINDIA
fromtheinterestofwhichtheassemblyhadtopay
thestateduesuponthealienated lands,madetax-
freebythemselves. Theyreceivedallthetaxes,and
madeindependentgrantsofvillagestax-freeforpur-
posesofcharity,andcouldwaiveallcustomaryclaims
onlandholders. Theycouldtakeoverthelands
ofvillagersfordefaultofpaymentoftaxes,thecol-
lectionofwhich,however,appearstohavebeenmade
withgreatelasticity. Thisisnotall ;theycouldeven
transferjurisdictionovervillagestoothercorporations,
suchastemple-authorities. Wheretheydidnotfeel
themselvescompetent tointerfere theysought in-
structionfromhead-quarters, asinNo.9quotedabove,
wherethelandsconcernedwerethosemadeoverto
'Otherproprietors. Thisrecordisacopyofacircular
or-derissuedbyEajarajatheGreat. Itwasdrafted
ibytheroyalsecretaryontheverbalinstructions of
theemperorhimself,andapproved ofbythechief
secretary(Olainayakam), Srikishnarama aliasMum-
mudicholaBrahmamarayan,andPerundaramIrayiravan
Pallavaiyan aliasMummudicohla POsau(Bhoja),and
thendespatched tothemahasabhas. Thesesabhas
hadtreasuries oftheirown,aswouldappearfrom
theinscriptions ofEajarajaatTanjorewhichrefer
toup-countrytreasuries.
Thegreatassemblyofthevillage,orkCirramwas
dividedintoseveralcommittees. Therewerecertainly
three—thegreatmenelectedfortheyear(acommittee
oftheassembly forgeneralmanagement), thegreat
menelectedforthesupervision ofthetanks(another
committeetoadminister thetank-fundandseethem
ingoodcondition),andthoseelectedforthesupervi-
sionofgardens.Therewerebesidesthegreatmen
incharge ofthetemples, charities, etc.Thework
ofthisassemblywassubject tosupervisionbythe
imperial divisionalofhcers (adhikarins), oftenassoci-
atedwiththedivisionalcommanders oftheforces

189. SUPERVISION 165
(senapafcis). Theseofficersnmvedthrough theirdivi-
sions,askedfortheaccounts,examinedthemandmade
allotmentsoutofthero^alrevenues,whichhad,how-
ever,tobeappropriated forthespecialpurposesby
theassembliesthemselves.
No.49.atTiruvallam 'recordsthatacertainMadhu-
rantakanKandaradittan, Kandaradittan, sonofMadhu-
rantaka,
'whilehestoodinthetempleobservedthat
theofferingspresentedtotheAlvar(god)werereduced
totwonaliofrice:theofferings ofvegetables,ghee
andcurdshadceasedandtheperpetuallampshad
beenneglected.'HecalledtheS'aivaBrahmansof
thetempleandtheassembly ofTikkalivallam and
said ;
'
Statetherevenueandexpenditure ofthetemple
inaccordance withtheroyalorderandtheroyal
letter.'Therestoftheinscription isunfortunately
builtin.
SUPEEVISION
No.57.atTiruvallam^recordsthattworoyalofficers,
themagistrate (adhikari)PuranA'dittadevanar alias
EajarajendraMuvendavelan,andtheSenapati,Rajaraja,
Paranriparakshasan aliasViraSolaIlango(probably
aprinceoftheblood)metatGangaikondan Solan
mantapatotheeastofthetempleofTirumayanamu-
dayar(thelordofthecrematorium,anothernameof
god6iva)atKanchipuram inEyilnadusub-division
ofEyilkdttamandcalledfortheaccountsofthevil-
lageswhichwerethedevadanas (divine gifts)ofthe
templeofthelordofTiruvallam (Tiruvallamudayar),
'ThemagistrateEajarajendraMuvendavelan ordered
asfollows
:—(Theincomes)fromthevillageswhich
arethe
'devadanas 'ofthistemple, viz.urkalanju,
kumarakachchanam, thefishingrent,therentofthe
goldsmithsandotherminortaxesandrents,thecloth
1SouthInd.Ins.,vol.iii,pt.i.
2Ibid,vol.iii,pt.i.

190. 166 ANCIENTINDIA
ontheloom,velikkasu, thetaxoncollecting rents
(tandal),thesonshipoftheright-handandtheleft-
handandtheotherinternalrevenue,whichwasbeing
collectedattherateoftwenty-five kasuper1,000
kalam(ofpaddy)hadbeenenteredintheregister,
andmadeovertothistempleexclusivelyfromthe
yearwhichwasoppositeto(i.e.followed after)the
seventhyearofthereignoftheEmperorSriVlra-
rajendradeva. AccordinglyKukkanSr a
'devdana 'of
thisgodinTuynadusub-division ofPerumbanappadi
hastopaythirty-eight andaquarterkasuorat
therateoffourkalam ofpaddybytheStandard-
measure(Eajakesari) perkasu,153kalamsofpaddy
;
andMandiram inthesamenaduhastopaytwenty-six
andaquarterkasuor153kalamsofpaddy ;altogether
sixty-tivekasaor260kalamsofpaddywereallotted
tothistempleforexpensesnotpreviouslyprovidedfor
andshouldhegivenfromthethirdyear(oftheking's
reign).Alargecommitteethenassembledandmade
allotmentsfromthisrevenue forvariousheads of
templeexpenditure. Thisisthekindofsupervision
towhichtheassemblyofasubdivisionwassubject.
Otherwiseinallmattersoffiscaladministration the
villageassemblieswerepracticallysupreme.
InarecordofthetimeofAdityaIIKarikala, itis
statedthatthevillageofSirriyarrarhadbeengranted
asadevadhanaandasabrahmadeya inthetwenty-first
yearofTondamanarrur-Tunjina-Udaiyar totheSabha
ofPuduppakkam inthesamenaduandkOttam,on
conditionthatthedoneemadeoveracertainquantity
oftheproduce ofthevillageandafixedsumof
moneyingoldeveryyeartothetempleofMahadeva
atTirnmalperu. Thenextyeartheboundariesofthe
villagewerefixedandadocumentwasdrawnup.
Butthevillagewasnotenteredintheaccountsas
adevadhanaandbrahmadeya. Themistakewasrecti-
fiedinthefourthyearofParantakathenextruler

191. Justice 107
andthesabhaweremaldng overthestipulated
produceandgoldtothetemple. Inthethirty-sixth
yearofthesameruleranadditionalitemwasmade
payablefromthevillagetothetempleamientered
intheaccounts. Thevillageassemblywevemisap-
jjropriating thisitemandthetempleauthoritiesmade
acomplaint tothekingwhilehewasatConjee-
varam.Thekingsentforthepartiesandsatisfying
himselfafterinquiry,finedtheassemblyandrestored
thegranttothetemple.
Justice :Intheadministration ofjusticethevillage
assemblyexercised equalpower, ifnotevenmore.
"Wehaveafewinscriptions inwhichsuchexerciseof
powerisclearlyonrecord.Thenormalpunishment
forcausingdeathwas,ofcourse, death,asshown
bysomeoftheCholainscriptions inMysore terri-
tory
;
'butthepunishmentdependedusuallyuponthe
meritsofthecase. Inthreeinstancesonrecord,
deathwascausedwithoutintentiononthepartof
theculpritandowingtopureaccident.TheGovernor
andtheassemblywhichheconvenedforthepurpose,
inoneinstance,andthelatteraloneintheothers
satinjudgement andpassedsentencethatasdeath
wascausedunintentionally, theextremepenalty of
thelawshouldnotbemetedouttotheculprit
;
allthesametheaccusedshouldnotgoscot-free.
Hewas,therefore,orderedtoburnaperpetuallamp
inthevillagetempleforwhichhemadeovertothe
villageassembly sixteencows. Thisfineofsixteen
cows,whichwouldhavebeenofthevalueofaquarter
ofayear'smaintenance ofanordinaryfamily,must
havebeenratherheavybatwouldcertainlyhave
actedasapowerfuldeterrentagainstcrimescaused
bynegligence. Inallthreecasesonrecorddeath
wasduetoshooting accidents.^Amerchanthada
1Haggadedevanakote 18,EpigraphicaCarndtaJca,vol.iv.
2Sec.26,Govt.Epigraphist'sReportfor1900.

192. 168 ANCIENTINDIA
concubineonwhomanotherattemptedanoutrage.
Thelatterwasstabbed todeathbythemerchant.
Hecouldnotbeprosecuted formurderandpaida
fineliketheothersagainstwhomthechargewas
neglect.' Itisnotoutofplaceheretoremark
thatthejurysystemwhichisbelievedtobethespecial
birthrightofEnglishmen andspokenofgenerallyas
unknowninIndia,isfoundtohavebeeninfullswing.
Inthefirstinstanceabovegiven,thegovernor, itwas,
thattookcognizance ofthecasefirst ;buthedidnot
findhimselfcompetenttoproceedwithouttheassembly
;
whereas inthelattercasestheassemblyproceeded
withoutevenareference tothegovernor.
Sachwerethepowersofthevillageassemblies in
thosedays.Consideringtheextentofthecountryand
thewantofrapidcommunication, andconsideringthat
theassembliestookgreatinterestinthedischargeof
theirmanifoldfunctions, (asthemanyreferences to
theassemblyhaving
'metwithoutavacancy 'would
show),there isnogainsaying thefactthatthead-
ministrationwasefiScientandwell-suitedtothetimes.
TheAssembly foreachraralunitwasconstitutedas
follows:
—
Theconstitution oftheassembly :Fromcertain
inscriptions ofthetimeoftheCholaKingParan-
taka^weareenabledtoformanideaoftheruralad-
ministration inthosedaysnotonly,butevenof
earliertimes.Theparticularrecordsreferredtoareof
thenatureofinstructions laiddownbyParantakaand
explainbowthesystemthathadcomedownfrom
ancienttimeswasworked.Theobjectoftheseregula-
tionsbeingthatthe
'wickedmenmightperish,while
goodmenmightprosper',wehavetotakeitthatthey
areofthenatureofsupplementary regulations.
1Epigraphist's Reportfor1907,Sec.42,thisalsocontainsseven
otherinstancesofaccidents.
2Epigraphist'sReportfor1899,Sees.68-73.

193. CONSTITUTIONOPTHEASSEJIBLY 169
Everyunit,sometimesasinglevillage,ofteneraunion
hadageneralassemblytolookaftertheaffairsofthe
villageortheunionasthecasemaybe.Underthis
generalbodywhosenumbervaried,perhaps,evenupto
fivehundred,thereweresmallerbodieswhosebusiness
itwastolookafterparticularsectionsoftheadminis-
tration. Thesewerethecommittees fortanks,for
gardens, forjustice,forgeneralsupervision, forthe
wards(kudumbu),forthefields,forsupervisingUdasinas,
etc.Therearetwootherswhicharementionedsome-
times: (1)forgoldsupervision,and(2)panchavara-
variyam.Thelatterprobablyreferstothecommittee
ofgeneralmanagement corresponding tothepancha
pradhanas oraimberungulu. Theformer, ofcourse,
wouldrefertoacurrenc}'committee.
ElectionEule :Eachunionv^-asdividedintohamlets
andwards,theformerappearstohavebeengeographi-
calandthelatterpolitical. Uttaramallurtheparticular
unionunderconsideration, hadtwelvehamletsand
thirtywards. Firstofallthenamesofmeneligiblein
eachwardwerewrittenonticketsandsenttothe
assemblywithacoveringticketstatingthenumber
recommended. Secondly, theseticketsweretobe
thrownintoapotandonechosenbylot.Thefol-
lowingwereeligibleforthepotticket
:
—
1.Onewith|velioftax-payingland.
2.Onewithahousebuiltonhisownsite.
3.Thosewhowerebelowseventy-fiveandabove
thirty-five.
4.Thosethatknew:MantrabrahmaDa andwereable
toteachit.
5.
'Even ifoneownsonlyone-eighth veliofland,
heshallhavehisnamewrittenonapot-ticketandput
intothepotincasehehaslearntoneVedaandone
ofthefourBhashyasandcanexplain it.'
6.Amongthosepossessingtheforegoing qualifica-
tions
:
—

194. 170 ANCIENTINDIA
(1)Onlysuchasareconversant withbusiness
andconductthemselvesaccordingtosacred
rulesshallbechosen
;
(2)Thosewhohaveacquiredtheirwealthby
honestmeans,whosemindsarepureandwho
havenotbeenonanyofthesecommitteesfor
thelastthreeyearsshallalsobechosen.
DISQUALIFICATIONS.
1.Thosewhohavebeenonanyofthesecommit-
teesbuthavenotsubmittedtheiraccountsandtheir
relationsspecifiedbelow.
(1)Thesonsoftheelderandyoungersistersof
mothers.
(2)Thesonsoftheirpaternalauntsandmater-
naluncles.
(3jThebrothersoftheirmothers.
(4)Thebrothersoftheirfathers.
(5)Theirbrothers.
(6)Theirfathers-in-law.
(7)Thebrothersoftheirwives.
(8)Thehusbandsoftheirsisters.
(9)Thesonsoftheirsisters.
(10)Thesons-in-law.
(11)Theirfathers.
(12)Theirsons.
2.Thoseagainstwhomillicitsexualintercourseor
thefirstfourofthefivegreatsinsarerecorded,namely,
killingaBrahman,drinkingintoxicating liquors,theft,
committingadulterywiththewifeofaspiritualteacher,
andassociatingwithanyoneguiltyofthosecrimes.
Allthevarious relations oftheseasspecified in
section1.
3.Thosethatwereexcluded,perhapspersonally
:
—
(1)Thosewhohavebeenoutcastforassociation
(withlowpeople) tilltheyshouldhaveper-
formedtheexpiatoryceremonies.

195. MODEOFELECTION 171
(2)Thosewhoarefoolhardy.
(3)Thosewhohadstolenorplunderedthepro-
pertyofothers.
4.Thosewhowereexcludedforlife:
—
(1)Thosewhohadtakenforbidden dishesand
becomepurebyexpiation.
(i2)Thosewhohadcommitted . . .smsandhave
becomepurebyexpiation.
(3)Thosethathadbecome villagepestsand
similarlypure.
(i)Thoseguiltyofsexualintercourseandpuri-
fiedlikewise.
Allthesewereexcluded intheelection,andthe
otherqualifiedcandidateshadtheirnamesenteredin
thepot-ticketssentwithacoveringticketstatingthe
actualnumberiromeachward.Afullmeetingofthe
villageassembly,includingtheyoungandold,wasthen
calledforthepurpose. Allthetemplepriests,inthe
villageontheday,weretoattendwithoutexception
andbeseatedalongwiththeassembly,inthevillage
hall.Inthemidstofthetemplepriestsoneofthem,
theoldest,stoodupandliftedanemptypottobe
seenbyallthosepresent.Anyyoungboywhoknows
nothingaboutthematterhandsoveroneofthe
packetsreceivedfromthewards.Thecontentsofthe
packetarethrownintotheemptypotandwellshaken.
Fromthispacketoneticketistakenbytheboyand
handedovertothestandingpriest,thearbitrator.The
latterreceives itonthepalmofhishandwithhis
fivefingersopen.Hethenreadsoutthenameonthe
ticket.Thisticketisreadagainbyallthepriestsin
thehall.Thenamethusreadisthenputdownand
accepted. Similarly,onemanwaschosenforeachof
thewards.
'Ofthethirtypersonsthuschosen,thosewhohad
previouslybeenonthegardensupervision(committee),
andthosewhoareadvanced inlearningandthose

196. 172 ANCIENTINDIA
whoareadvancedinageshallbechoseaforthecom-
mitteeofannualsupervision. Oftheresttwelveshall
betakenforthegaideasupervisionandtheremaining
sixshallformthetanksupervision(committee). The
lasttwocommittees shallbechosenafteranoral
expression ofopinion.Thegreatmenwhoaremem-
bersofthesethreecommittees shallholdofficeforfull
threehundredandsixtydaysandthearetire. Ifany
onewhoisonthecommittees isfoundguiltyofany
offence,heshallberemoved (atonce).Forappointing
thecommittees afterthesehaveretired,themembers
ofthecommittee forthe
"
supervision ofjustice"in
thetwelvehamlets (ofUttaramallur) shallconvene
ameetingwiththehelpofthearbitrator.Theselec-
tionshallbebydrawingpot-ticketsaccording tothis
orderwhichlaysdowntherales(thereof).'
'
ForthePancha-vara-variyam andthe(committee)
forthe"supervision ofgold",namesshallbewritten
forthepot-ticketsinthethirtywards,andthirtymen
shallbechosenasabove.Fromthesethirtytickets
twelvemenshallbechosen. Sixoutofthesetwelve
(men)shallformthegoldsupervision(committee)and
theremaining sixconstitutethepancha-vara-variyam.
Whendrawingpot-ticketsfortheappointmentofthese
twocommitteesnextyear,thewardsthathadalready
beenrepresented(duringtheyearinquestion)orthe
committeesshallbeexcludedandtheappointmentsmade
fromtheremainingwardsbyanoralexpressionof
opinion.Those"whohaveriddenonasses"andthose
whohavecommitted forgeryshallnothave(their
names)writtenonthepot-ticketsandputinthepot.'
'
Arbitratorsandthosewhohaveearnedtheirwealth
byhonestmeansshallwritetheaccounts (ofthevil-
lage).Onewhowaswritingtheaccountsshallnotbe
appointed tothatofficeagainuntilhesubmits his
accounts (fortheperiodduringwhichhewasinoffice
tothegreatmenofthebigcommittee(incharge)of

197. ELECTIONANDLOT 173
theaccounts,andisdeclaredtohavebeenhonest.
Theaccountswhichonehasbeenwriting,heshall
submithimselfandotheraccountants shallnotbe
broughttoclosehisaccounts.'
TheseweretherulespromulgatedbyPaiantaka Ito
makeruraladministration moreefficient.Therules
showconsiderable anxiety tokeepthewickedones
amongthevillagersout ;butwhothewickedones
werewearenotinformed. Failuretorenderaccounts
oftheyearappearstohavebeenthechieftrouble. It
ii5notclearwhethertheaccountantswerehonoraryor
paidandhowtheywereelected. Officesseemtohave
beenstrictlyannual,thoughthisstrictnessitselfwould
implythatthetendenciesweretheotherwayatthe
time,perhapsabnormally so.Bothelectionandlot
were,ontheAthenianmodel,madeuseofforappoint-
ingtheofficialsoftheyear.Thisstrictrotationof
officeswouldgiveeveryoneofthevillagersthechance
ofacquaintinghimselfwiththeworkofadministration
oftheaffairsofhisvillage,andmakethegeneral
committeeofsupervisionveryefficientinitscontrolof
thesmallercommittees. Thisandthecommitteefor
thesupervision ofjusticeappeartohavebeenconsti-
tutedinawaytocommand respect,buthowthey
wereconstitutedandinwhatmannertheydifferedfrom
theotherswearenotinformed. Inthisfashionwas
themachinery provided forcarryingonthevarious
functionswhichfelltothelotofaruralunit.
Thattheseruleswereacteduponandenforced se-
verelyisinevidence inNo.583of1904ofdatea.d.
1234-5whichrecordsthedismissal ofavillageac-
countantandthedebarring ofhisrelationsfromhold-
ingtheappointment forcheating.
DivisionsoftheEmpire;Anumberoftheserural
unitsconstituted adistrict (ornadu)andanumber
oftheseagainformedaknttam iSans.kOshtaka,) else-
wherebutavalanada (fertilecountry) intheGhola

198. 174 ANCIENTINDIA
countryproperwhich,asfarascouldbemadeout,,
wasdividedintoeightsuchdivisions,namely (1)Aru-
molidevavalanadu, (2)Kshatriyasikhamani valanadu,
(3)Uyyakondanvalanadu, (4)Eajendrasimha valanadu,
(5)Keralantaka valanadu, (6)Rajasrayavalanadu, (7)
Pandyakulasani valanadu, (8)Nittavinodha valanadu.
Anumberofthesedivisionswenttomakeaprovince
(mandalam)whichhadoriginallybeenanindependent
kingdomgraduallyabsorbedintotherisingEmpireof
theCholas.Bachprovincewasunderaviceroy,who
waseitherascionofthedispossessedroyalfamiliesor
aprinceoftheblood.Atanyratefromthedaysof
Eajadhiraja itbecamethefashiontoconfervice-
royaltiesuponnearkinsraensuchasuncles,brothers,
sons, etc.Thismayhavebeenonaccoimtofthe
generalrevoltofthefrontierprovinces.Wefind,how-
ever,severalPallavasinpositionsofinfluenceandtrust.
Thewholeempire oftheCholas(excepttheVengi
countrywhichoccupied allalongtheposition ofa
dependent allywasdividedintosixprovinces,each
ofwhichhad,atleast,twoalternativenames: (1)its
originalnameasanindependentkingdomand(2)anew
namederivedgenerallyfromthetitlesoftheemperor
whoconquered orfromthoseoftheviceroywhose
ruleovertheprovincewasspeciallydistinguished.
Theseprovinces were : (1)theTondamandalam or
JayamgondachOlamandalam (thePallavacountry,em-
bracingthecoast districtsbetween therivers,the
SouthernPennarandtheNorthPennar, ifnotthe
Krishna. (2)theCholamandalam itself(theDistricts
ofTanjoreandTrichinopoly).
{'r'l)Eajarajamandalam
comprising apartatleastofthePandyaandthe
Keralacountry,(PartsofMaduraandtheTravancore
country). (4)TheKongucountry orAdhirajaraja-
mandalam, earlierSola-Keralamandalam (districts of
SalemandCoimbatore). (5)Gangaikondacholamanda-
1am(Districts ofMysoreandBangalore),—thewestern

199. THEADMINISTRATION 175
partoftheGangacountryofMysore. (6)TheNikhari-
licholamandalam embracing theeasternpartofthe
GangacountryofMysore,theBanakingdom tothe
south-eastandtheVaitumbacountrytothenorth-east
(DistrictofKolarinMysore,apartofNorthArcotand
SalemandtheMaharajavady partoftheCuddapah
district).
CharacteroftheAdministration :Thattheadminis-
trationoftheCholaswashighlysystematized earlyis
amplyprovedbythefragments oftheirrecordsthat
havecomedowntousonstonesandcopper.Butthe
wonderiswhatcouldhavehappenedtotherecordsin
thearchivesoftheGovernment.Muchearlierthan
thedaysofEajaraja' orevenParantaka,theChola
administrationhadbeenreducedtosomesortofsystem
andthetitleoftheChiefSecretary
'Olainayakam
'
showsthattherewereroyalrecordsonpalmyraleaves
(ofwhichtheepigraphical recordsweremerecopies)
keptathead-quarters. Besidesthese,astheinscrip-
tionsatKaruvurandotherplacesshow,therewere
registerskeptoftheroyalordersbyeachoftheMaha-
sabhas.Eegret aswemaythedisappearance of
theserecords,wehave,thankstotheuntiring in-
dustryoftheepigraphicaldepartment,enoughofmate-
rialbeforeustogainanideaofthegeneralcharacter
oftheCholaadministration.
Welearnthatthelandsundercultivation were
carefullysurveyedandholdingsregistered atleasta
centurybeforethefamousDomesdayrecordofWilliam
theConqueror. Theinscriptions ofRrijarajareferring
occasionally to
'
thebook'showthatthesurveywas
correctto
5TT28'Wooo
"^^^^^'-°^'^^'^whichwould
1Themachinery oftheadministrationwasthesameevenbefore.
AninscriptionoftheeighthyearofUttamaOholagivesdetailswhich
wouldmakeitclearthattheadministrativemachinerywasascomplete
beforeRajaraja,asafter.VideEpigraphist'sReportfor1910,sec.18.

200. 176 ANCIENTINDIA
approximatelybeequivalentto
gogoo
ofasquareinch
(avelibeingsixandtwo-third acres).Theunitof
linearmeasurewasthe
'
royalfoot 'SripathaofKulot-
tunga),duringthelaterperiod,fromwhichwasderived
theunitmeasureofarea.Wefindalsograduatedrodsof
sixteenandeighteenspansusedinlandmeasureearlier.
Measuredlandswereenteredeitherinkuliorinveli
intheCholacountryproper ;whilethestandard
measureofotherportionsoftheempirevariedalittle
fromthatofthispart.Theroyaldues,weretaken
eitherinkindoringoldorinboth.Thesewerefixed
perkuliandtheexpressions'calculated' (Kaaikkadan)
and
'settled '(Nichaiyitta) produceoccurinsome
recordswhichprobablymeanttherevenueasentered
againsttheparticularholdingbyprevioussurveycalcu-
lationandthatfoundedonactualyield(duringrevision).^
1HereIbegleavemostrespectfully todifierfromDewanBahadur
Srinivasaragava Aiyangar,whosurmisesthatthesetermsmeantre-
spectivelythegrossoutturnandtheGovernmentshare.Hereferstoan
inscription ofKulottunga,andfindsthatinsomecasestherevenue
exceedstheoutturnandinothersitcomesuptoneartwo-thirds of
theoutturn.Theformerha.explainsawayasduetoerrorsofwriting.
Aglancedownthelistgivenonthenextpageofhisworkshows,asdo
anumberofRajaraja's inscriptions intheTanjoretemple,thatthe
Governmentdemandcameupto100kalamsofpaddyaveli.Kulot-
tungamadeare-survey ofthelandsinA.D.1086lEpigraphist's report
for1900,section25,page10)andtherecordquotedisonlyareadjust-
ment.Kulottungahadthereputationofhavingabolishedthetolls(Sun-
gandavirtachola). Manyofthefiguresquotedinthepassage,ascalcu-
latedproduce,workuptoahundredkalamsaveliandinseveralthere
hadbeenbroughtaboutareduction. Inotherstherewasanenhance-
ment,whichwouldnaturallyfolloware-surveywhichwas,asseems
probable,undertaken tobringaboutanadjustment, assomelands
mightpossiblyhaveb^enover-assessed inconsequence ofthevillage
assembliesreceivingoftenthecostaswellasthecapitalizedvalueof
therevenueoflandsmadetax-freebythemselves.Oneresultofthis
mighthavebeentoenhanceundulytherevenuepayablebythetax-
payinglandsastheassemblieswouldhavehadtopaythesameamount
toGovernment, aswouldapi^earfromthelargenumberofextracts
quotedabove{vid'.ProgressofMadrasPresidency,appendix, sec.I.D.
andB.,
pp.17to20)videantepaitofthisi.Chapter.

201. EMPERORSANDTHEIBWORK 177
Thislattermasthavebeenquitefeasibleasthe
revenueswerecollectedbythevillageassemblieswhich
couldfindouttheactualyieldtoanicety. Ifthe
Governmentdueswerenotpaidthepenaltywas.of
course,thetakingoverofthelandbythevillageas-
semblytobedisposedofotherwise;andtheliability
ofthelandholderceasedthere.Thepersonandthe
personalities ofthemanwerenottouched,astheyare
inourmorecivilizedtimes.Arecordofthetimeof
A'ikraraaCholashowsthatthelandrevenuewasnot
paidowingtofloodsandthevillagersputtheland
uptosalebypublicauctionandsold2,000kuliof
wetlandfortwenty-fivekasuandanotherbitof4,250
kuliofdrylandfortwentykasu.Thesamepower
wasgiven tothesabhasoverlandstransferred to
otherproprietors bythecircularorder ofEajaraja
abovequoted.
Theemperorsandtheirwork :Theemperorswhetlier
theywereintheircapitalsoroutintheirprogress
through theirdominionsdidtransact officebusiness.
Inanumber ofinscriptionswefind itstatedthat
theemperorwasseatedinaparticular part of
thepalaceandissuedorderswhichwerecommitted
towritingbytheEoyalSecretary (corresponding
tothePrivate Secretaries ofour days).^ ^^'hat-
everwastheorderithadtobeapproved ofbythe
ChiefSecretary(Olainayakam) andbyanotherhigh
dignitary(Perundaram) IrayiravanPallavaiyan inthe
daysofUajarajaandhisson.Finally itwastrans-
mitted tothepartyconcerned bythedispatching
clerk(Vidaiyadhikhari) whichagainmeetingwiththe
approvaloftheviceroyorgovernorandtheassem-
bliesconcernedwasregisteredandsentintotherecord
office.Inillustration ofhowthiswasdoneIquote
thefollowingfromaninscription ofVirarajfindra
:
IVikramaCholanVIS.,verse50. IndiiiiiAiUiij^iiKi-y,vol.xxii,p.145.
12

202. 178 ANCIENTINDIA
'Being graciously seatedintheroyalbathinghall
withinthepalace atGangaikonda Solapuram (the
King)grantedwithlibationofwater,thevillageof
PakkurinVengalanadu(adistrict)ofAdhirajaraja
mandalam,(and)waspleasedtoorderthatthisvillage,
excludingthetax-paying landsinthepossession of
theryots,shouldbecometax-freetemplelandfrom
(theyear)whichwasopposite tothethirdyear(of
hisreign)includingrevenue, taxes,smalltolls,eluvai,
ugavai,thethreefinescalledmanrupadu,dandam,
kurram,everywherewheretheiguanaruns,thetor-
toisecrawls,anant-hillrisesandsproutsgrow,the
grassforthecalvesandthelandsenjoyedinfullby
thegreatvillage ;that(thisvillage)shouldpayto
(theGod)Mahadeva ofTiruvanilai (temple)atKaru-
vurinthesamenadu,therevenuehithertopaidby
thisvillage,namely308ikalanjuandoneandone-
twentieths manjadiofgold ;and3,531kalam,1tuni
ofpaddyandthatthisvillageshouldbeentered in
therevenueregister(vari)astax-freetemplelandfrom
thisyearforward.'
'Accordingly theEoyalSecretaryVauavanPallava-
raiyan,thelordofTaUTiruppanangadu andthelord
ofNerivayilinPaniyiirnadu,adistrict ofKshatriya
Sikhamani,valanadu,havingwrittenthatthekinghad
beenpleasedtoorder(thus),andtheChiefSecre-
taryAchchudanRajarajanaliasTondaman,thecitizen
Uttamacholan aliasRajarajaBrahmadhirajan, Araiyan
Rajarajan aliasVirarajendra Jayamurinadalvan, and
Virarajendra Mangalapperaraiyan havingunanimously
approved (ofthisdocument)Virabhadran Tillaividan-
ganaliao.Villavan Rajarajan ordered:"Let itbe
enteredinourregisterinaccordancewithintimation
received."
'Inaccordancewiththisordertherewas
ameeting ofanumberofmembers,butherethe
recordoftheirdeliberations isunfortunately obliterated.
'Ourrevenue ofhcershavingentered (this) inthe

203. RESOl'KCESOFTHEEMPIRE 179
leveniieregisterinaccordancewiththeroyalorder,
letitbeengraveduponcopperandoustone ithat
this villagewasgiven)aslax-freetemplelandto
theGodMahadeva ofTiruvanilai temple forthe
expensesofburnt-ofl'erings, oblationsandworship.'
Eesoiu'ces oftheempire :Thisextract willgive
afarbelterideaoftheadministrativemachiner}'ofthe
Cholasthanpagesofdescription. Ishallnowproceed
toaconsideration oftheresources oftheempireand
howthej-werespent. Quotedunderisa.partofan
inscription ofTribhuvanachakravartin K'norinnjai-
kondan,whichenumerates inthefullest available
detailthenumerous tiscalitemsoftheChola rule.
Whatdetracts,however,fromthefullinterest;ofthe
inscription isthatatthisdistanceoftimewecannot
understand theexactnatureofany;norevtnthe
generalcharacter ofafewofthese.Therecord is
agiftoflandfreeoftaxes}
'Theseseventy-seven,
six-twentieths, andonehundredandsixtieths (veli)of
land,whichmaybemoreorless,wegave;including
thetreesoverground,thewellsunderground,inthe
landandallotherbenefits(praptis)ofwhateverkind,
havingfirstexcludedthefarmerownersandthehere-
ditaryproprietors,andhavingpurchased (it)astax-
freeproperty(Kani)forthe106Bhattasofthisvillage
andforthetwoshares (oftheimage)ofSamanta-
narayanavinnagarEmberuman,fromtherainyseason
ofthethirty-fifth (yearofourreign)asameritorious
gift(dharmadhana) withlibationsofwater,withthe
righttobestowmortgage orsell (it)asatax-free
grantoflandtolastaslongasthemoonandthe
sun.
(Thisgrant)includes allkinds(vargas) oftaxes,
(kadamai)andrights(kudiiiiai),namely,therightto
cultivatekar(akindofpaddy),maruvu (afragrant
1No.22,\o].ii,It.i,SoutliInd.Inscri2^tions.

204. 180 AXCIENTINDIA
plant,origanummajoranum), singleflowers(oruppii)
flowers forthemarket (kadaipii), lime trees,dry
crops,redwater-lilies, areca-palms,betel-vines, saffron,
ginger,plantains, andallother crops (payir) ;all
kindsofrevenue(aya)includingtaxinmoney(kasuk-
kadamai),odukkuppadi, urainali,theshareofthevillage
watchmanwhoisplacedoverthevettis(paths),the
shareofthekarnamwhomeasures(paddy, etc.),the
unripefruitinkartigai(mouth),thetaxonlooms(tari
irai),thetaxonoil-mills (sekkirai),thetaxontrade
(settirai),' tattoli,thetaxongoldsmiths (tattarpattam),
theduesoiianimalsandtanks,thetaxonwater-
courses(olukkunirpattam), tolls(valiilyam),inavari
(appearstobeataxoncaste)
;thetaxonweights
(idaivari),thefineforrottendrugs(alugalsarakku), the
taxonbazaars(angadipattam) andthesalttax(uppE-
yam)
;[whatfollows isdifferentfromeitherofthe
abovegroups ;andthebearingoftheitems isnot
known ;Isetthemdownhereinthehopethatsome
onewhohasthemeansmayexplainthetermscor-
rectly :panjupili (u(g*L2s\S), Sandhivigrahapperu {&ui^
sSldSirsuQu^), ilanjinaiperu {^eofT(iT,&'iesruQu^), vasal-
vinyugam (surrfeoisS^SiLiiTsix.^ padaiyilarmuraimai (ueaL.
iiSe)iTiT(ipsnpmLD\ kurrilakkai [sk_p;Seoi<gns),kadaikkuttilakki
(«aBi_«as_(_t^s)iani), tandalilakkai ^swi—siSsiJieros^^vidaipper
(fflSsB5L_u(?Lj/7-
,madhappadi (wrrs^uuuf.),araikkalvasi {^eair
ssfT&i<oU!j&
,ijsivasi{^^9<suj9>,vilaittundam (aS?so^^OTi_(jb),
nirani(iiriTemsfl),^kaverikkulai (sireSifls^le^i),devakudimai
{Q^eu(g^L<sin^), nattuppadi (isn-LLQuuirfi), anaikkiidam
(^&w,s«i_<_ti)jkudiraippandi ((^^smffuu/F^).] Thusinac-
cordancewiththisorder(olai)itshallbeengravedon
stoneandcopper.'
Thisisalonglistoftaxesandwouldstandcom-
parisonwiththe listofseigniorial duesofEurope
1Hitheronprofits.
2Probablycorresponding' totheNirganti,theofficialwhocontrols
tanksluicesforirrigation.

205. INCIDENCEOPTAXATION 181
beforetheFrenchRevolution ;butwearedealing
withtimesaboutathousandyearsago.Thatthere
weresomanyimposts,andofsuchvariety,pointsto
theconclusion thattheseweresomanydevicesfor
increasingtheincomeoftheGovernment. Thechief
sourceofthisincomewasthelandrevenue
;andifthis
werecapableofdirectincrease,thestaterevenuecould
beeasilyraisedbytakingagreaterproportion ofthe
grossoutturnofproduce,withouthavingrecoursetothe
vexatiousandroundaboutwayofgainingthesame
end. Ifthecustomaryproportioncouldnotbealtered,
theonlyothercoursewouldbetodeviseanumberof
pettyimpostswhich,thoughnotthemosteconomical,
isstillanindirectwayofincreasingtherevenueand,
assuch,lessseenorunderstood.Wemaythentake
whatisactuallystatedinoneoftheinscriptions cf
Rajadhiraja as(rue:thattheportionoftheproduce
demandedandtakenbytheGovernment wasone-
sixthofthegrossoutturn.Heissaidtohavetaken
thesixthandassumed the titleJayamgondachola
asthoughthesixthwerethemostusualproportion.
Theadditional taxes (ayai-)weredivided intotwo
classes :theinternal (antaraya)andexternal (other
oyas).Thelattermusthavebeenofthecharacter of
tollsandoctroigenerally.Theincidenceoftheformer
waschieflyonlandasevenhandicraftsmen werepaid
ofteninlandfortheircustomarywork. This,wefind,
wascommutedintoone-tenth,^ intheinscription of
Virarajendra atTiruvallamquotedabove.Thetotal
demanduponland,therefore,wouldhavecomeupto
four-fifteenths ofthegrossoutturn.Fromanumber
ofinscriptionswefindthatthetotalrevenue,onan
average,fromlandsinthemostfertileportionsofthe
TanjoreandTricbinopoly districtswas100kalamsper
1Twenty-fiveKaiuitis ;butcommuted into100Kalamsatfour
]\alams per1,000Kalair.s. InthedaysofRiijaiSjaaK,'.su=two
Kalam*.

206. 182 ANCIENTINDIA
velibytheAdavallanmeasure(equaltotheEajakesari
orArumolidevan, thestandardmeasureofthedaysof
Eajaraja)keptinpossession ofthetempleauthorities
forsafecustody. TlieAdavallanmeasure ofpaddy is
foundbythelateMr.Srinivasaraghava Aiyangar to
haveweighed192tolaswhileitsmoderncoanterpart
weighs240tolas.Thiswou'dgivetherevenueperveli
ofsixacresandtwo-thirds(2,000ku'i)ateightymodern
kalamsofpaddy (akalam isaboutthreemaunds)
andthegro=soutturnat300kalams,averyhigh
yield,perhapsnotimpossibleasthelandsinquestion
arethosethatpaythehighestrevenuesituateinthe
most fertilepartsoftheTanjoreandTrichinopoly
distiicta. Alllandsliadnottopaythesamerevenue
whichvariedfromfiftytoeightymodernkalamsof
paddy,orfromfourtoninekalanjuofgold.Thevil-
lageassemblies
*musthavecollectedtheroyaldueswith
someelasticityastheorderofEajarajaquotedabove
wouldshow.
Theunspentpartofthisrevenu3waskeptiaup-
countrytreasuriesagainstdemandsfromhead-quar-
ters.Atacertainstagetheserevenuedemandsmight
havebecome soheavy that itmusthavebeen
deemednecessary toabolishsomeatleastofthese
due-.
Oaesuchactofclear-sighted statesuianship, itis,
thatgotKulottungii., thefirst,thepopularsobriquet
ofSuiigandavirtachrila (theGholawhoabolishedthe
tolls),whichishandeddowntousinasuburbof
thatnameinTanjoretown.Incaseoffloodsand
1Thetillageassemb'ies oftenremittedtaxesoncertain pieces
oflaudreceiving itscostandthecapitalizedvalueoftherevenues
due.Howtheyspentthismoneyisnotonrecordsofar;butthat
theveveijuosmighthavebeenspreadovertheotherlaudsisprobable.
Perhapstheyappliedthemoneyforgeneralimprovementsandmaking-
freshclearings. Inthelattercasetheybeganwithanominalrevenue
uponthelandsinquestiongradually raising itthroughatermof
yearstothenormalproportion. SouthInd.Ins.,vol.i.,65.

207. STANDABDSOFMEASURE 183
othercalamitiesremissions oftaxeswouldappearto
havebeenexpected
;butinoneinstanceonrecord
inVikramaChola'sreignremissionswerenotgranted
incaseoffloods,andsomeofthevillagelandshad
tobeputuptopublicsalebythevillagers,afactrefer-
redtoabove.Thiswouldnotseemtobeenoughto
warranttheinferencethat
'
remission^wereunknown
'
inthosedays.
Standardsofmeasure,etc. :Ithasb:-enalreadystated
thattheroyaldueswerepaideitherinkindor
ingold,orpartlyintheoneandpartlyintheother.
Some oftheminortaxeswerepaidinlidsti.The
unitoflandwasaveilof2,000kulis(sixandtwo-
thirdsacres)
;ofgi-ainakalam(aboutthreemaunds)
;
ofgoldakalanju(abjutone-sixthounceTroy).The
unitofcurrencywasthegoldAyTsh(seven-twentieths
ofakalanjuorabouttwenty-eight grs.Troy). Thi.s
coinappears tohavepassedforitsmetallicvalue,
becausethegreatEajarajagotallgiftstothetemple
carefullyweighedandappraised. Allgoldornaments
amongtheseareenteredwitht'leirweightsalonebut
novalueisgiven,whilejewelssetwithbrilliants, etc.,
areenteredwiththeirweights(bythestandardAdvallan,
kasukkallu)andtheirvalueinkasu.Wecansafely
interthatthekasupassedforitsweight ingold,
although itsvalueingrainandcattlemightvary.
EachkasLiwasequivalent totwokalamsofpaddyin
thedaysofIvajarajaandhisson,though itexchnuged
forsomuchasfourkalamsaboutfiftyyearsafter
;
Onebuffalo,twocows,and si.\sheepexchanged for
twokasuintheformerperiod.Thet(_italamountof
revenuerealizedbythetempleauthoritieswasprobably
turnedintocash,although itispossiblethatthey
keptaportioningrainalone.Muchofthecashin
thetreasury,however,waslentouttovillageassem-
bliesoreventoindividuals ontheguaranice of
theassemblies. Occa-^innallywhenthevlentoutto

208. 184 ANCIENTINDIA
to'wnbfolk,theloanwasgivenonthejointresponsi-
bilitj'oftherelativesofthepersonoreventhewhole
tradeconcerned.Aninterestoftwelveandahalfper
centwasuniformlychargedwhetheringrainorinkasu.
Severaloftheseloansweregivenforprovidingthe
templewiththedailyandperiodicalrequirements;
butoftenloansweremadeforpurelyagricultural
purposes. Intheformercasethedebtorshadtopay
interestinghee,oil,camphor,oranyothercommodity
agreeduponbeforehand,whileinthelattertheinter-
estwaspaideitherincashorinkind.
Expenditure :Themainheadsofexpenditure of
theroyalrevenuesweretheciviladministration, the
maintenance ofarmies,thebuildingandbeautifyingof
templesandcities,andthecarryingoutofuseful
publicworksonascalebeyondthecapabilities of
localrevenuesandadministrations. Thecostofcivil
administration wasmetfromtheruralrevenues,the
higher officersaswellastheloweronesbeing re-
wardedbygiftsoflandorbyassignments ofrevenue.
Deducting thiscostfromthetotalrevenue,there-
siduereachedtheroyaltreasury, tobespentonthe
otheritems.
TheCholasappear tohaveliadaregulararmy,
dividedintosectionsaccordingtotliekindofarms
theycarried,andaccording astheyweremounted
orotherwise.Wefindreference tothe'chosenbody
ofarchers
',the
'chosenfoot-soldiersofthebody-guard
',
the'chosen',horsemenandthe'chosen'infantryof
the
'
righthand
'.'Ihavenotcome acrossany
reference totheinfantry ofthe
'
lefthanA
'.'Some
oftheprinces arereferred toas
'anaichevagan
'
(perhapscommander ofanelephantcrops) ;
'
Malai-
yanaiOrraichchevagan '(theunequalledelephantman).
1Infantrylecvuitedfromtheartisanclass.
2Theagricultural class isexcludedfrommilitary sers'iceinthe
codesoflaw.

209. PUBLICWORKS 185
Thattheymaintainedanefficientlieet isborne'out
byreferencestothedestructionoftlieCherafleetat
Kandaliir,placedonthewestcoastbyDr.Hultzsch
;
thecaptureofKadarambyEajendraafterasea-fight,
andseveralinvasionsofCeylonandBurmah. Besides
thisepigraphical evidence, ancientTamilliterature
isfullofdetailsanddescriptions ofthesailingcraft
ofthosedays.Theyalsoshowabundantevidenceof
nauticalexperiencebythefiguresandtropesmadeuse
ofintheworks.Togiveonlyoneexampleinillus-
tration;theauthoroftheEpicoftheAnldetrefers
to-beaconlightsbeingplacedonthetopsofpalmyra
trunksinlampsmadeoffreshclayatPuharorKave-
ryppiimbattinam ondarknightswhentheseawas
rough.Noclearreference isavailableastothead-
ministration ofthearmy.
PublicWorks :theCholasweregreat builders
:
buildersnotonlyofcitiesandtemples(sometimes
forstrategicpurposes,sometimes inobedience tothe^-
dictatesoftheirvanity),butalsoofusefulirrigation
woi'ks. Thesemaybedividedintomajorworksand
minorworks.Theselatterwereprobablyconstructed,.
andcertainlylookedafter,bythePublicWorkscom-
mitteeofthesabhas.Theformerweremadeand
perhapsmaintainedbythe(Tovernmeiit. Passing <ver
theancientCholaKarikala/andhismoremodern
namesake, reputedbytradition tohavebuiltthe
embankments ontheKavery,andtohavecutthe-
mainchannels forirrigation respectively, wefind
worksofthekindundertakenbylaterrulers.The
I'](Iidrncanclaimtohaveinti'oduced, ifnotoriginatetl, astyle-
ofconsti'uetion,whichhasbeenwidelyadoptedwithinandwithout
theempire,andtohavecitablished aplanofdealingwithdeltaic
landswhichhasnotbeenimprovedupon.Xprrtionofthecreditfor
theseachievementsbelongstothennti\eengineeisofthedayspreced-
ingtheBritishadvent.Theyhadconceivedtheideaofcontrolling
ariverattheheadofitsdelta,andofthussecuringtheregular
wateringoftheirlanAa.'—IrrigaleclIndiabi/Bon.AlfredDealiin.

210. 186 ANCIENTINDIA
names
^
ofmostofthemainchannels ofirrigation
atpresentwatering theKaveryDeltaoccurinthe
inscriptions ofthisdynast}'ofrulers.Thefollowing
twoinstancesshouldsufficetogiveusanideaofthe
importance attachedtoartificial irrigationworksin
thosedays.DrivingacrossthetownofTanjorealong
theroadtoTrivadi,thefirstriverwepassoveris
nowknow^nasVadavaru(northernriver).Thisriver
iscalledintheinscriptions Virachola Vadavaru.
{There isanotherViracholan riverbranchingfrom
theKaveryafewmilesbelowthebridgeatKumbha-
konam.) ThiswasevidentlycutoutfromtheVerinar
fcyVirach'jla tofeedabigirrigationtankinthe
nowpostaltowa ofVaduvar intheMannargudi
taluq,whichhasnootherfeederchannelandwhich
watersalargearea,elseunfitforcultivation. The
otherinstance isthelarge artificial reservoir at
Gangaikondasjlapuram intheWodiarpaliam taluqof
theTrichinopoly district. Itakethefollowingfrom
PharaohsGazetteerofSouthIndia"-:'Itmayalsobe
mentioned thatinWodiarpalliam taluqthere isan
embankment sixteenmileslongrunningnorthand
southprovidedwithseveralsubstantial sluicesand
ofgreatstrength,whichinformertimesmusthave
formedoneofthelargestreservoirsinIndia. . .The
tankhasbeenruinedanduselessformanyyearsandits
bedisnowalmostwhollyovergrownwithhighand
thickjungle. Itissaidtraditionally thatitsruinwas
wilfulandtheactofaninvadingarmy.Nearthe
northernextremityofthebundthereisavillagenow
1ThePeruvalavoyChannel,inthedistrictofTrichinopoly, The
Arasalar,TheNattar,TheKaduvayaruandthePandavaynrushould
suffice.Ofthelasttwo,thefirstisabranch oftheVettarand
thenextfromtheVennar (videanyirrigationmapoftheKavery
Delta).
^
pp.338-9ofMr.Kanakasabbai Pillai's
'TheconquestofBengal
andBurmabytheTamils
',MadrasReviewforAugust1902,pp.247,
etser[.

211. IlUaaATIONTANK 187
surrounded byajungle, calledGaugaikondapuram
;
immediatelj' initsvicinity isapagoda ofavery
largesize,andcostlyworkmanship ;andcloseby
surrounded andovergrown withjunglearesome
remains ofancient buildingsnow resembling; the
mounds or
"heaps
"
whichindicated thesite of
ancientBabylon,butinwhichthevillage elders
pointoutthevariouspartsofanextensiveandmag-
nificentpalace.Whenthispalacewasinfxistence
Gangaikoudaparam wasthewealthyandfluurishing
capitalofdsmallmonarchy,'andthegreattankspread
fertilityandindustryovermilesandmilesofwhatisnow
tracklessforest. . . .Speakingofthenobletempleof
Gaugaikondapuram itmustnotbeomittedthatwhen
thelowerColeroonAnientwasbuilt, tliestructure
\vasdismantledofalargepartofthesplendidgranite
sculptureswhichadorned it,andtheenclosing ^vall
wasalmost wholly destroyed inordertoobtain
materialforthework.'Thismagnificent relicoflost
greatnessandaforgotienempirewasthew'orkofthe
greatsonofastillgreaterfatherwhobuiltthe
temple at,andfortifiedthecity of,Tanjore.The
templeatGaugaikondapuram measures 87'2feetby5s4
feet.Thelingammadeofasingleblockofpolished
granite isthirtyfeetnowunfortunately splitintwain
byastrokeoflightning.Themaintowerofthe
Tanjoretemple isabout-200feethighandthesingle
blockofgranitewhichformstheminaret istwenty-
fiveandahalffeetsquare,'calculated toweighabout
eightytons. Itwasraisedtoitspresentposition
byanincline,whichrestedonthegroundfourmiles
awayfromthetemple. Thesestructuresarebelieved
t)betheoutcome ofabsolutepowercommanding
-Yes!Smallindeedasitdidembracewhat isnowtheMadras
Presideacyandaparto£Mysore. (Foi.-theextentoftheL'hoLiempire
^eeantep.105.)
2Sewell'sListof
A^itiqiiilies, vol.i.p.
I'l'i
.

212. 188 ANCIENTINDIA
unlimitedlabour.' Thereisatraditioncurrent,how-
ever,ofKarikalachola (itmaybeeitherthefirstorthe
secondofthename, itdoesnotmatterforourpurpose)
thathepaidthelabourersontheKaveryembankment
indepreciatedcoin(coinsofleatheritissaid),incon-
sequenceofwhichtherewasadust-stormwhichover-
whelmedthecapitalandmadehimfleeforhislife.
Thisstoryhasitsvaluealongside oftheinference
that,asthesetempleswereyearsinbuildingandof
verygreat cost,theymusthavebeentheresultof
forcedunpaidlabour.Thelabourmighthavebeen
forcedornot,providedithadbeenpaid.Thebuilders
ofthesestracturesruledoverwhatisnowtheMadras
PresidencyandhalfofMysore. Theiradministration
wasnotveryexpensive,andasgreatconquerorsthey
musthavebroughtfrom theirwarsmuchofthe
accumulated treasureofotherpowerfulandprosperous
kingdoms.^
Whetherthelabourwaspaidforornot(thereare
instancesofslaveryinthethirteenth centurywhen
fivemenandwomenweresoldfor100Kasu'),we
owetotheseCholasnotonlythegrandstructures,
thetemples,andpalaces(indirectly useful,atleast,
asprovidingmaterialforanicuts),butalsothegreat
partofthenetwork ofirrigationchannels inthe
TanjoredistrictandapartofTrichinopoly.
Wehaveampleevidenceofthecountry'shavingbe?n
traversedbygrandtrunkroals.Thatarmiescould
marchtoKottarunearCapeComorinattheoneeni^,
andthebanksoftheMahanadi, ifnottheGanges,
attheotherofthepeninsula,andthattradewas
carriedonlargelybymeansof
'
vessels
'
and
'vehicles'
'
1ProgressofMadrasPresidency,pp.14and15.
2Rajaraja'sinscriptions ofgiftstotheTanjoretemplereferto
thecapturedGheraTreasure.
3EpigrnvydWslieiJortior 1905,sec.'20;dateofrecord,a.D.1239-40.
iSilappadhikaram andPaiiinappalai.

213. STAN1>.\KDOFLIFE lt>',»
areenoughtoprovetheirexistence. Ifmorepioul
beneededwehaveitinthetactthatKulottunga
plantedagriculturalcolonies
'alongtheroadtoKottaru";
andinthereferences insomeoftheinscriptions to
r.iadsofsixty-four spans,etc.Thereisbesidesmen-
tionofYadugavaliroadgoiugtotheTelugucouatry,
TadigavaliroadleadingthroughTadigainadu,andwhat
i-smorekllavalieasternroadininscriptions. There
appearstohavebeenaregularserviceofferriesacross
riversmaintainedeitheratpublicexpenseor l.)\-private
charity.
Standard ofLife :Wecanformanideaofthe
-tandardoflifeinthosedaysfromthefollowingfew
factsgleanedfromanumber ofinscriptions. Eaja-
rajamadeallotmentsfromthetemplerevenue for
theseveralofficialsintempleserviceandtheirannual
salarieswerefixedasfollows.Theofficerinchariie
ofthetempletreasury ismentioned,butthefigure
oppositehisnameisobliterated.Anaccountant got
•2iJ0kalamsofpaddybytheAdavallanmeasureevery
vear :andanunderaccountant seveirty-fivc kalams.
BachelorBrahmanservants ofthetemplegoteach
sixry-ouekalamsandfourkasn,sixty-onekalamsand
tiveka<u.andniuety-nnekalamsandfi'Urkasuaccord-
ingtotheirWL>rk.Theselatterofficialsdrewtheirpa>'
illthecity-treasuryandtheotherofficialsabovemen-
tionedatup-c^iuatrytreasuries.Eachtemplewatchman
waspaidI'HJkalamsayear,andeachtemplewormn
100kalams.Anallowanceof1"2Ukalamswasmade
fortheannualenactmgoftheItajakesarinatakam. The
offeringstoaparticularimage,regulatedprobably b}-
therequirements ofatemplepriest,areputdownat
130kalamsayear. Theseallowanceswereprobably
fixedwithreferencetotherequirements ofthefamily
oftheclassfromwhichtheofficialcame. Ifthiswere
reallythecase,wemaytakethe200kalams ofthe
Brahmanaccountant asrepresenting therequirements

214. 190 ANCIENTINDIA
ofanaverageBrahmanfamily(atemplepriesthas
severalperquisites overandabovehissalary) ;and
the100kalamsofthewatchman,thoseoftheSudra
family. If,withAdamSmith,wecanbelieveover
alongperiodoftimethevalueofcorndoesnotvary
howevermuchitspricemay,andassumethatthese
representthevalueofanequalquantityofgrainto-
day,theaverageincomeofafamilypermonthwould
havebeensixteenrupeesandtwo-thirds,andeightrupees
andone-thirdforaBrahmanandaSudra,respectively,
on'thesupposition oftheaveragepriceofpaddyat
onerupeefourannaspermodernkalam.Wecannot
formanydefiniteconclusionontheslenderevidence
wehave ;but ifthisrepresents atallthestandardof
lifeofthosedayswehaveallthatispossibleforusto
knowatpresent.
Religion :TheCholaswereSaivasbyreligion
;
butthereisnoevidence oftheVaishnavasorofthe
Jains'^havingbeenpersecuted assuch,beforethe
daysofKulottunga,whoappearstohavedrivenout
Kamanuja fromSrirangam. Kajarajaandhisson
patronized th-^Saiviticdevotionalworksbyproviding
fortheirrecitalintemplesonstatedoccasions.We
findreferences togiftstoVaishnavatemples,andto
provisionmadefortherecital ofportions ofthe
Nalaijiraprahhandam. Thegreattemplebuilder,KOch-
chengan,appears tohavebeenabuilder ofboth
classesoftemples.^ Appar,Sundarar,andSambandar
1Mr.Srinivasaraghava Aiyangar'sfiguresperheadareRs.2-12-0
andRs.1-12-0permonth.TheGovernmentofIndia'sRs.20ayear
perhead.
2TheJainshadtopayata.'cbuttheotherHindusalsohadto
pay,suchastheright-handandleft-handcastes.Thereisan
'
inavari'
which, ititmeansanything,oughttohavebeenataxoncaste.
3Mv.FergussonwritesoftheTanjoretemple :Oneofthepecu-
liaritiesoftheTanjoretempleisthatallthesculpturesiuthegopu-
rasbelongtothereligionofVishnu,whileeverythinginthecourtyard
belongstothatofSiva,aninstance oftheextremetolerancethat

215. RELIGIONANDLITERATURE lijl
arereferredioinsomeoftheinscriptionsofRajaraja,
andsomewhatlaterwefindreferencetotlieworksof
KulasekharaandTirumangaialvar, twoofthetwelve
"S'aishnava Alvars.ThegodatthetempleofUkkal
isreferred tobythenameTiruvnymolideva. Dr.
Hultzsch isofopinionthatISTammalvar, theauthorof
theTin(voij)noU,musthavelived
"
centuries before
A.u.1000'.Thereisaninscription ofRajendra, of
thebattleofKoppauifame,whichmakesprovision
fortheenactingoftheRajakesarinatakam everyyear.
PopulartraditionmakesKulottungaandsomeatleast
ofhissuccessors greatpatrons ofliterature. This
dynastyoftheCholasencouragedTamilliterature,but
forthedateofcomposition ofthegreatbodyofextant
workswehavetolookmuchearlier.
prevailedintheagoatwhich itwaserectedbeforethesereligion."
becameantagonistic.

216. CHAPTEEVII
SBlBAMANUJACHARYA, HISLIFEAND
TIMES
'Tothereligioushistory ofIndia,thecontributions
thatthesoathernhalfhashadtomakehavebeen
many. Thesouthgenerallyenjoyedmorepeaceful
development,andwaslongoutoftheconvulsionsthat
threwthenortlaintoconfusion,andalltheinternal
revolutionsandexternalattackssentoutthepulseof
theimpactalmostspentouttothesouth.Thishas
beenofgreatadvantage, and itispreciselyinthe
-darkagesofthenorththatoftenintercepted the
brighterepochs,thatthesouthsentoutitslightto
relievethedarkness.
Thisgeneralcharacter ofthehistoryofthenorth
ofIndiafromthefirstcenturiesoftheChristian era
onwardsmakes acontinuous historyimpossibleon
•certain lines ;whileinthesouth,duringthisperiod,
therehasbeenacontinuity ofdevelopment amidst
allthedinandclangofwaranddynasticrevolutions.
OurconcernhereisabouttheVaishnavamovement,
andthishashadacontinuous historyalmostfrom
thebeginningoftheChristianera.
Therehasbeenconsiderable mis-impression that
theVaishnavamovementoriginatedinEamanuja,and
thatallthosewhoclaimtobeVaishnavas(notinclud-
ingthedisciplesofMadhvawhoareVaishnava in
anarrowersense),bothinthenorthandthesouth,can
tracetheirparticularformofVedantanoearlierthan

217. MISIMPEF.SSIONSREGAKDINHBAMANU.IA 193
Eamani^ja.Onthebasisofthismisimpression, theories
havebeenbuiltup,timeandagain,thatthecharac-
teristicfeaturesofthespecialteachingsofRamanuja
havebeenborrowedfromChristianity. Thelatestex-
ponentofthistheoryisDr.Grieson,thoughhewould
makeaconsiderabledistinctionbetweentheVaishnavas
ofmoderntimesandthoseoftheolder,and,perhaps-,
setthoseofthenorthagainstthesouth.Thisnodoubtis
anerror,whicharisesfromnotgivingdueweighttothe
indebtedness ofEamanuja tothoseTamilsaints,who
hadgonebeforehimlongerehecameintotheworld.
Thehypothesiswouldbeuntenable,unlessitcouldbe
provedthatalltheseTamilsaintscouldbeshownalso
tohavevisitedtheChristianshrineatMylapore or
elsewhere. Besides,evenfromthepointofviewof
SanskriticVaishnavaism, itcannotbesaidtohavebeen
proventhatthepeculiarfeaturesofRamanujaVaishiia-
vaismarenottraceabletoearlierworksandteachers.
HencealifeofRamanujabasedonhistoricalmaterial
alone,andfreefromthelegendsthathavegathered
roundit,astimeworeon,wouldbeofgreatadvantage
toclearawaythewrongimpressionsthatprevailregard-
inghislifeandteaching.
ThatRamanujashouldhaveappearedintheeleventh
century isquiteasmuchofthemission'sgettingthe
man,astheadventoftheBuddhainthesixthcentury
beforeChrist. ThiscenturyinthesouthofIndia
wascharacterized byconsiderable religiousferment.
Itwasthenthateachreligious sectamongthe
people felttheneedforformulating acreedofits
own,andforplacing itselfinaregularlyorganized
religiousbody,soastobeabletoholditsownin
themidstofthedisintegrating influences thatgained
dominance insociety.ThatEamanujaappearedand
didwhat isascribedtohimisjustinthefitness
ofthings,havingregardtothecircumstances ofthe
times.
13

218. 194 ANCIENTINDIA
Therehasbeenasuccession ofdevoteescalledin
Vaishnava parlanceAlvarsincontradistinction toa
similarSaivagroupcalledAdiyars.Thesetwoclasses
hadconsiderable similaritywithcharacteristic distinc-
tions.TheybothlaidstressonthedoctrineofBhakti
asameanstotheattainment ofsalvation,theone
throughVishnuandtheotherthrough Siva.The
Vaishnava traditionnamestwelveoftheAlvarswhile
theSaivasaintsnumbersixty-three. TheTamilworks
oftheformerincluding acentumuponRamanuja
himself,constitutethePrabhandam 4,000,whilethose
oftheSaivasconstitute avastercollection ofTeva-
rams,etc.
ThetwelveAlvarsareinthetraditionalorder
.
f
(1)PoygaiAlvar.
I -\ (2)BhutattuAlvar.
I(3)PeyAlvar.
II (4)Tirumalisai Alvar.
j-j-y
((5)Nammalvar.
I
(6)Madharakavi Alvar.
IV (7)Kulasekharalvar.
-rr ((8)Periyalvar.
1(9)Andnl.
r(10)Tondaradippodi Alvar.
VI -j(11)Tiruppanalvar.
1(12)Tirumangai Alvar.
Theactualdatesascribedbythehagiologists to
theseAlvarswillnotbearscrutiny,buttheorderin
whichtheyarementioned issubstantially correct.In
orderofimportance,Xammalvarstandsfirst,anditis
hisworkthathasthedistinctiveappellationTiruvGy-
moli— 'thewordofthemouth
'.Theywereallregard-
edbythegenerations thatsucceededthemasmani-
festations ofdivinewisdomtoredeemtheworldfrom
theperilousplightstowhichithadbroughtitself.
Thenextgroupthatfollowed,asthehagiologists
wouldhaveusbelieve,inunbrokensuccession, isknown

219. TARENTAGEANDEAELYLIFE 195
asAchaiyas (orpreceptors)notsoneartothedivine,
butstillmuchraisedabovetheordinarymanofthe
world.Thisorthodoxsuccession ofapostlesinclude
sixnamesbeforeRamanuja, ofwhichthetwomost
importantareNathamuniandhisgrandsonAlavandar.
Thegreat-grandson ofthislatterthroughoneofhis
grand-daughters wasIvamanuja.
AYhileAlavandarwas stillinoccupation ofthe
apostolicseatoftheYaishnavas atSrirangam,oneof
hisgrandsonsrequestedpermission ofhimtogoand
devotehimselftotheserviceofGodontheTirupati
Hill.Thepermissionwasgraciouslyaccorded,andthe
youngmanwentandsettledtherewithhisvenerable
fatherandtwoyounger sisters.Whilethere,two
youngmenwishingtoenterlifeashouse-holdershap-
penedtogototheholyplaceandsoughteachthe
handofoneofthesisters.OfthesetwoAsuriKesava
BhattarofSriPerumbudiirweddedtheelder,while
Kamalanayana BhattarofMalalaimangalam accepted
theyoungerofthegirls.Ofthefirstpairmcourse
oftimewasbornaboy(ina.d.101'/),whomthe
maternalunclenamedLakshmana (otherwiseRama-
nujaorinTamil,IlayaPerumal).
OfthechildhoodofRamanuja, asofothersinsimi-
larpositions oflife,verylittle isknown. There
appears tohavebeennothingextraordinary inhis
career,exceptthatheappearstohavelosthisfather
whileyoung.Hereceivedthekindofeducationordi-
narilygiventoboysofhisclassandagealong\ilh
hiscousin(mother'ssister'sson),GovindaBhattar,as
hewascalled.Thetwoyoungmenhadadvanced
sufficientlytoseekateacherintheVedantatoinstruct
them.Theywenttoateacherofreputationholding
hisclassesinConjeevaram, andthischangemarks
theturningpointinthecareeroftheyoungmen.
UnderYadavaprakasa, then,thetwocousinsRamanuja
andGovindaBhattarwerebothstudyingtheVedanta

220. 196 ANCIENTINDIA
assiduously. Theformermadesuchprogress,andhis
great-grandfather atSrirangamheardsuchgoodre-
portsofhisremarkable advance,thathetravelled
allthewayincognitotoseetheyoungman.Thishe
didintheDevaEajashrineatConjeevaram. Grati-
fiedwiththelookoftheyoungman,hewentback
hopingthathemightsoontransferthemantleofoffice
totheyouthofgreatpromisethathehadjustseen.He
didnotwishtospeaktoEamanuja lestitshouldat-
tractattentionanddisturbEamanuja's studiesinany
way.Eamanujawentonwithhisstudiesyetawhile,
whenhebegantofeelthatattimesYadavaprakasa's
interpretations ofVedicpassageswerenotquiteupto
hissatisfaction. Oqoneoccasion,heevenwentthe
lengthofofferinganexplanation ofhisown,which
struckthosepresent,asmoresatisfactorythanthatofhis
master. Thisledtogravedifferencesbetweenmaster
anddisciple. Mattersadvancedastepfurtherwhen,
attheinvitationoftheruleroftheplace,Yadavaprakasa
failedinanattempt atexorcising.Theprincewas
possessedandthespiritdeclinedtomoveatYadava's
bidding. Itwould,however, goaway if itwere
Eamanuja's pleasurethatitshould.Eamanujawas
pleasedtogivetheorderandtheghostwasraised.
ThismadeYadavamorejealousofhispupilandthe
crisiswasreachedwheninterpretinganotherUpani-
shad.Yadavaagainrenderedthepassageinasome-
whatabsurdlydisrespectfulmanner.Eamanujashowed
positivedisapproval ofwhatheconsideredapurposeful
distortionofthetexts.Yadavaprakasa askedEama-
nujatoleavehisacademy. Indeedhewasadvisedto
getridofEamanuja altogether.
Attheinstigation ofsomeofhisdisciplesYadava
organizedapilgrimagetoBenares,andEamanujaand
hiscousinwereamongtheparty.Thelatter,having
beenmoredocile,stoodinhighfavourwiththemaster
andwasinthesecrets oftheplottoassassinate

221. FIRSTJOUENEYTOSRIEANGAM 197
Eamanuja. Itwasarrangedtokillhiminthedepths
theforests,perhapsnotveryfarfromKanchi. Infor-
mationofthiswasgiventoRamanujaintime.He
escapedatdead ofnight,andjourneyedbackto
Kanchiundertheguidance ofakindhunterand
huntress. Atdaybreakthelatteraskedforahttle
waterand,whenEamanuja gotdownawelltofetch
hersome,thepairdisappeared. Eamanujahadnot
totravelmuchfartherbeforehecameinsightofthe
spiresofthegreattempleatKanchi.
HavingreachedKanchiandintimatedtohismother
whathadhappenedandhowheescapeddeathby
divineintervention,hesettleddownasahouseholder
attheinstanceofhismother,anddevotedhimselfto
theserviceofthegodDevarajaatKanchi.Alavandar
wasdrawingnearhisendinthemeanwhile, and
thoseabouthimdespatchedtheeldestamonghisdis-
ciplestogoandbringEamanujatoSrlrangam. Periya-
nambi,asthisemissarywascalled,arrivedatKanchi
andstoodrecitingoneofthebeautifulversesinpraise
ofG-od(theStotraratna) composedbyhismaster
Alavandar. Eamanuja's attentionwasdrawntothe
sl5kas(verses)inspiteofhissingle-minded devotion
tohispreparation forthemorningservice.Turning
roundheaskedthestrangerwhothecomposerofthe
piecewas. Periyanambi answered itwashisgreat
masterAlavandar. Thenextquestionwasnecessarily,
whetherhecouldseehim. 'Ifyouwouldgowith
menow
',saidPeriyanambi,
'
Iwilltakeyoutohim
'
Eamanujahurriedthroughhismorning serviceand
startedwithPeriyanambi,havingobtainedpermission
ofDevarajaforthejourney.
Theyjourneyedalong tilltheyreachedthenorthern
sideofSrirangam,whenatadistanceRamanujadescried
agroupofmenonthesouthbankoftheKoleroon
River.ApproachingcloserPeriyanambiandhisyounger
companiondiscoveredthatAlavandarwasnomore,and

222. 198 ANCIENTINDIA
thegroup,consisting ofhisdisciples,cametherewith
theremainsofthedepartedgreatoneforitsfinal
disposal.Eamanujawastakenclosetothebod}'to
takeafirstandfinallookatthegreatmaster,when
lo
!hesawthreeoutofthefivefingersoftheright
handfolded. Struckwiththis,heinquiredwhether
thedefectwasnoticedinlifeandtheanswercamethat
thedefectwasnotphysicalandwasnotnoticedinlife.
OnfurtherinquiryEamanujawastoldthatthemaster
hadthreeofhischerishedobjectsunfulfilled,namely,
aneasilyreadandunderstoodcommentaryuponthe
Brahmasutra
;thegivingofthenamesofParasaraand
ShadagOpa tosuitablepersonswhowouldmakethese
namesliveamongthepeople. Eamanujapromised
toseethesefulfilledandthefingers straightened.
Eamanujawaitedforthefuneralceremonies tobe
completedandreturned toKanchi toresume his
dutiesofdevotiontoGod.
ilavingpasseddaysinhisusualroundofservice,
Eamanuja feltthattimewaspassingwithoutany
attemptonhisparttoperformwhathehadpromised
todo.Notknowingexactlywhattodo,heappealed
totheelderlypriestofthegodDevarajaandwished
himtoascertainthedivinewillregarding hisown
future.Tirukkachchinambi, asthepriestwascalled,
gaveoutthewillofGod,inthematter,inthefollowing
sloka
:
—
'Srimanparam-tatvam aham,matammebhedah
prapattirnirapaya hetuhu,
NavasyakTcha smritihiantyakalemokshaha,maha-
pHrnabaihaaryavaryaha.
'
'
Iamthesupreme,myconviction isdistinction,
devotion istheunfailingcauseofsalvation,conscious
volitionnotessential,releaseintheend
;atpresent
Periyanambi isthevenerablepreceptor.
'
InthesesixphrasesEamanujawasgiventhedirec-
tionforhisfuturework,whethertheactualdirection

223. hamanuja'sinitiation 199
camefromwitliinhimselforfromwithout,orfrom
thoseabouthim.HewastopinhisfaithtoGodand
workoutthequalifiedmonisticsystemofIndianphilo-
sophy,acceptingPeriyanambi forhisinitiaton.Hewas
toteachthedoctrinesofdevotiontoGod,whosesell-im-
poseddutyitistogivesalvationevenwithoutthecon-
sciousvolitionofthepersonwishing it.Eamanuja felt
thecalland,withthepermission ofDevaraja,accorded
throughhispriest,hestartedtowardsSrirangam.
HehaltedatiMadhurantakam topayhishomageof
worshiptothegodEamainthetemplethere,situated
onthetankbund.Whileintheact,hesawPeriya-
nambi,whowasonhiswaytoKanchi. Theyboth
inquiredofeachotherthepurposeofhisjourney,and
foundthateachhadinawaycometotheendofit.
Eamanujafoundtheguru(preceptor)hesought,while
Periyanambi's objectwastotakeEimanujatoSriran-
gam.Infactheliadbeensentonthatspecialmi^son
bythedisciplesoftir^tdegreeofthelatemasterA^a-
vandar. AtEamanuja"simportunate entreatyXambi
initiatedhimintothemysteries ofthehiddenloreof
theVedantaofthosetimes,inpresenceofthegodEama
inthetemple.BothXambiandEamanujareturned
toKanchi
;masteranddiscipletogetherhvedthere
forsometime. Buttheirseparationcamesoonand
gaveaquickerturntothewholecareerofEamanuja,
XambiandEamanuja tookuplodgings together
andthetwofamilies livedamicably together for
sometime.Eamanuja,however,doesnotappearto
havebeenveryhappyinthechoiceofhiswife.Hedid
notfindinherthatreadysympathyandcompliance
tohisownwishesheexpectedofher.Ononeoccasion
hehadinvitedTirukachchinambi tohishouse.The
twosatdown,andconversed togetherforawhile.
WhentheformerwentawayEamanuja'swifequickly
washedtheseatoccupiedbyhim,thetemplepriest
havingbeenofaslightlyinferiorstatusinpointof

224. 200 ANCIENTINDIA
caste.Eamanuja feltaggrievedandoverlooked this
offencewithanadmonition. Againonemorningwhile
hewasstillbytheaccustomedwellpreparingforthe
morningserviceatthetemple,apoormanaskedhim
forfood.Hedirectedhimhomewithinstructionsto
demandfoodofEamanuja'swifewiththehusband'sper-
mission. Shesaidtherewasnoneavailable.Theman
returnedtellingEamanujahowhefared.Eamanuja's
inquiryonreturninghomeprovedthattherewassome
foodwhichmighthavebeengiventotheperson.
Againheexcusedher.Butthethirdoffenceproved
tobethelaststraw,andwasthemostseriousof
allinEamanuja's estimation. Eamanuja's wifeand
Periyanambi's bothofthemwenttothesamewell
tofetchwater. Itwouldappearthatthroughthe
latter'scarelessnesssomewaterfromhervesseldropped
intothatoftheother.Thisnaturally ledtosome
altercation inwhichtherelativeclaims ofthetwo
familieswererathertoofreelydiscussedbyEamanuja's
wife.Theotherladyreportedthemattertoherhus-
band,whoratherthanoffendthegoodmanquietly
brokeuphisestablishmentandreturnedtoSrirangam.
EamanujasoonfoundoutthecauseofNambi's
unceremonious departure,andresolvedthatthetime
hadcomeforseparatingfromhiswife.Hetook
advantage ofaninvitationfromhisfather-in-law to
sendhiswifeaway,andwithoutfurtherdelayassumed
thebrownrobesofasannyasi(hewhohasrenounced
theworld). Thisstepatonceaddedtotherising
reputationofEamanuja,anddisciplesbegantogather
roundhim. Itwasnowthatdisciples firstappear
roundYatiraja (kingofhermits)ashecametobe
called. Itwasprobablynowalsothatthequestion
assumedimportancewhetherasannyasishouldbeof
theEkadandi orTridandi(singlerodortriplerod,as
thesymbolofoffice).TheVaisbnava versionsays
thatYadavaprakasa, hislatemaster,becameaconvert

225. FUIITHEEINITIATION '201
toRamaniijaunderthenameofCTOvindayogiandwrote
theworkYatidharyna Samuchchaijam. (Theinquiry
intotherulesofconductofahermit).
WhileRamanujawasmakingprogressinthisman-
ner,thedisciplesofAlavandaratSrirangamwishedto
gethimtoliveintheirmidst,andtooccupytheseat
oftheirlatemasterwhichhadremainedunoccupied
forlackofasuitablesuccessor. Thistimetheysent
anotherofAlavandar'simmediate disciples, hisown
son,bynameTiruvarangapperumal Araiyar.Eamanuja
followedtheAraiyarandsettleddownatSrirangam.
Itwasnowthathesetaboutseriouslytoacquirethe-
qualifications,whichalonewouldjustifyhisaccession
tothehighpositiontowhichhewaslookeduponby
thepublicasthemostworthycandidate.Hehad,
therefore, togethimselfinitiatedintoeverydepart-
mentoflearningandphilosophy,whichthencon-
stitutedtheVaishnava lore.Periyanambi havingbe-
comehisgtirii(preceptor) inonepart,hehadtoseek-
initiation ofTirukkOttiytirnambi foranother(mantrar-
tham).He-.ventsixtimesinsuccessionandonall
theseoccasionsthemasterwasnotsatisfiedwiththe
earnestness ofthediscipleanddeclinedtoopenhis
mind.Eamanuja indespondency thoughtofgiving
upthebusinesswhenhewasaskedtotryanother
time.Hesucceededininducingthegreatonetoun-
lockhissecrets
;afterthecustomarypromisenotto
publishexcepttoaworthydisciplepreviously tried.
Eamanuja agreedandfoundthesecrets ofsuch
efficacyforsalvation thathetaught allwhowere
abouthimwhathelearnt.Thegurusummonedthe
discipletohispresenceandaskedhimhowitwasthat
hehadsoflagrantlytransgressed theinjimctions of
hismaster.Eamanujabeggedtobeprescribed the
punishment. Thegururepliedthatthepunishment
wouldbe'eternalhell'hereafter,butnothinghere.-
Eamanuja repliedwithcharacteristic beneficence that

226. 202 ANCIENTINDIA
hewouldgladlysufferhellhimself, ifbysodoing
hewasinstrumental inministering totheattainment
•ofsalvation tothesuffering millions ofhumanity.
Themasterappreciated thespiritofthedisciple's
transgression, andsaidthattheparticular darsana
(section ofVedanta)mighthereafter beknownas
Bdmdnujadarsana.
AtthisperiodEamanujahadtointervene inthe
affairsofhiscousinandcompanion atschool,Govinda
Bhattar. Thisyoungmanhadcontinuedhisjourney
.alongwithYadavaprakasa totheGanges. Itwould
appearthatwhilehebathedintheholywatersof
theriver,aphallicemblemstruck tothepalmof
hishand.HencethenameUllangaiGonarndanaya-
nar.Fromthattimeforwardhebecameastauncli
Saivaandresided atKalahasti notfarfromhis
maternaluncleatTirupati. AtEamanuja's request
theunclemetthenephew,andbroughthimbackto
allegiance totheVaisbnavapersuasionunderthenew
sacerdotaldesignation ofEmbar. Eamanuja'sname
hadbeguntoattractattention,andbefeltthathe
should stillacquire otherqualifications beforebe-
comingever}'waytheheadofadarrana.
HebeganhisstudiesinTiruvoymoli firstunder
Tiruvarangapperumal AraiyarandthenunderTiru-
malaiyandan. Whilewiththelatter,hebadoccasion
toshowhisspecialacuteness ofintellectinsuggest-
ingspecialinterpretations ofimportant texts,which
onfurtherdiscussionwerefoundtohavebeeninfull
agreementwiththeviewsofAlavandar. Thisnew
acquisitioncompleted hisroundofqualificationsand
hebecameinfactasuccessor ofAlavandar inevery
senseoftheterm.
Eamanuja'sfamehadspreadsowideandhecame
tobeknownsowellthathislittlecousinatTirupati
(sonofbismaternaluncle)evincedaprecociousdesire
ioattachhimself toEamanuja. Thefathersent

227. RAMANUJASFIRSTDISPUTATION 203
theIjoyiacharge ofanephew ofhisown,and
thetwoarrivedatSrirangani,whereRamanuja's life
hadbeensavedbytheunlooked forintervention of
agoodwoman. Eamanuja, asasannjasihadto
goroundatmid-dayfromhousetohouseforfood.
Oneofthehouse-holdershadinstructed hiswifeto
poisonthefoodandserve ittohim.Thewoman
feltcompelled toobeythehusband,but,ongivingthe
handfultoEamanuja,couldnotbearthefeelingthat
thegoodmanwoulddieofthefood. She,therefore,
prostratedherselfbeforehimwhilegettingbackinto
thehouse. Itisrecognized asaruleofpracticethat
whf-'nasannyasigoesouttoralms(biksha),thatnoone
shouldmaketheusualsalutation. Thisstrangecon-
ductonthepartoftheladystruckRamanujaandhe
suspected foulplay.Onexaruaiation theptiisdnwas
discovered,andeverafter itwasarrangedthatthe
•elderofthetwonewarrivalsshouldundertakethe
foodsupplyofEamanuja. Inspiteofthisattempt
atassassination, allhadsofargonesmoothly ;but
thelifeofEamanujabecomesstormyhereafter. Hio
famehadspreadfarandthefewprominentconver-
sionsattracted attention. Whetherhewished itor
no,hehadtomake liispositiongoodagain--t all
comersandhadtoassumetheroleofacontroversialist.
AtthistimetherearrivedatSrirangamanAdvaita
sannyasi,bynameYegiiamurti, inthecourseofa
controversialtourthroughIndia.Thentherebeganbe-
tweenthetwoagreatdisputationregardingtherela-
tivesuperioritj'oftheirrespectivecreeds.Forsixteen
daystheywentonwithnodecisiveresulteither\ay,
andEamanujawassomewhatanxiousabouthisown
position,when itstruckhimthathemightderive
somehelpfromAlavandar's works.Hereferred to
thelatter'sjNIayavadakandanam (arefutation ofthe
idealistictheory). Thusarmedheovercamehisad-
versaryontheseventeenth dayand,asaresult,

228. 204 ANCIENTINDIA
enlisted hisrivalamonghisfollowersunderthe
Vaishnava designation ofArulalapperumal Emberu-
manar.
Sometime afterEamanuja feltthathemightcon-
venientlypaythelong-wished-for visittohisuncle,
whosentwordthroughhisnephewthathevery
muchwishedtoseehim.Eamanujathensetforward
forTirupati,oneofthethree
'holyofholies 'ofthe
SriVaishnava?. Hestayedayearreceivinginstruc-
tionintheRamayanafromhismaternalunclethere,
whoattheendoftheperiodmadeovertohimhis
twosons. Hispreparationswerenowcompleteand
ashewasgrowing old,hesetabout fulfilling his
undertaking toAlavandar. The firstofhisthree
promiseswasthewritingoutofsuchacommentary
fortheBralimasutra aswouldembodytheviewsof
thequalified monistic schoolofthought. Itwas
absolutely essential foradueperformance ofthis
workthatheshouldacquainthimselfwiththeprevi-
ouscommentators, particularly oftheBodhdyana-
vritti.Thisnaturallywasnoteasyofacquisition for
oneofhisintentions explicitandimplied.Hehad
togoaboutmuchbeforehefoundaccesstoalibrary
inthenorth,containing thework,wherehewas
allowedjusttoreaditthrough.Hefeltthatitwas
notenoughwhenaquickdiscipleamonghisfollowers
cametohisrescuebysayingthathehadcompletely
masteredtheworkandcouldgivereferenceswhen-
everwanted. Thiswasoneamonghisfirstdisciples,
wholivedtorenderyetgreaterservicestohismaster.
"WiththehelpofKiirattalvan—forsuchwasthe
nameofthisstout-heartedandquick-minded disciple
—
Ramfmnjawroteoutthethreeworks,theessenceof
theVedanta(Veddiitasdram), aresumeoftheVedan-
ta{VeddntaSangraliam), thelightoftheVedanta
(Veddntadvpam) .Healsowrote,orrathergaveout,the
commentariesontheBrdhmdsutraandBhagavafqita.

229. EAMANUJASJOUEKEYTOTHEKORTH 205
Thislistof^YO^ksredeemedEamanujafromhisfirst
promise.
ButthesemustbeacceptedbeforeKamanujacould
feelhehaddonehisdutj^tohismaster.Hehad,
therefore, tostartonatourtoditfereiit places to
securetheapprovalofthelearned. Thistournatur-
allytookhimtothegreatseatoflearning,Kasmir.
ThereatSarasvatlpTta (theseatoflearning)heread
through thework inanassembly ofphilosopher.-,
andobtainedfromthemtheapproval ofnolessan
authority than
'
Sarasvati 'herself. Asatokenof
herapprovalshepresentedEamanujawiththeimage
ofHayagrlva(horse-necked,anaspectofVishnu)and
saidthathiscommentarymightthereafterbeknown
SnBhdshya(thecommentary). Itisbecauseofthis
distinction thatamong hisdisciplesRamanuja is
knownBhashyakarar (makerof tJicBhashya). The
imageofHayagrlvahascomedo^-ntothepresent
generationand isbelieved tobethatwhich isthe
objectofworship attheParakalamutt atMysore.
Keturningfromthenorthhehad tt)passbyway
ofTirupatiwheremattershadassumed aserious
aspectonadispute astothenatureofthedeity
there.TheSaivasclaimedtheshrine tobethat
ofgodSivawhile theYaishnavas claimed itas
thatofVishnu.Thematterhad,therefore, tobe
settledonewayortheother,andtheyagreedtoleave
thedecisiontothegodhimself. Itwasarranged
thatoneeveningbothpartiesshouldassembleand
lockupthe
'sanctumsanctorum 'havingplacedthe
weaponspeculiartoeachdeity.Theshrinewasto
bethatofVishnuorSivaaccording astheoneset
ortheotherwasassumedbygod. Itwasfoundthe
nextmorningthattheimagehadassumedthedisc
andconchcharacteristic ofVishnu,andeverafter
theshrineappears tohavebeentakentobethat
ofVishnu. Having settled thisdisputeRamanuJLi

230. 206 ANCIENTINDIA
returnedtoSrirangamandsetaboutarrangingmatters
forgettingthroughtheremainingitemsofworkhe
hadundertaken.
Eamanuja'sforemostdiscipleKurattalvanwasfor
longchildless.Onenighthehadtogotobedwith-
outfood,havinghadtofastthewholedayforlack
ofprovisions. Thebellinthegreattemplepealed,,
indicatingthatthenight-worshipwasgoingon.The
devotedwifethought toherselfthat itwashardly
fairthatgodRanganathashouldacceptregularworship
whenthestaunchest ofhisdevotees laystarving..
Soonafterthetemplepriestsbroughtasupplyoffood
fromthetempleandknockedatthedoorofKurat-
talvan.Thewifeopenedthedooranddelightedwith
thearrivaloffood,wokeuptherestlesshusbandand
fedhim.Asthedirectoutcomeofthisdivinefavour,,
shesoonbecamemotheroftwosonstooneofwhom
attheinstanceofKamanuja,thenameParasarawas-
given.Thisboyhadgrownuptoman'sstatewhen
Ramanujawaslookingoutforsomeonethroughwhom
hemight fulfilthesecondobject.Thisyoungman
ParasaraBhattawascommissioned towriteacom-
mentaryontheSahasrandma (thethousandnames
ofVishnu). ThisworkofParasaraBhatta fulfilled
thesecondofthedesiderataofAlavandar.
Therethenreniaiaedthemeansofperpetuating the
nameofNammalvar, theauthoroftheTiruvOymoli.
Ramanujawasperhaps thinking ofacommentary
himself. Itwouldappearhewascontemplatingwithin
aclosedroomaparticularverseoftheworkattempt-
ingtorealize itsfullsignificancewhenhiscousin
lookedthroughachinkinthedoor.Theyoungman,
Pillanbyname,forthwithputthequestionwhether
themasterwasponderingtheversereferringtothe
godatTirumalirunjolai. Ramanujawasstruckwith
theacuteness oftheyoungman,andcommissioned
himtowriteoutthe6000commentary onthe

231. RAIIANUJAANDBITTIDEVA
'207'
Tiravoymoli, givinghimthenameTirukkuruhaippiran
Pillan,thefirstpartofwhichbeingoneofthemany
surnames ofNammalvar. Thisbroughtthethirdof
Ajavandar's desideratatofulfilment. Eama.nujacould
nowfeelhismissionatanendandsettledownto
alifeofquietteaching. Thisway\earsrolledby.
Hewasnot,however, altogether unmolested.A
change ofruler,orachange inhissurroundings
broughtaboutachange inthespiritofcomplete
tolerance thatasaralecharacterised theadminis-
tration.Bethecausewhat itmay,theCholaruler,
forthetimebeing,oftengiventhenameKulottunga,
took itintohisheadtodemandassenttothedoc-
trine,
'
Sivatparataram nasti'. 'There isnoBeing
superior toSiva 'Thisseemstohavebeenaimed
particularlyagainsttheEamanuja propagandists, per-
hapsbecauseofafewprominent conversions. This
challengewasopenlythrownout,andnaturallyenough
everybodypointedtoEamanuja asthepersonwhose
assentoughttobeobtained.Eamanujawassummoned
toappearintheroyalpresence.
Eamanuja's friendsfeareddanger,andtoavuid it
KurattalvanundertooktopersonateEamanuja.Assum-
ingtherobesofthesannyasi,Kurattalvanwentalong
withthevenerablePeriyanamhi totheCholaCourt,
whileEamanujaassumingthedressofahouse-holder
andattheheadofasmallbodyofadherentsbetook
himselftothekingdom oftheHoysaia Bitti]3eva,
TravellingalongthehanksoftlieKaveri,Eamanuja
settleddownatSaligramwherehelivedforaperiod
oftwelveyears,whileBittiDfwawasjustcarving
outforhimselfakingdomhere,alongthesouthern
marches oftheChalakyakingdom ofVikiamaditya
andtheCholafrontierinthenorth-west.
Adaughter ofthekingwaspossessedandafter
failinginallotherattempts atexorcismEruuanuja's
aidwascalledin.Sureenoughtheghostwasraised.

232. '208 ANCIENTINDIA
-andBittiDevaagreed tobecomethediscipleof
Bamanuja. Thiscouldnot,however,bewithoutover-
-comingtheJainsincontroversy,asthekingwasreputed
tohavebeenaJain.Eamanujahadthebestofit
inthedisputationandthebulkoftheJainseither
embracedtheBamanujadarsanaorwereorderedto
hegrounddowninoilmills.Thislatterthreat,how-
-ever,wasnotcarriedintoeffectthroughtheintervention
ofRamanuja. EamanujareturnedtoSaligram.
ItwaswhileherethatEamanuja'sstockofnamam
-{thewhiteearthwhichservesfortheVaishnavacaste
markontheforehead)ranoutofstockandEamanuja
wasmuchconcerned.Hedreamtovernightthatthere
wasahillofthatmaterial,notfarfromTondanur,
-wherehemadetheacquaintance withBittiDeva.
Followingtheclueheobtained, inhisdream,and
throughthegoodofficesofVitalaDeva(BittiDeva)
Eamanujagotthespotmarkedortinhisdreimdug
up
;whenlo !thereappearedbeneathasmallshrine.
Hethengot itconsecrated asTirunarayanapuram
(Melukote ofthemaps). Thinking ofasuitable
imageforthisshrine,hedreamtoftheimageof
Eamaprya,whichwasatDelhiinpossession ofthe
daughter oftheruleratthetime.Hehadtounder-
takeajourneytonorthernIndiaagain.Havinggot
possession oftheimagesemewhatmiraculously, he
returnedwithit.Astheprincessprovedinconsolable
withoutherpetimage,theking(whoeverhewas)
sentapartyofmentobringbackEamanujawho
foundshelter inaPanchama village. Itisoutof
gratitudeforthisprotectionthatheordainedthead-
missionofthelatterintothetempleonthecarfesti-
val.Theconsecration oftheimageandthecompletion
-ofthetempleareplacedin1021Sakaora.d.,1099
whichappearstoantedatetheeventmuch.Hehadto
makegoodhispositionhereagainasagainstevery-
bodyelse,andheldasuccessfuldisputation against

233. bamanuja'sreturn '209
theBauddhas ofPadmagiri (SravanaBelgola).He
thenresided atTirunarayanapuram expectingnews
fromthesouth.
WhileEamanujawasbusydoingtheimportant
thingsdetailedabove,KurattalvanandPeriyanambi
wenttotheCholaCourtinobedience totheroyal
summons. Therethequestionwasputtothem
whethertheysubscribedtothestatement
'
^ivatpara-
taramnasti
' !Kiirattalvan subscribedwithareserva-
tion'Dr5namastitatahparam
'. 'ThereisDronaabove
Siva'!,takingSivainthesenseofameasure,Drona
beingabiggermeasure. Forthisimpertinence the
angrykingordered theputting outoftheeyes
ofthetwoVaishnavas. Periyanambi, avenerableold
ruan,diedontheway ;butthesturdierKurattalvan,
nothingdaunted,returnedandlivedatSrirangam.
AfteratimetheCholarulerdiedofacarbuncle,
whichtheVaishnavas putdowntobetheresultof
theruler'scrueltytothedevotedadherentsofEama-
nuja.NewsofthedeathoftheCholawastakento
Eamanujabythemessengerwhomhehadsentto
condolewithKurattalvan inhismisfortune. On
receiptofthissomewhatre-assuringnews,Eamanuja
madeuphismindtoreturn.
Consoling hisbeneficent discipleasbesthecould,
Eamanujahadtosetaboutarrangingmattersforthe
Adhyayan5tsava, anannualfestivalfortherecitation
oftheworksoftheTamil saints,forwhich itwas
thepracticetofetchtheimageofNammalvarfrom
AlvarTirunagariintheTinnevelliDistrict.Thishaving
beenayearofheavyrainfall itwasfoundimpossible
tobringtheimageoftheAlvaralltheway.Eama-
nujainconsequence consecratedashrine,andrestored
theimageoftheAlvarinSrirangam itself,sothatno
similardifficultymightbeexperienced forthefuture.
Itwasontheoccasion ofthisfestivecelebration
thatoneofthedisciples ofKurattalvan dedicated
14

234. 210 ANCIENTINDIA
thecentuminhonourofEamanujaonthemodelof
thedecadeofMadhurakavionNammalvar.Amudan
ofArangam, theauthor ofthecentum, itwould
appear,wastheSmartamanager ofthetempleat
Srirangam,andhadbeennotoveraccommodating to
theVaishnava apostleorhisdisciples.Whenhis
oldmotherwasdrawingnearherend,thesonduti-
fullyinquired ifshedesiredanythinghemightdo
forher. ShewishedthateitherEamanuja himself,
oroneofhisnominees,mightbeinvitedtoaccept
foodfromhimontheoccasion ofherfuneralcere-
monies.Amudanhadnoalternativebuttomakethe
requestofEamanuja,whoadvisedthathisindomita-
blediscipleKurattalvanmightbeasked.Thelatter
acceptedtheinvitationanddenaanded forsatisfaction
thekeysofthetemple,whichAmudansurrendered
andbecamehenceforward thediscipleofKurattalvan.
ThisAmudan inhisnew-born zealcomposed the
centum,andbeggedhardthatitmightbeaccepted.
Ertmanujaacceptedthededication,andpermitted its
inclusionintheprabandha4000attheearnestplead-
ingsofhisfirstdisciples.Havingmadeprovision for
theregularannualrecitalofthis4000,Eamanuja got
imagesoftheAlvarsandAndalsetu.pinSrirangam
andotherimportantplaces,wherealsosimilarannual
celebrationswereordained.
HethenpaidavisittoAlvarTirunagariand,on
hisreturn,heardthathismaternaluncleatTirupati
wasnomore.Hethenrepairedthitherandgotthe
funeralceremonies dulyperformedbytheelderof
thetwocousinsofhis,theyoungerofwhomhehad
longregarded ashissoninapostolicsuccession. It
waswhilehewasyetherethatheheardthatthe
GovindarajatempleatChidambaram hadbeenover-
thrownandtheimagecastintothesea.Hecaused
theimagetobebroughtover,andhoused itinthe
templeatthefootofthesacredhillwhereagainhe

235. MISSIONATANEND 211
causedtobesetuptheimagesoftheAlvarsand
Andalaselsewhere.Hethenreturned toSrirangam
bywayofKanchiandMadhurantakam. Afterthis
hewenttoTirumalirunjolai and Srlvilliputtur to
complete hisround ofpilgrimaye tothesacred
shrinesofVishnuinthesouth.Havingthusestab-
lished hisinfluencethroughout SouthIndia,and
havingorganizedandpopularized theteachings of
Visishtadvaita-vedanta hecouldnowthinkthathis
missionwasatanend.Hearranged forthecon-
tinuance ofhisteachingbynominating seventy-four
fromamongtheworthiest ofhisfollowers. Ofthis
number fourhadspecialcustody oftheBhdshya,
oneamongwhomhadthePvahhandateaching also.
Thisonewasnootherthanhiscousin-son Pillan,
whobecametheactualsuccessorofRamanuja.
"Whilehewaspreparingtodepartfromthisworld,
hefoundthemostindomitableamonghiscompan-
ionsanticipatehiminthisaswell.Havinggothis
funeralritesdulyperformed,Eamanuja feltthathe
hadarrivedattheendofhismission,whenagain,at
theimportunate entreatyofhisdisciples,hehadto
permitthreeofhisownimagestobeconsecratedand
setupinSrirangam, Sriperumbilthilr, andTirunara-
yanapuram. Thisexamplehasbeenfollowedlateron,
andnoweveryVishnutempleinthesouthhas,asa
necessaryadjuncttoit,alittleshrineforRamanuja
Consoling hissorrowing disciplesandcompanions,
Ramanuja feltthecallandsopassedawayquietly,
havingcompleted theonehundredandtwentieth
yearofhisage.
Theabove,inbrief,isanoutliueofthelifeofRama-
nuja,accordingtothemostauthoritative tradition. This
traditionhasatendency togathervolume,astime
passes,andtherehavebeenasmanyvarietiesofthis
biographyastherehavebeenthoseinterestedinhagi-
ologists.Butthisaccount reliesparticularlyontwo

236. 212 ANCIENTINDIA
contemporary works,whichhavespecialclaimsforour
acceptanceNeitherofthemisaprofessedbiography,
andbothofthemwerewrittenfortheacceptance of
contemporaries. Oneofthemhadbeenreadbefore
Eamanujaandobtainedhisimprimatur. Thisisthe
workofAmudan ofArangam. Itconsists ofone
hundredstanzasinTamil,includedintheFrabandha
oftheTamilpartoftheVaishnava lore.Theotheris
theworkofadisciplealso,bynameVaduhanambi (or
inSanskritAndhraptirna), probablybecausehewasa
Teluguman.ThisiscalledYatirajaVaibhavamand
consistsof114slokas.Thisworkdescribesinaway
quitefreefromexaggeration allthatEamanuja did. It
strikesoneasbeingparticularly reliable.Thename
oftheauthoroccursamongtheseventy-four succes-
sorsoffirstdegreeofBamanuja,andhisobligation
tothemasterisindicatedintheslokawhich isnow
quoted
:—
•
'KamschidKasminschid arthepratiniyatataya san-
niyojyantarangan, tatrakshirartha krityepratiniyata-
mahodasamapyatyanarham, Kurvansrimanyatindras-
svapatavinatatatdasanudasammamapyatyantabhaktam
svahitamivasadagopayansopijiyat.'
Havingorderedhismosttrusteddisciples toaccept
particular offices,Ramanuja
'whoprotectedhisworth-
lessservant,servantofhisservants,entrustedwith
theserviceofprovidingmilk,mayheprosper.'
Itnowremains toexaminefromavailablehistori-
calmaterialwhattruththereisintheaboveaccount,
andhowfarcertainimpressions thatprevailregard-
ingEamanujaandhisteachings findjustification
fromhislifeandtimes.Havingalreadyrecounted
theincidents inthe life ofEamanuja,weshall
nowproceedtoexamine critically,whetherthemain
incidentsofhislifearewhathisdisciplesclaimthem
tohavebeen,andwhetherrecentresearch,sofaras
itbearsuponthese,lendsanysupporttotheseasa

237. CBITICISMOFTHELIFE 213
whole.Thefollowing incidents willbeexamined
seriatim,astheyappeartobearrangedinchronological
order
:
—
1.Ramanuja's conversion ofYadavaprakasa, his
preceptor.
2.Hisconversion ofYeguamurti, anadvaitasan-
nyasin.
3.SettlementoftheSaivaYaishnavadisputeabout
thegodatTirupati.
4.TheCholapersecution ofEamanuja.
0.TheHoysalaYishnuvardhana's conversion.
6.Foundation ofthetempleatTirunarayanapuram
(Melukote).
7.Theconversion ofAmudan ofArangam, the
authorofSdmanujaNufrandliadhi.
5.Theconsecration oftheGovindatemple at-the
footoftheTirupatiHill.
Forthepurposes ofthisagainweshall,asfar
aspossible,haverecoursetosuchworksofreliable
authority,asthoseofEamanuja'scontemporariesand
immediatesuccessorsonly.
1.Y^adavaprakasawasanadvaiticteacherofrepu-
tationatConjeevaram. Hewasalsoawriterof
authorityinhisphilosophy ;andinhisdays,andafter,
hewasaleaderofaschool ofthought ;thatVe-
dantaDesikaquoteshim,asthebestrepresentative of
advaiticexposition,anddisputeshisposition.Heis
thereputedauthorofYatidharmaSamuclicliayamand
oftheYddavaNikandu. Accordingtoothersthetwo
worksarefromseparatepersons. Atanyratethe
Y'^adavaoftheformerworkisinallprobability, the
philosophical expounder oftheadvaiticsystem. In
thefaceofthesefacts, itwouldappearimpossible
thatheshouldhavebeenthefirstconverttothe
teachings ofhisex-discipleEamanuja,whomhedid
notloveovermuchasadisciple. Ihavelongthought
thatthestorywasapiousfabrication. There isno

238. 214 ANCIENTINDIA
referenceatallintheYatidharmaSamuchchayam to
hisconversion. Thisisaworkwhichundertakes to
examinewhatthedutiesofasannyasiareaccording
tothebestauthority
;andtheauthorseemstohold
thatthereisgoodauthorityforbothclassesofsan-
nyasins—thosewiththesacredthreadandtuftofhair
onthehead(theVaishnava),andthosewithoutthese
adjuncts(theSaiva).Exceptareferencetothe
'Pra-
bhandasintheinvocatoryverseandtotheinvocation
itselfbeingaddressedtoVishnuasDattatreya,thework
isnon-committing inthisparticular. Butthework,
BdmdnujaNarrandhddhi ofAmudanofArangam,one
ofhisownconverts,refersoftentosuccessindisputation
againstgreatcontroversialists
;butdoesnotmention
namesthoughthereferencesaresuch,aswouldwarrant
theinferencethattheywereinparticularYadavaprakasa
andthesannyasinYegnamurti(stanzas58,64,and88).
ButintwoworksofVedantaDesikacomingjustthree
generationsafter,orsayaboutacentury,wehavedirect
referencestothepurpose.Thefirsthalfofversethir-
teenofYatirdjaSaptatirefersto'
'Svabhalatuddhrita
Yadavaprakasa', orhethathadup-rootedwithhisown
strengthYadavaprakasa. Thisneednotnecessarily
meanconversion,butthatsuchwasactuallythecaseis
clearlystatedinoneofhisotherworks,Satadhiishani}
1Iamobliged forthisreferencetothelatelamentedTarkatlrtha
PunditaratnamKasturirangachar ofMysore.

239. TIBUPATICONTROVERSY 215
Vedanta Desika followedKamanuja ataninterval
ofthreegenerations only,andwemaytakehimas
sufficientauthority forthefact,ashetakesYadava's
opinionsandseriouslycontrovertstheminotherparts
ofhisworks.
2.AstoYegiJamtirti's conversionwearenotina
positiontosayanything,asnothingmoreisknownof
himthanthefactofhishavingbeenasannyasin
Ekadandi).
3.ThequestionaboutTirupati isoffargreaterim-
portance,themoresoastherehasrecentlybeen
alivelycontroversyaboutthesamesubject inthe
columnsofthejournalsandpapers,consequentonMr.
Venkyya'sreferenceinhisofficialreporttothetemple
beinga§aivaone. ItwillbeseenthattheVaishnava
accountsaysthatthegodonthehillhadjustlent
hischaracteristic weapons,thediscandtheconch,
totheTondaman Chakravarti. Thisevidently refers
totheconquestofKalingambyKarunakaraTondaman
aboutA.D.1111.Messrs.M.Narayanasami Iyer,b.a.,
B.L.andT.A.GopinathaRau,m.a.,havebothwritten
concerning thisintheSenTamil.Theformerinclines
totheVaishuavaviewandthelattertotheSaiva.The
question, therefore,needstobeexaminedwithcare.
Thefollowingfactsconcerningthepointappeartobe
agreedupon.TheauthorsoftheTevdiamhavenotat
allcelebratedtheshrine ;theVaishnavaAlvarshave.
TheTamilepicSilappadhikdram hasexplicitlygiven
thetempleaVaishnava character,andthere isno
possibilityofmistakehere.Onthisaccount,thetefore,
cTcT^q%TTf;qf>q^firf5:^^ (j^^^foi^tErfq-3i?f[fq

240. 216 ANCIENTINDIA
Mr.GopinathaBauwouldplacetheSilappadhikaram
afterPoygaiAivar.WhetherheputsitalsoafterEama-
nuja isnotquiteclear,thoughheshowsawishto
bringittothemiddleofthetwelfthcentury. Thisgen-
tlemanholdsthattheoriginalgodwasSubrahmanya
astheplaceiscalledIjangoil,andthegodisreferred
toonceortwiceasKumara,thoughnotwithoutother
adjuncts.Thelatterisquitedecisiveaccordingtohim.
Soitwouldbe,ifthepremiseswerequiteasthey
arerepresented tobe.Onefundamental defecthere
isthetakingoutofwordswithoutreferencetotheir
context. Mr.GropinathaRaureferstothegodbeing
knownasBalajeeamongthenortherners. Thismay
beso,butBalajeeisnotexclusivelyappliedtoSubrah-
manya, ifappliedtohimatall.Therearenumbers
ofpersonsknownasBalajee,butthewordstandsfor
Balakrishna. Thisisequallysound.Thereissome-
thingmore.TheearlyAlvilrs,PoygaiAlvar,Bhutat-
tarandPeyAlyardelightinreferringtoGodinoneof
hisaspectsasachild,eitherasRamaorKrishna,
preferablythelatter.Onehasonlytolookthrough
thewritings ofthesetobeconvinced ofthis.Why
theydosoisbesidethepoint. ItisthisBala-
krishna—heisnotsonamedinthework—thathas
givenrisetothenameBalajee*, sinceKrishna, as
Vitpba, isverypopularintheMahratacountry.Any-
howthisinterpretation ofBalajee isinkeepingwith
thewritings ofthoseAlvarswhohadbestowedtheir
bestthoughtsuponGod'smanifestation atTirupati.
PeyAlvarlendsthegreatestsupporttothisconten-
tionastothenatureofthedeity.Hereferstothe
Godas@jrr/BQL0T3"sBr iOessTMsmessT'ST (61); eQsir.w<a;eiifls;
1Oneatleastoftheexplanationsforthisdesignationisthat,whenthe
northerners firsthadalookoftheimage,theyweresostruckwiththe
softlybeautifullookthattheyexclaimedinsurpriseBala(Damsel).
Thiswastheaccountgivenbythepeopleinthelocality.

241. CHARACTEROFTHEDEITY 217
sjr/L.LDC^S) mirsk(ipa^Q^Test nssir(mpiEiSi^, (njfnuii^
(^LpuQiumu (11). Itwillthusbeseenthatherefers
tothesamedeityinfourdifferentwaysasabove.
Theyare,ofcourse,tobetakensynonymously. Eefer-
encesoneandthreemaybedoubtful,buttheothertwo
mustbeusedtohelpusintheinterpretation. Re-
ferencetwoclearlyindicatesoneoftheactsofyoung
Krishna,andreferencefour,thoughnotequallyclearly,
toanachievement ofVishnu,whenBrahmawas
abouttogranttheboonssoughtofhimbyEavana.
Ifamoredirectindicationbeneeded,thestanza
sixty-twomakes itcleartoanyunprejudiced mind.
Thereareanumber ofplacessacredtoYishnuand
thenamesgivenareVaishnavanames,e.g.Tiruva-
rangamandTirukudandhai(Kumbhakonam). Thereis
thusnothingtobearoutthecontention thatthegod
therewasevermeanttobeSubrahmanya. Stanzasixty-
threeofthesamethirdTiruvandadi statesclearlythat
themanifestation ofGodthereisintheunitedform
ofSivaandYishnu. Thisisborneoutbythestanzas
fiveandninety-eight ofthefirstTiruvandadi. This
would,therefore,make itclearthatthegodwasof
the
'
harihara
'
type.Thenthequestionariseswhyitis
thatIlangospeaksofitasaVishnutempleinsuchclear
terms.Theexplanation, perhaps,wouldbethatthe
templehadbeenknownonlyasaVishnutemple,though
therewastheduplexcharacter intheidol. This
wouldbenoticedonlybyadevotee,whowasin
closetouchwiththetemple,andthisIlangocouldnot
pretendtohavebeen. Itisnotstrangeifmostpeople
inthesedaysdonotknowthis. Itsestablishedreputa-
tionasaA'^ishnutempleaccountsfortheomission
ofTirupatibytheNayanmarsoftheSaivas.Howthen
wasitthattheSaivaslaidclaimtoitinthedaysof
Bamanuja?Ramanuja'stiniewasremarkableforthere-
vivalofthePrahhandam,whichwasbeingtaughtmuch
morewidelythanbefore. Besides thisEamanuja's

242. 218 ANCIENTINDIA
cousin'sconversionmusthavemadetheSaivasalive
tothedangerofthisVaishnavaneighbourhood. So
ontheoldgrounds ofthedualformoftheimage
theyrevivedtheirclaims,particularly astheruling
sovereignwaslikelytoleantotheSaivaside.Naturally
enoughEamanajaappealedtoatrialbyordealofsome
sort.Everafter,thereappearstohavebeennodispute
astothecharacterofthedeity.Thismusthavetaken
placesometime afterA.d.1111-2,theprobabledate
oftheconquestofKalingam.
4.ThenextitemofimportanceinthelifeofEama-
nujaistheCholapersecution. TheCholaruleratthe
timewasKulottunga, theChalukya-Chola (A.d.1070
to1118).MostoftheCholaswereSaivas,butthey
weretolerantofotherreligionsaswell,whilesome
ofthemevenwentthelengthofendowingVishnu
temples. ThisKulottungawasnotparticularlynarrow-
minded,ashemadeagranteventotheBauddha
settlement atNegapatam. ButastheVaishnava
accountitselfstateshewaspersuadedbyothersinto
compelling alltoassenttothedoctrineofthesuprem-
acyofSiva.Thisisnotatallimprobable, consid-
eringthatthiswastheperiodofgreatSaivaactivity
andtherulerwasthespecialpatron ofSekkilar.
ThegeneralbodyofVaishnavaswerenotill-treated,
butEamanuja's activeworkatSrirangam attracted
attentionandendedintheblindingofKurattalvarand
theoldpreceptor ofKamanuja himself. Thismust
havetakenplaceabouttheninetiesoftheeleventh
century.Eamanujawascompelledtoleavethecountry.
Hisimmigration intotheMysorecountrybringsusto
thenextimportantincidentinhislife.
5and6.HemoveduptheKaveryandsettledat
Saligram,fromwhichplacehewasinvitedtothehead-
quartersofVitalaDevaEa^^aorBittiDeva.Thislatter
couldnothavebeentherulingsovereignatthetime,as
hisbrotherlivedtotheendofthecenturyandafew

243. EAMANUJAINMYSOEE 219'
yearslater.Duringthelastyearsofthecenturyhewas
stillactiveintheGangavadifrontier,anditwaswhile
herethathemusthavemetEamanuja. Hiselder
brother
'hadforhisgodIsa
',whichprobablymeant
thathewasaSaiva. BittiDevawasconvertedand
helpedEamanuja intherestoration ofthetempleof
NarayanaatMelukote. Ihaveelsewhere^shownthat
thepersecution oftheJainsascribed toVishnuvar-
dhanaishardlysupportedbyfacts.Theconsecrationof
thetempleatMelukote isplacedintheyeara.d.1099,
twelveyearsafterEamanuja'sarrivalatSaligram. This
mayhavebeenthecase,asEamanujawouldhavetaken
carenottoprovokethehostilityoftherulerofhisnew
domicile.Vishnuvardhanathenceforward supportedthe
causeofEamanujaandencouragedVishnavaism. He
wentonbuildingtemplesandendowing them,not
withoutsupportingtheothertemplesandcreedsaswell,
thoughnotperhapstothesameextent.Thisactivity
culminated inthebuildingandconsecration ofthe
templeatBelurin(orabout)a.d.1117.'There is
nothingimprobableinthedate,asitwasinthisyear
thathecouldclaim tohavebecomemasterofthe
Gangavadi. SoEamanujamusthavelivedinMysore
fornearlyaquarterofacentury. Itwasthedeathof
theCholaKulottunga ina.d.1118thatenabledhim
toreturn.Butthenthereisaninconsistency with
respecttodates.AstheGuruparamparai states, it
appearsthattheCholadiedsoonaftertheblindingof
thetwofriendsofEamanuja
;butinactualfactthe
deathofthepersecutingCholacamemanyyearsafter,
ifthedatea.d.1099betakenascorrectforthe
Melukoteincident,whichappearstooearlytobetrue.
Itwouldbetoomuchtoexpectthiskindofaccuracyin
suchanaccountandinoneofitsprofessedcharacter.
1ChapterIX.Vishnuvardhana, following.
2HassanvolumeoftheBpigraphiaCarndlakaIns.Belur68and71.

244. 220 ANCIENTINDIA
7.Thenextincidentofimportance istheconversion
ofAmudanofArangam,themanagerofthetempleat
Srirangam,anon-Vaishnava. Forthiswehaveevidence
oftheconvert himself.He istheauthor ofthe
BamdnujaNurrandddiandinversesthree,fourand
sevenoftheworkhemakesitclearthathewasaconvert
byfavourofEamanujaandKurattalvar. Inverses
eightandtwenty-one,heclearlydescribesEamanuja's
relationtotheAlvarsandNadhamuniandAlavandar
(Yamunaitturaivar), inspiteofopinionstothecontrary
byscholarswhoimplicitly believeintheopinionof
Dr.Caldwell.Notonlythis.Thecentum(infact108)
ofhisstanzasgivesinasmallspan,mostlyallusivelybut
nonethelessclearly,themainachievements ofEama-
nuja,andthusbecomesthecontemporary authority
formostofthefactsofEamanuja's lifeasdetailedabove.
Themoderation oftoneandsobriety oflanguage
-commend itsauthoritythemore,forotherwiseEama-
nujawouldnothavebeenpersuaded toinclude it
amongthePrahliandam4000.
8.Lastlycomestheconstructionandconsecration
oftheGovindashrineatthefootoftheTirupati hill.
ThisaffordsthebestcluetothedateofEamanuja.The
Guruparaiiiparai givesthisasthelastactofabusylife
undercircumstanceswhich,thankstotheresearchesof
Brahma SriE.EaghavaIyengar,CourtPandit of
RamnadandEditoroftheSenTamil,theorganofthe
MaduraTamilSangam,provetobequitehistorical.
Thestory, itwillberemembered, isthattheGovinda
EajatempleatChidambaramhavingbeenremovedfrom
thepremisesofthegreatSivatemple,Eamanujaand
hisdisciplesgottheidolenshrinedinanewtemple
:atTirupati. Inanumberofhistoricalworksrelating
totheperiod,particularly intheKulottunga Cholati
ViaofOttakiittan,^thisachievement isascribedtoKulot-
1SenTamil,vol.Ill,part,v,pp.166-7.

245. GOVINDASHRINE 221
tungaII,thesonandsuccessor ofViia-amaCholaand
oneofthepatrons ofKuttanhimself. There itis
saidthatherenovatedtheSaivatempleandplated
theroofingwithgold—incidentallymentioningthatthe
'GodVishnuhadheensentbacktohisoriginalshrine
—thesea.'^Thiswouldmeannotonlytheremoval
butthethrowingoftheimageintothesea.Inanother,
thereisareferencetoKulottunga'shavingrootedout
theminorgodsfromthegreatshrine.Thismust
havetaken placeinthereign ofKulottunga II
{circa1123to1146).ThattheVaishriavaswereenabled
toenshrinethegodatTirupatishowsthelimitation
oftheCholaauthorityatthetime,ortheirindiffer-
encetothefact,providedtheobnoxiousgodhadbeen
removedfromthehallowedpresenceoftheir
'Holyof
Holies
',aplacefullofthemostnarrow-minded ofthe
Saivas.ThattheVishnushrinewaspreviouslyinthe
templeatChidambaram isborneoutbyareference
intheworksofManikkaVasagar{Tiruchchirrambalak-
kovai, 86).Thereisabsolutelynoreasontodoubtthe
authority oftheseworksaboutthisparticular,and
thisgivesustheultimatelimitofEamanuja's active
life.Accordingtothetraditionalaccount,Eamanuja
livedfor120yearsfromA.d.1017to1137.Some
objecttothislength,andregard itasafabrication
justtogivethereformertheMahadasaasitiscalled.
Itisamatterofverysmallconsequencetouswhether
helivedthe120yearsornot.Whatismoreimportant
forourpurposes isthathiswasalongandactivelife,
andcoveredthreereignsoftheCholas :KulottungaI
(a.d.1070to1118),Vikramachola (a.d.1118to1135),
KulottungaII(a.d.1123to1146).Eamanuja's active
lifemay,therefore,besafelyreferredtothelastquar-
teroftheeleventhandthefirsthalfofthetwelfth
centurya.d.
1SenTamil,vol.Ill,partviii,pp.301-2.

246. CHAPTERVIII
THEMAKINGOFMYSORE
Mysore,themodernState,isaproductofthenine-
teenthcentury.Thecountryactuallyincludedinthe
termgotunitedunderoneruler,onlyunderthevigorous
ruleoftheMusalmanusurper,Haidar'Ali.Through
muchofitshistorybefore,theStatewasparcelledout
intoanumber ofStatesofvaryingextentandim-
portance. Itwill,therefore,beprofitable toinquire
whether, atanytimebeforethelastquarterofthe
eighteenthcentury,thewholeStatewasbroughtunder
onerule.
Adjustingourtime-telescope, ifwelookthrough it,as
faraswecanseeatall,intothedimvistasoftheearly
centuriesoftheChristianera,weareabletoseebut
little.Thesourcesofinformation available arethe
mostmeagreofhintsfromearlyTamilliterature.We
havereferencesleadingtothelocationinMysoreterri-
toryofsomepettychieftains,amongwhommaybe
mentionedonewhomtheTamilianscall
'Erumaiyuran
'
(thechiefoftheBuffalocountry)amongthesevenpetty
chiefs.Passingfromthistime,wecomeuntothe
periodoftheGangas,araceofrulerswhosedomainin
thesouthofMysoreembracedthesouthernportionsof
themodernAshtagramandNandidrug divisions. This
dynastywasattimespowerfulenoughtomakeitsinflu-
encefeltinSouthIndianpolitics,butatnotimeofits
historydiditmakegooditsclaimtohavingpassed
beyondtheleadofanotherpower,generallythesover-
eignsoftheDekhan. Beforepassingonfurther,itwill

247. THEANDHHASOFTHEDEKHAN 223
bewelltolookbackuponthedisposition ofthePowers
northandsouthinordertobetterunderstandtherole
thatMysoreplayedinthehistoryofSouthIndia.
Tobeginagainatthebeginningofhistorysofarasis
knownatpresent,wefindthatIndiathroughout histori-
caltimesisdivisibleforpurposesofhistoryintothree
geographical parts:Hindustan, theDekhanandthe
FartherSouth.WhentheAndhrasuccessors ofthe
Mauryandynastywereoverthrown,adynastyofrulers,
theAndhrabhrityas ofthePuranas,fastenedthemselves
upontheDekhan. Itisthisdynasty(100b.c.-a.d.300)
that,fromthesecondlineofdefenceofpeninsularIndia,
withstoodsuccessfullyandbeatbacktheincursions of
theforeigners—theScythiansofCentralAsia,whohad
establishedthemselvesinthenorth-westofIndia.The
territories oftheseSiltavahanas (vulgoSalivahana), or
Andhrabhrityas, embracedthewholeoftheDekhanex-
tendingfromcoasttocoast.Theyhadtomaintain
twocapitals,oneinthesouth-eastandanother in
thenorth-west,andoccasionallytworulers,thefather
andson,orbrotherandbrother,holdingeachhisCourt.
Thisdivisionofauthoritybetraystheneedforpro-
tectionagainsttwopowerfulneighbours,alwaysonthe
alerttotakeadvantage ofanyopportunity thatmight
offeritselfforcutting off'asliceofterritory.The
north-west capitalwasatPaitan(Plithana ofthe
Greeks)ontheupperwatersoftheGodavery,and
thesouth-eastoneatDhanakataka (Dharnikrit) inthe
Gunturtaluq,theAmaravati ofBuddhistfame.This
musthavebeentheperiodwhenthethreecrowned
rulersoftheFartherSouthlaidclaimtohavingde-
feated'theAryanArmy',andtohavingplantedtheir
respective,emblemsontheHimalayas(whichmaybean
easternfigureofspeechforextensiveconquestsinthe
northernDekhan). Thereisahiatusnowandwelose
thethread.TheAndhrabhrityaPowerbreaksup,per-
hapsbecauseofthesimultaneousattacksoftheGuzerat

248. 224 ANCIENTINDIA
andMalvaKshetrapas, afteraboutthreecenturiesof
existence,andthenotherPowersareforming.The
Guptasassumeimperialresponsibilities,andfromthe
centralIndianbastionbeatbacktheKshetrapasonthe
onesideandtheHunasontheother,thusgivingtime
totheDekhanStatestosettledowntothenormal
conditionfromtheamorphous statetowhichtheyhad
beenreducedafterthefalloftheSatavahanas.ThePal-
lavasareerectingthemselvesinthenorthoftheTamil
country,withtheirhead-quartersmovingsouthtillthey
reachtheancientGholatownofKanchi,thehead-quar-
tersoftheTondamanRajas.Beforethis,wehearof
thematAmaravati,Palakkaandotherplacesfurther
north.PerhapsthesePallavaswerefeudatorywardens
ofthemarchesoftheSatavahanas inthesouth,and
whenthelatterPowerbrokeupthePallavasmadethem-
selves,aswasoftenthecase,paramount.When,there-
fore,wecometotheperiodofSamudragupta {circa
A.D.400)thegreatGuptaEmperorofthenorth,we
findVishnugopaofKanchi,alreadyanimportantruler,
whosedominionlaybeyondthesphereofinfluenceof
theGuptaemperor. Simultaneously withthisPower
risesthatoftheChalukyasofVatapi(Badamiinthe
Bijapurtaluq).Thesewere,ormusthavebeenagain,
thewardensofthemarchesinthesouth-westunder
theAndhrabhrityas. SothatwhenYuwanChwang
(HiuenThsang)travelledthroughthecountryina.d.
640,wefindIndiamarkedoutintothreeclearlydefined
political divisions. Siladitya orHarshavardhana of
Kanoujwas,insuccession totheGuptas,rulingover
HindustantothefrontiersofAssam;PulikesinIIof
theMaharashtra atBadami,withhisyoungerbrother
KubjaVishnuvardhana atEajamahendri (Jananatha-
pura) ;andNarasimhavarman PallavaorMahamallaat
Kanchi. Thisdivisioncontinuesunder allthevicis-
situdesoffamiliesanddynasties tilltheoverthrow of
Vijayanagar. TheChalukyasweresucceededbythe

249. POSITIONOFPOWERSA.D.1000 225
Bashtrakutas ofManyakheta(MalkhedintheNizam's
Dominions)andbythelaterChalukyas ofKalyani
(nearBidar) ;whilethecountrynorthoftheVindhyas
hadpassedontotheGriirjarasandthentotheEajaput
dynasties.ThePallavashadbeensucceededbythe
Cholas,sothataboutA.D.1000thefollowingwerethe
positionsofthePowers,drawingintheirbreathfora
grandstruggleforsupremacywhich,withvaryingsuc-
cess,hadbeengoingonallthetime.
ThewesternChalukyas ofKalyaniwererulingover
Eattappadisevenandahalflaccountry(theBombay
Presidency southoftheVindhyas),andmorethan
halfoftheNizam'sdominionswithportions ofthe
CentralProvinces. TheircousinsoftheeastatRaja-
mahendriheldswayovertheMadrasPresidency as
farasNellore,andwerealreadygettingunderthe
influence ofthepowerfulCholaEajaraja. Thesetwo
occupytheDekhan. HouthoftheKrishnainitslower
courseandtheTungabhadra from itsconfluence to
itssourcewastheterritoryeitherdirectlyunderthe
Chola,orjustfallingintohispower. Itwillbeseen
atoncethatMysoreoccupiesaconvenientangkbe-
tweenthetwoPowers,andthispositionprovedof
advantagesometimes.
EarlyinthecenturyendingA.d.1000theGangas
wereplayinganimportant partundertheirrulers,
Perumanadi ButugaandMarasimha. TheCholas,
havingalreadyconqueredthePallavaterritoriesand
theKongucountry,wereadvancingupontheGangas,
whowerefeudatorytoKrishnaIIIoftheEashtrakutas
andhissuccessors. Aboutthemiddleofthecentury
theGangaonbehalfofhissuzerain defeated the
CholarulerEajaditya atTakknlam. Thissetback
thetideofCholaaggression forawhile ;buthismore
indomitable successors,Eajarajaandhisson,effected
theconquest ofGangavadi. Before thiseventhap-
pened,andwhiletheEashtrakiitaswerebusyfighting
15

250. 226 ANCIENTINDIA
againstthelaterChalukyasinavainattemptathold-
ingoutforawhilelonger,theGangasabsorbedthe
Nolambavadi 32,000,themodernTumkurandChital-
drugdistricts,undertheirrulerMarasimha II.The
Eashtrakutas wereoverthrown inA.d.972,andthe
Chalukyashadtoestablishthemselvesintheirstead,
whenthesouthernCholatookhisopportunitytopush
hisarmsnorthwards.ByA.D.1000theCholahad
gainedafootinginMysore,andtheGangavadihad
beenmadeChola. SincethisconquestMysorehad
becomethebattlegroundofthecontending nations,
theKannadaChalukyasandtheTamilCholas.The
warswerelongandtiresomeandtheresultschanging
anddoubtful. AtonetimewehearoftheCholas
beingbeatenbacktothePalar ;againtheypressback
theenemy. InA.d.1052,anepoch-making battlewas
foughtatKoppamonthePerar(Tungabhadra) .The
elderCholabrotherRajadhiraja loseshishead ;but
hisyoungerbrotherEajendraretrievesthehonourof
theCholasandvictoryrestswiththem.Ahavamalla
Somesvara oftheChalukyas hastocontenthimself
withtheTungabhadra forthefrontier. Withthe
deathofthesemighty rulers,theaffairs oftheir
empiresgetintoconfusionandtheopportunity for
Mysorearrives.Herebegins,then,thecarvingoutof
akingdom ofMysoreandthecarverswere skilful
artistsindeed. Ahavamalla. diedleavingbehinda
numberofsons..TheeldestsonSomesvarasucceeded,
aswasnatural,butthesecondVikramaditya found
itconvenienttorebel,afterhavingcarefullygauged
thetemperoftheMahamandalesvaras (orviceroysof
provinces). Vikramaditya, theheroofBilhana'sVikra-
mankadevaCharitam, startedonaprogressthrough
hisbrother'sdominions,underthepretextofgoingto
stoptheadvanceofthethenCholarulerVirarajendra,
abrotherofthetwowhodistinguishedthemselves in,the
battleofKoppam,andhehimselfwasvictoroverthe

251. FIESTPOUNDEROFMYSOREKINGDOM 227
Kuntalas (westernChalukyas) atKiidalSangamam.
Somehow orother,thesetwoenemiesenterintoan
agreement, thetermsofwhicharenotforthcoming,
whichwassealedbythemarriageofprinceChalukya
withthedaughterofthereigningChola.Thismust
havebeenbroughtaboutintheinterests ofboth.
Vikramaditya foundavaluable allyforhisproject,
whichnowdefinitelyhadformed itselfinhismind,
ofoverthrowing hisbrotherSOmesvara. Virarajendra
foundthatVikrama'salliancewouldbeofgreatvalue
tohim,ashispositionwasthreatenedbyhissister's
sonKulOttunga Chola,whowascertainlyheirto,at
least,hispaternaldominions oftheVengicountry
(eastern Chalukya dominions). Afterthetreatyon
thebanksoftheTungabhadra, VTrarajendramarches
intotheeasternChalukyadominions,andoneofhis
inscriptionsclaimsthatheappointed Vijayaditya,the
paternaluncleofKulOttunga, astheCholaviceroy
ofthenewlyconquered territories. KulOttungaChola
andSomesvaranaturallycombinedagainsttheallies,
buttheresultprovesfavourableultimately toVikra-
madityaandhisfather-in-law. ButVirarajendra dies
andhissonisinstalledbyVikramaditya, onlytolose
hisheadalongwiththecrown. KulOttunga instals
himselfruleroftheeasternChalukyaandtheChola
dominions. Kulottunga's reignlastsverynearlyhalf
acentury (a.D.1070to1118),whilehisrivalcontem-
porarycomestothethroneafewyearslater.He
alsohasaslongareign(a.d.1076to1128).Among
the^lahamaBdalesvaras ofthisVikramaditya,wesee
onename,Vishnuvardhana Hoysala,andthesequel
willclefirlyshowtousthathelaidthefoundations
ofthekingdom ofMysore forthefirsttimein
history.
Inthefaroffrecessesofthewesternghats,there
isaplacecalledAngadi(mart)intheMudegeretaluq
oftheKadurdistrict. Itssituation,wheretheroad

252. 228 ANCIENTINDIA
overtheghatsfromMangalore meetstwoothers
leadingtoSaklespur inthesouth-westandBelurin
thesouth-east,musthavebeenthecauseofthename.
Thisplacehasthehonourofhavingbeenthecradleof
thisdynastyofrulersofMysore.ThenameAngadi
wasgiventoitundertheruleofVijayanagar,theearliest
epigraphicaluseofthisnamebeinginaninscription
ofAchyutaEaya. Beforethistime,theplacebore
thenameSasakapura,orSoseviir(rabbittown),andthe
inscriptions inthevillagetemple callthegoddess
Vasantika Devi,theVasantamma ofmoderntimes.
ItwasherethattheHoysalashadtheirorigin,and
severalinscriptionsaccountforthenamebyanachieve-
mentofSala,theeponymousancestoroftheHoysalas.
^OnceuponatimetherehappenedtobeaJainMuni
(ascetic)intheVasantikatempleabsorbedincontem-
plation.Atigerspranguponthesaint,whonoticed
ittoolatetosavehimself. Insheerhelplessnesshe
criedout :
'
strikeSala '(PoySala),addressingthe
humblebutvaliantlay-worshipperwhowasatthetime
beforethegoddess.Withnomoreformidableweapon
thanastick,Salakilledthetigerandgotthename
Hoysalaforhimselfandhisposterity. This,withthe
usualvariationofdetail,istheoriginofthedynastyas
givenbytheinscriptions. Butonepointinconnexion
withthisdeservestobenoticed.Thislegend,which
maybebasedonsomeactualfeatofoneofthedynasty,
appearsintherecords ofthelaterHoysalas only,
whilethoseoftheearlieronesshowthemtohavebeen
quitecommonplacemortalsstrugglingoutofobscurity
inthemostordinaryway.Thisviewisborneoutby
thestoryrecordedinoneoftheMackenziemanuscripts,
whichsaysthatanactualtigerwascommittingravages
inthatpartofthecountry.Oneoftheancestorsofthe
Hoysalashavingkilled it,wasvoteda
'pana 'perhead
ofpopulation,whichprovidedthesinewsofwar,for
organizingasmallforceandformingasmallStatefor

253. HOYSALAORIGINS 2'29
himselfbyconqueringtheneighbouring chiefs. (Vide
Rice'sGazetteer, vol. i.p.385.)
Thereisasimilartraditionconnectedwithanother
Malayaman chiefofsomereputeinTamilliterature,
IrungovelofArayam.Heisdescribedastheforty-ninth
indescentfromakingofDvaraka,whoappearedfrom
thesacrificial fireofaEishi.Hishead-quarterswas
Arayam,composed ofthesmallandthebigcities,
which,accordingtoKapilarthepoet,wasburntonac-
countoftheinsultanancestorofthechiefofferedtoan
olderpoetKalathalaiyar. ThisIrungovel isaddressed
byKapilar,
'
PuliKadimal
',theslayerofthetiger
;
andthelocalitieswouldagreefairly :butthereissuch
agreatdistance oftimebetweenthetwo,thatit
wouldperhapsbetoomuchtofiliatetheoneuponthe
other.
Bethisasitmay,theHoysalaswereanumberof
pettyhillchiefswhosedomainlayalongthewestern
ghats.Thatthiswasactuallythecase,andthatthey
hadnohigherorigin, isshownbythesignmanualof
these
'
Royalties', ^NlalaparolGanda(themanamong
theMalapasorhill-chiefs),whichfigureseveninthe
grantsoftheHoysala
'emperorsofthesouth
'.The
earliestepigraphicalmention ofthem isfoundina
Cholainscription ofa.d.1007.TheCholaviceroy
Apprameya claimstohavekilledanumberofchiefs
inthebattle ofKalavflr
;theHoysalas jNJanjiga,
Kaliga,Xagavarammaandothersfallinginthebattle.
Apprameya,thelordofKottamandala, inconsequence,
styleshimself'Deathtothefamilyofthehill-chiefs'
(Malapakulakala).
Thenextrecordreferring tothem isdateda.d.
1022andshowstheHoysalas,nowunderNripa-
kama,fightingagainsttheTamilKongalva chiefs
ofCoorgandoftheadjoiningpartsofMysore. In
oneoftherecordsofNripakama's timeheiscalled
thebase(munda)Hoysala;butnoreasonforthisis

254. 230 ANCIENTINDIA
given.Anotherrecord ofhisshowshimashelp-
ingtherulerofBanavasi(Nagardivision),againsthis
enemieswhoevertheywere.Here,then,isthefirst
historicalHoysala struggling outofobscurity,but
hisachievements areagainstchiefsofhisownlevel.
Hisresourcescouldnothavebeenverygreat,ifhe
wasindangeroflosinghislife,asheissaidto
havebeen,inhiswarsagainstthepettychiefEa-
jendraChelaPrithviKongalva,whoclaimsavictory
overhimatManne intherecord ofA.D.1026.
Curiouslyenoughaninscription (Mg.19) ofthe
seventhyearofthisveryKamaHoysalaatUggihalli,
aplacesituatednearAngadi,referstohimas
'Kama
Hoysala calledEajamalla Perumanadi '(Eajamalla
PerumanadiYenipaKamaHoysala). ThisMr.Eice
considersaclearlyGanga titleandsoitis;buthe
thinksthatthiscouldnotbegiventotheHoysala
unlesshewerethesonofaGangaprince.Could it
notbethathewasaGangafeudatoryandborehis
over-lord's title,justastheKongalvasaboutthesame
regiongavethemselvesCholatitles?(e.g,Eajendra
CholaPrithviKongalva). Thesuccessor ofNripa-
kama ishissonVinayaditya; butstrange tosay
theformer'snameisomittedininscriptions oflater
years,whichgiveelaborategenealogies. Thisomission
wasperhapsduetotheagnomen
'base 'havinghad
somehistorical basis.Whether thiswassoornot,
itisTribhuvanaHoysalaVinayadityawhobrought
thedynastyintosomeprominence.Hehadhishead-
quartersatSasakapura,buthissuccessor,hisgrandson
Bellala,rulesfromBelurashiscapital. Vinayaditya's
timeiscoevalwiththedeathgrapplebetweenthe
CholasandtheChalukyas.AmongtheMahamandales-
varSsofSomesvaraAhavamalla,thenameVinayaditya
isassociatedwiththeGangavadi 96000 ;butthis
veryprovincewasdividedbytheCholasintothree
governorship?, underaviceroyatTalakad,Mudikonda

255. RETROSPECT 231
Cholamandalam, VikramaCholamandalam andNik-
hariliCholamandalam runningfromwesttonorth-
eastalongsouthernMysore.Thas itisclearthat
theCholaswereinactualpossession oftheterritory,
whiletheChalukyaassertedhisrighttothesameby
theappointment ofaviceroy,withhead-quarters far
beyondtheprovince itself. Itisfromthisstruggle
thattheHoysalasemergemoreimportantthanever
before,butwhatparttheHoysalaactuallyplayedis
notclearfromtheinscriptions,thoughthere isno
roomfordoubtthattheyrenderedyeoman'sservice
totheirliegelords,theChalukyas.
TogobacktogeneralSouthIndianhistoryfora
while,Rajendra, theGangaikonda Chola, diedin
A.D.lOi'I,andwassucceededbyhissonEajadhi-
raja(a.d.1018to1052)alreadyassociatedwithhim
fromA.D.1018.Naturalandundisputedthoughthe
successionwas,therewasageneralattempt, inthe
frontierprovinces, tothrowofftheyokesorecently
imposeduponthem. Rajadhirajahadtostrikefirst
atCeylon,thenatTravancoreandagainatMysore,
inordertobringthesenewprovinces backinto
allegiance. Thishedidwithgreatsuccess,ably
seconded ashewasbyhisyoungerbrotherEajen-
dra.Aboutthemiddleofhisreign,theChalukya
dominionspassedontoAhavamallaSomesvara (a.d.
1044to1068). Rajadhiraja's inscriptionsclaimseveral
victories forhimintheMysorecountryandthe
claimseemstobebasedonfact.Atlastthetime
hadcomeforadecisivebattletosettleonceforall,
whowastobethemasteroftheprovinceunder
dispute.AtKoppamonthePerar(Tungabhadra)
thebattlewasfought inA.d.1052. Rajadhiraja
wasdefeatedandfellfighting. Hisyoungerbrother
Rajendracameupwithreinforcements, and,having
retrievedthehonouroftheCholasandthefortunes
oftheday,wasthencrownedonthefieldofbattle.

256. 232 ANCIBNTINDIA
OneofAhavamalla's inscriptions statesthattheChola
losthishead,having sacrilegiously burnttheJain
temples,whichthePerumanadi (aGangachiefor
perhaps theChalukya)hadbuiltintheBeluvola
300,situated intheBellary district. Inthecourse
oftheseriesofwars,whichculminated intheepoch-
makingbattleofKoppam,theHoysalamusthavehad
opportunities ofmakinghimselfmorepowerfulthan
hisfather ;nay,evenofcreatinghimselfoneofthose
wardensofthemarches,whohaveatalltimesproved
king-makers. Vinayaditya iscreditedbytheinscrip-
tions ofhissuccessors withhavingruledoverthe
countryboundedbyKonkana,Alvakheda,Bayalunadu,
Talakad,andBavimale. Thiswouldmeanthecountry
enclosedbytheKanaras,TalakadontheCauveryin
thesouthofMysore,andtheregionsabouttheriver
KrishnaorTuogabhadra. Thismustbe_theextentof
territoryunderhissuccessorVishnuvardhana, which
hasbeengiventohim,asDr.Fleetthinks. Allthrough
histimeandalmosttotheendofthecentury,heis
associatedwithhissonEreyanga(thered-bodied), as
YuvaEajaorheirapparent.
BeforetakingupthesuccessorofVinayaditya inthe
Hoysalalineage, itisnecessaryagaintoconsidertheir
surroundings. InA.D.1062or1063EajendraChola,
thesecondofthename,diedandwassucceededbyhis
youngerbrotherVirarajendra,whileatthesametime
Eajaraja theeasternChalukya alsodied. Hisson,
EajendraChola,betterknownbyhislatertitleKulot-
tungaChola,succeededthoughnotatEajamahendri.
ThislatterprincewasthesonofAmmangadevi, sister
ofthethreeCholaemperorsendingwithVirarajendra
anddaughteroftheGangaikonda Chola.Kulottunga
appearstohaveaspiredtothethroneoftheCholas,
andthisfactintroducedadisturbingelementinwhat
wouldotherwisehavebeenaquietsuccession. While
Virarajendrawasdoingallhecouldtomakehisposition

257. THETWOEMPEKOKS 233
secure,AhavamallaSomesvaraofthewesteriiChalukyas
diedina.d.1069andwassucceededbyhiseldestson
Somesvara (II)Bhuvanaikamalla. Unfortunately forthe
historyofSouthIndia,hehadatalentedbrotherVikra-
maditya. Thislatterwaswaitingforanopportunity
tooverthrowhiselderbrotherandoccupythethrone
himself.Yikramaditya appearstohavehadabetter
holdupontheaffections oftheMahamandalesvaras
thanSomesvara. Thispostureofaffairsledtomuch
diplomatic activityandmilitarydemonstration,which
culminatedinthealliancebetweenPrinceVikiauiaditya
andtheemperorYirarajendra, afterthelatterhad
defeatedtheKannadaarmiesinthebattlesofKudal
Sangaman,atthejunctionoftheTungabhadraandthe
Krishna. Thistreatywassealedbythemarriageof
thedesigningprincewiththedaughteroftheChola.
Somesvaraappearssofartohavereliedentirelyupon
hisyoungerbrother's loyalty,andallthecampaigns
againsttheindomitable Cholaswereconductedby
him.WhenSomesvaradiscovered lateronthedesigns
ofhisbrotherandthesuccessthelatterhadob-
tainedwiththeChola,heenteredasacounter-move
intoatreatywithKulottunga,whowasnowruling,
atleast,thesouthernpartofhisancestraldominions
(i.e.thedistrictsroundMadras), Yirarajendraproved
toostrongevenforthiscombination.Heinvadedthe
easternChalukya dominions andappointed Kulot-
tunga's uncleA'ijayaditya. viceroy oftheeastern
Chalukyaterritories. Yirarajendra diedsoonafterin
A.D.1070.Yikramaditya installed bisbrother-in-law
Adhirajaraja
;butKulottunga foundhisopportunity
nowandoccupiedtheCholathrone,Adhirajarajafalling
avictim tothisusurpation. Hemmed inbythis
powerfulChola,theChalukyausurper.Yikramaditya,
hadtobidehistimeandcompleted (a.d,1070)his
projectofoverthrowing hisbrotherandmakinghimself
emperor.

258. 234 ANCIENTINDIA
During allthesetransactions, bothdiplomaticand
warlike,betweentheCholasandtheChalukyas,the
Mahamandalesvaras ofGangavadi andNolambavadi
musthavehadtheirshare.While,ontheonehand,
theinscriptionsofVirarajendraclaimforhimthecredit
ofhavinggrantedtoVikramaditya, the
'
Youvvarajya
'
orthepositionofheirapparent,Hoysalainscriptionsof
aboutA.D.1100claimforBreyangaandhisfather-in-
law,theNolambaChief'sbrother,thecreditofhaving
renderedvaluable serviceinthesamecause.Ere-
yangacausedThribhuvanamalla's (Vikramaditya's) elder
brothertosheathehissword,whilehisfather-in-law,
Irukkapala, defeatedBhuvanaikamalla andgavethe
kingdomtoVikramaditya,whoserighthandEreyanga
isdescribed tohavebeen.Thismakes itclearthat,
inspiteofBilhana'sVikramankadeva Charitam,Vikra-
madityawashelpedinhismachinations against his
brotherbytheMysore chiefs.Whilethesechiefs
provedhisstrengththen,theywerelaterontocontri-
butemightily alsototheoverthrow ofhisempire.
EreyangawasrulingtheGangavadi 96,000,thatis
thelittleofitthatwasnotundertheCholas.As
atrustylieutenant oftheChalukya,hetookpartin
thedistantexpeditions tothenorth ;forEreyanga
laysclaimtoavictoryatDharainMalva,theking-
domofthePramaras.Hemusthavediedbeforehis
father,leavingbehindthreesonsbyhiswifeEchaladevi
whomight,ormightnot,havebeentheMahadevi,the
daughteroftheNolambaabovereferredto.
Vinayadityawassucceededbyhiseldestgrandson
BellalaIina.d.1101.Thisrulerhadhiscapital
atBelurwithwhichtheHoysalaswereassociated,
thoughDvarasamudrawasanalternative capital.His
province isgiventhesameboundariesasthatofhis
grandfather,andheissaidtohavepaidavisitto
Sosevur. InA.D.1103hemadearegrantofSinda-
geretoMarianeDhandanayaka asthewagesforthe

259. BITTIDEVA 235
'wetnursing' ofhisthreedaughters,whomBellala
marriedinthesamepavilionatBelur.Ina.d.1104,
heledanexpedition againsttheGhangalvas,whose
domainlayintheHoleNarasipurtaluq.Inthesame
year,withhisyoungerbrotherVishnu,heconducted
asuccessfulexpedition intotheneighbouringPandya
dominions ofNolambavadi, andhadtorepulsean
invaderJagaddeva, probablytheSantaraprince of
HumchainNagartaluq,whohadpenetratedasfaras
Dvarasamudra (Halebid^. Itisasignificantfactthat
aninscriptionofBellala'stimeisdatedinChalukya
Vikramakala (Kp.55).
Bellala Iwassucceededbyhisyoungerbrother
BittiDeva,betterknownbyhislatertitleA'ishnu-
vardhana.HeistherealfounderofHoysalagreatness,
andmanyevenofthetitlesofhissuccessorsand
predecessors (ininscriptions) areborrowedfrom his.
Thefirstmentionofhisnameisfoundinarecordof
A.D.1100associatedwithhisbrother Bellala.The
recordsofthelatterdonotgofurtherthantheyear
A.T>.1106,atwhichdateorsoonafterBittiDevamust
haveascendedthethrone.Butallinscriptionsagree
inascribing hisrealexploits to,atleast,tenyears
later.Hence itispossiblethatBellalacontinued to
ruleevenaftera.d.1106.Despitealltheclaimsput
forwardbyhispredecessors,hehastoundertakethe
conquestsontheonesideofNolambavadi andon
theotherofGangavadi, whichtwoconquestscon-
stitutehisclaimstothetitleofoneofthegreatest
ofYikramaditya's Mahamandalesvaras. Theelaborate
accounts oftheconquestofGangavadi,andthegreat
creditclaimedforitshowthefirmness ofthehold
theCholashaduponthecountry.Theconquest is
claimedseparatelybyanumberofVishnuvardhana's
generalsamongwhomprominencemustbegivento
GangarajaadispossessedscionoftheGangadynasty.
Othergeneralswhodistinguished themselves inthe

260. 236 ANCIENTINDIA
taking ofTalakadwereKetayyaDandanayaka and
Punisa. Afterthisconquest,BittiDevaassumesthe
titlesViraGangaandTalakadugonda. Kulottunga
Chelaseemstohaveacquiescedintheconquest,after
hisgeneralsAdiyama,DamodaraandNarasimhavarma
wereoverthrown ;forweseeVishnuvardhanamaking
aprogressthroughGangavadi, inthecourseofwhich,
atVijayadityamangala (themodernBetmangala), his
niece,thedaughterofhisyoungerbrothei'Udayaditya,
died.Aboutthesametime,orsoonafter,heinvaded
Nolambavadi,andatDummeontheborderbetween
ShimogaandChitaldroogwonavictoryoverthe
Pandya rulerofthecountry,whohadhiscapital
atUchchaagidoorga. Thisconquestwasonlytempo-
rary,andhisgrandsonhadtodoitoveragain.
Theyeara.d.1117marksanepochintheadvance
oftheHoysalapower.Vishnuvardhana bythisyear
hadbecomemasterofGangavadi96,000andhadmade
himself feltinNolambavadi. Inowgivethehistory
ofhisconquests, astheyarerecordedinmanyofhis
inscriptions, chieflytheoneatBelur,whichwasin-
scribedontheoccasionofthededication ofthetemple,
afterhehadadoptedtheteachingsofEamanuja,the
Vaishnavareformer,andassumedtheVaishnava title
ofVishnuvardhana. 'Firsttakingintohisarmsthe
fortune ofthePoysalakingdom,whichhehadin-
herited,hebrought allpointsofthecompassunder
hiscommand,andwascapturingTalakad,becamethe
firstrulertotheGangakingdom. . . .Hemadethe
earthtremblewiththetrampofhisKambojahorse,
waslordofGandagiri, splitthegreatrockPandya,
bursttheheartsoftheTulukings,destroyed the
armyofJagaddeva, devoured the fierceelephant
Somesvara,displayedhisvalourbeforeManikyadevi of
theChakrakuta throne,broughtdowntheprideof
Adiyama,overthrewthetreeNarasimhaVarma, split
theskullofkingKala,destroyedtheserpentCheugiri,

261. CONQUESTSOFVISHNUVABDHANA 237
brokedowntheplantain stemsthespearsofthe
Irungolas, shookthemountain CheugiriPerumala,
setupPattiPerumala,madeTalakadhisown,took
theKongucountry,protectedXolambavadi, expanded
Nilaparvata, extended Kolalapura, uprooted Kovatiir,
shookTere^yilr,crossedoverValliir,unchainedNang-
alipura,pulledupthedooroftheGhats,andmade
Kanchipuratremble.'Theboundaries ofhiskingdom
atthetimewere—east,thelowerghatofXangali
;
south,Kongu,CheramandAnamalai
;west,Barakanur
andotherghatsoftheKonkana
;north,Savimale.
Thislistofconquestshastobecarefullyconsidered
inordertoascertainwhatmeasureoftruththereisinit,
andhowmuchofithastobeputdowntothepanegyrist.
BittiDevasucceeded tohisancestraldominions,which
clearlydidnotincludeGangavadi,theclaimstothe
provinceofhisfatherandgrandfathernotwithstand-
ing.HiscaptureofTalakad isthecrucialachieve-
mentwhichentitleshimtotheruleofGangavadi
96,000.Thisachievement takesawaytheprovince
fromtheTamiliansonceforall,andEajendraKulot-
tungaevidentlyacquiesced intheconquest. Ganda-
girihasnotyetbeenidentified.Heissaidtoiiave
splittherockPandya. Thisperhapsmeansnomore
thanthePandyadefeatatDumme(onthefrontier
betweenShimogaandChitaldroog districts). The
achievement againstJagaddevamaybethesameas
thatofhisbrotherBellalaagainsttheSantaraprince
ofHumcha(PattiPombuchapura). Theachievement
againstSomesvara isputdownagainsttheChalukya
kingbyMr.Eice.TheChaUikyakingatthetime
wasVikramaditya,whohadasonSomesvarawhomay
haveactedinthenameofhisfather,aswasoften
thecase,asthegovernor ofBanavase, aprovince,
whichwasregardedofsufficientimportance torequire
aprinceofthebloodoftenforitsviceroy.Noinfor-
mationisforthcomingabouttheManikyadevi ofthe

262. 238 ANCIENTINDIA
Chakrakiita throne.AdiyamaandNarasimhaYarma
wereCholafeudatoriesinthesouthofMysore. ]^ala
wasaruleroftheNllagiris ;Chengirimighthave
beenTiruchengode intheSalemdistrict(ratherthan
GingeeasMr.Eicesurmises),formerlypartofthe
Kongukingdom. IrungolawasaTamilchiefof
NidugalinthePavagada taluq,andTereyurwasagain
aplaceofsomeconsequence inthenorth-east of
Tumkur. NangaliisthefrontiertownbetweenMysore
andNorthArcotintheMulbagal taluq.Thusthis
narrationwouldentitleBittiDevatotheconquestof
southernandsouth-eastern Mysore.Thatheeffected
theconquest ofGangavadi finally isborneoutby
thespecificmentionofhisruleoverthetwocapitals,
TalakadandKolar.Ina.d.1118,heissaidtohave
beeninresidence atTalakad. Thiscompletes his
conquests.Theboundariesgiventohisdominions in
thenorthappeartobemorequestionable. Savimale,
somewhere intheupperreachesoftheKrishna, is
toonearhisliegelord'shead-quarters, andhehad
toeffecttheconquestsofotherchiefsbeforehecould
extendhisdominions sofar.Thisnodoubthedid,
butnotasyet.
Theyear1121findshimagainathishead-quarters
atDvarasamudra,anditwasinthisyearthatacertain
Ketamalla,probablyamerchant,builtatemple,dedi-
catedtoSivaunderthenameVishnuvardhana-Hoyasa-
lesvara,thegreattempleatHalebid.ArecordatViru-
pakshapura intheChannarayapatna taluqofa.d.1121
showsthat
'MaleparolGanda-SrimatTribhuvanamalla,
Talakad-Kongu-Nangali-Nolambavadi, Uchchangi-Bana-
vase-HanungalamGondaBhujabalaYiraGangaHoysala
Deva 'madeagrantwithhisPattaMahadgvi(queen-
consort)andthePanchaPradhanas (fiveministers)to
thegodJayangondesvara. ThesetitlesofBittiDeva
wouldshowclearlyhisobject,butseveralofthese
weremereattempts atacquisition asyet.Thefive

263. vishntjvabdhana's tolbbancb 239
ministersoughttohavebeen,althoughMr.Eicepasses
overthemvs^itha
'v^hoevertheywere',theheir-apparent,
thecommander-in-chief, thepriest,theseniorSandhi
Vigrahim(ministerforforeign affairs)andthechief
secretary. SantalaDeviwasthequeen-consort. It
isremarkable thatwiththese,mostofwhomwere
Jains,thekingmadeagrantforaSivatemple
Jayangondesvara, thenameofwhichindicates that
itwasofCholafoundation,Jayamkondahavingbeen
oneofthetitlesofEajadhiraja.
InA.D.1123,heisagainonthebanksoftheKavery,
whilehisnorthernboundaryisdescribedasthePerddore
orKrishna.Herehehearsofthedeathofhisyounger
brotherUdayadityaandmakesagrant. Itwasinthe
sameyearthathemadeagrantofthevillageGrama
totheeastofHassantohisJSiinawifewhodivided
itamong220Brahmins. Itisevennowoneofthe
mostflourishing ofBrahminvillages.Thesameyear
SantalaDevibuilttheGandhavarana BastiinSravana
Belugoal. Ina.d.1125,heisagainatTalakadand
makesagranttothegreatJainteacherandcontrover-
sialistSriPala,whoclaimedthetitles
'ShadTarka
Shanmukha ',
'VadhibaSimha'and
'TarkikaChakra-
varti'. Theking isatYadhavapura
^Melukote) in
A.D.1128,andfromhisroyalresidence therehe
makesagranttoMarbala irtha,apparently apart
oftheSaivashrineontheChamundi hill.Bythis
timetheemperorVikramadityahaddiedandwassuc-
ceededbyhissonSomesvaraBhulokamalla. Kulot-
tungaCholahaddiedafewyearsearlier,butwas
succeededbyhissonVikramaChola.TheHoysala
aggressionsouthwardsappearstohavebeencheckedso
carefully,thatVishnuvardhana's attentionwasentirely
devoted toconquestinthenorth. Inarecordof
A.D.1129,theboundaries oftheHoysala territories
arethusdefined—east,Nangalighat ;south,Kongu,
CheramandAnamale ;west,Barakanurghat(north-

264. 240 ANCIENTINDIA
westofShimoga) ;andnorth,Savimale.Heissaid
tohaveterrifiedSomesvara.Longbeforethis,Vishnu-
vardhana's activity,aftertheconquest ofGangavadi
andtheattackonNolanibavadi,seemstohaveattract-
edtheattentionoftheemperorVikramaditya. He,
therefore,sentanumberofMahamandalesvaras, among
whomfiguretheKadambas ofGoa.Butthemost
trusted chiefsappeartohavebeenoftheSinda
chieftains ofYelburga, oneofwhom,AchugiH,
claimedlikeEreyangatohaverenderedgreatservicesto
Vikramaditya inhisusurpation. ThoughBittiDeva's
generalGangaRajaclaimstohavedefeatedtheseloyal-
ists,thefactthattheformer stillrecognized,even
nominally, theliegelordship oftheemperor,would
warranttheconclusion thathereceivedacheckin
hisonwardcareertowardsindependence. OnVikra-
maditya'sdeath,however, heresumes hisactivity
inthenorthandthisiswhatterrifiedSomesvara. At
thistimehewashelpedbyhissonKumaraBellala,
andhadanumberofdaughters,theeldestofwhom
wasHariyale.ThefactthatshewasJainwouldlead
onetoregardherandherbrotherandsistersasthe
childrenofSantalaDevi ;butthisisnotanecessary
inference, considering thereligiouscondition ofthe
Hoysalasandofthesetimes.
InA.D.1130,then,wefindtheHoysalapowerpracti-
callysupremeoverKongu,Nangali,Talakad,Gangavadi,
(thoughverymuchlesssohere)Banavase,Hanungal
andHuligere. Oftheseprovincesandcities,except
thetwolast,therestcomprisethemodernMysore
province.HanungalisthemodernHangalinDharwar,
andPuligere isLakshmeswaraboutthesamelocality.
ButthatamonghisenemiesarestillfoundtheKongalva
andChengalvapettychiefsissignificant ofthefact
thathehadnotasyetattained tounquestioning
obedience tohisauthoritywithintheprovince. This
explainswhyheisfoundconstantlymovingaboutinhis

265. BIRTHOFNAEASIMHA 241
province. Itisinthisyearthatheassumesthetitles
NolambavadiGondawhichappearsonsomeofhiscoins.
AninscriptionintheSivatempleatINEaddurofthe
yearA.r.1131(Saka1053)presentsBittiDevathus:
'TheMahamandalesvara thecapturerofTalakad,Kongu,
Xangali,Banavase,Uchchangi, thestrongarmedVira
Ganga,Vishnuvardhana Hoj-salaDeva,wasrulingthe
kingdomoftheworld,inhisresidenceintheroyalcity
ofDvarasamudra, punishingtheevilandprotectingthe
goodinGangavadi96,000,theNolambavadi 32,000,the
Banavase12,000,andtheHanungal 500.'Therecord
mentions agrantmadebythekingtoSwayambhu
VaijyanathaoftheSivapuraofMadduraliasNarasimha
Chaturvedimangalam. Whatismostinterestinginthis
record is,thatPillayanda claimedcertain lands,as
havingbeengrantedbytheGangakingSivam?.raand
showedacopperplategrant.Hisclaimwasallowed
aftertheplateshadbeenexamined.
Itwasinthisyearthathisqueen-consort Santala
Devidied.Acotipleofyearslateranothergreatcham-
pionoftheJainasdied,andonewhohadcontributed
largelytothegreatnessofhismaster. ThiswasGanga
Kaja,thecapturerofTalakadandtherestorerofthe
JaintemplesdestroyedbytheCholas.Bythislatter
actheissaidtohavemadeMysoreshinelikeKopana
(KoppalintheNizam'sDominions). Onhisdeath
GangaRaja'ssonBoppabuiltaJlnalayainmemory
ofhisfatheratHalebid,calledDrohagharatta Jlnalaya.
Having itconsecratedbyNayakirti, thesacredfood
wassenttothekingwhowasthenatBankapura,the
northern frontier oftheHoysalakingdom. This
reachedVishnuvardhana justashewasreturningvic-
toriousfromanexpeditionagainstMasana,andwhile
hisqueenLakshmiDevihadjustbornehimasonand
heir.TheJainpriestswere,therefore,receivedwith
favour,andthekingpleasedwiththeauspiciousarrival
ofthepriestsnamedhissonVijayaNarasimha,and
16

266. 242 ANCIENTINDIA
wishedthattheJinainthenewtempleshouldbecalled
VijayaParsvanatha. ItisthisJainBasadithatisstill
anobjectofsighttotravellers. Itissituatedacouple
offurlongsfromthegreatHoysalesvaratemple.From
thisperiodonward,Vishnuvardhana waschieflyengag-
edinthenorthagainstthechiefsonthefrontierfor
theacquisition ofBanavaseandNolambavadi forhim-
self;forinspiteoftheMysorerecordstheinscriptionsof
SomesvaraIIIshowaseriesofMandalesvaras incharge
ofBanavase,andacertainViraPandyaissaidtohave
beenrulingfromUchchangidurgaovertheNolambavadi
32,000. ItisonlyintheyearA.D.1137thatVishnu-
vardhanaisshownbythoserecordstobetheMahaman-
dalesvarainchargeofGangavadi,Nolambavadi, and
Banavase (i.e.themodernStateofMysore).Allthe
interimmusthavebeenaperiodofstruggle. Ever
sincehewasbeatenbackbytheloyalSindachief-
tain,Achugi II,onbehalfofVikramaditya, hemust
haveacquiesced inthemerelysubordinate roleofthe
Mahamandalesvara ofGangavadi,whichmayactually
havebeenmorethantheprovince itself.Atnotime,
however, couldhehaveextended hisboundaries
permanentlyfurthernorththanBankapurinDharwar,
forhewashemmed inbythepowerfulandloyal
SindasontheeastandtheKadambasonthewest.
ThusKrishnaveni forthenorthern boundary of
Vishnuvardhana musthavebeenaboutasrealas
Eameswaraminthesouth.Thisyeara.d.1137,orthe
yearafter,marksanotherstageintheadvanceofthe
Hoysalapower.Hereisarecordoftheyear1137,
which setsdownhisconquests,whileanotherJain
recordofthesamedaterecognizes clearlythesub-
ordinateposition of"Vishnuvardhana asafeudatory,
howeverpowerfulhebe,ofSomesvara III,Bhiiloka-
malla.Thefirstpartoftherecord isgoneandthe
meaning ofthefirstfewsentences isnotclear. It
reads :
'Onhisdesertinghisqueens,forsakinghisking-

267. vishnxjvaedhana's conquests 243
dom,anddyinginthecountrynearClieiigiri,hetook
possession ofthecompany ofNarasinga's wives,put
downAngara,trampledonSingahkaand,turninginthe
directionoftheGanges,slewthekingsofthenorthern
countries—thesonofKingEreyanga.Havingsucceeded
inthisexpedition tothenorth,hiselephanttrampled
downthearmyofthePandyaking,ashamed ofso
easyavictory,havingdefeatedCholaandGaulain
terriblegreatwars.AndpursuingPandyaheseized
Nolambavadi, capturingUchchangi inamoment,and
tossing itupasifplaying atball—Kanchi-Gonda.
Vikrama-Ganga. Afterthat,marchingtotheTelinga
country,hecapturedIndra . . .togetherwithhis
elephants,thewealthgainedbyhisvictoriesandthe
inheritedwealthofhisfamily. Afterthat,destroying-
rootandbranchMasana,whowasatormenttothe
country,hewrotedowntheBanavase12,000inhis
Kaditha(account-book). "WhentheKingVishnuwas
playingasifattirikal,akindofpitchandtoss,with
thegreatSahyamountains, Nllagiriand . . ofwhat
accountaretheothers ;andwhatwonder isitthat
hetookPanungalinhalfasecondwiththeflipofhis
finger . . killingonlywithaglance . .anotherwho
wastakingKisukad,hepursuedafterJayakesiand
gainedpossession ofthePalasige12,000andthe . . .
500.Turningandturningheenteredhill-fortsgoing
fartherandfartherawayasfarastheiicean . . .attack-
ingthemagainandagain,hesoughtoutthebravest
inthenorthandslewthem—Vishnuvardhana Deva.
Whatever countriesareconsideredfamous,whatever
hill-fottsarespeciallydesciibed,whateverkingsare
worthyofbeingreckoned,hesubduedandaddedto
hisfamethroughouttheworldasfarasthelimitsof
thefouroceans—thegloryoftheKshatriya race,the
bravekingVishnu.
WhenthatgreatKshatriya, entitled tothefive
greatdrums,Mahamandalesvara (withnumerousother

268. 244 ANCIENTINDIA
titles),aBhairavaofthelastdelagetotheCholarace,
aroyalliontotheelephantChera,asubmarine fire
totheoceanthePandyarace,awildtiretothesprouts
ofthecreeperthefameofthePallava,asardulatothe
lionNarasimhavarma, hisunshakenfamealampinto
whichKalapalaandotherkingsfalllikewingedwhite
ants,thetwangofwhosebow,puttingtoflightthe
Anga,Vanga,KalingaandSimhalaKings,Kanchipura,
resoundingwithhisordersaswiththesharpsounds
ofdrums(named),thewivesofhostilekingsemployed
inhishouseasfemale servants, squeezinginhis
handsthesouthernMadhurapura, havingdestroyed
Jananathapura byhisGeneral,Kanchi-Gonda-Vikrama-
jGanga,ViraVishnu-vardhana Deva,protectingunder
hissoleumbrellatheGangavadi96,000,Nolambavadi
-32,000,andBanavase12,000,wasrulingtheKingdom
dnpeaceandwisdom.'
ThislongrecitalofhisdeedsshowswhereVishnuvard-
hanahadtobemostactive,andwhatalongstruggle
itmusthavecosthimbeforehecouldhaveuaitedthe
threeseparateprovincesintooneunitedwhole.The
firstportionofthisquotationappearsquitehistorical,
whilebythetimethecomposeroftherecordreached
thesecondportionheseemstohaveworkedhimselfup
toahighpitchofhyperbole. Hisactivitieswereall
requiredinthenorthagainstthemorepowerfulMaha-
mandalesvaras Jayakesi II,theKadamba rulerof
GoaandHangal,againsttheNolambasofUchchangi,
asViraPandya issaidtoberulingfromthesame
hill-forthishereditaryprovinceofNolambavadi thirty-
twothousandina.d.1139,andtheSindachieftains
ofYelburga, particularlyAchugi II.Thus itwould
appearimpossible thatheeverreached,much less
conquered,eitherKanchi,orMadhura,orJananathapura
(Eajamahendri notMahabalipuram, orMalinginear
Talakad).TheconquestsofAnga,Vanga,andKalinga
aremuchmoreremotefromtheactual.Bytheyear

269. UNITEDMYSORE 245
1137,then,Vishnuvardhana hadsofarsucceeded in
uniting,notbeyonddisputeasyet,thoughrecognized
athead-quarters,thewholeofthemodernMysoreState
underhisrule.Buthedidnotfeelhispositionsure
enoughtoassumetheroyaldignity.Theremaining
sixorsevenyearsofhislifehedevoteshimselfto
securinghimselfinthenorthernfrontier,wherethings
weremovingfasttowardsdisruption.
Intheyeara.d.1137Vishnuvardhana's capitals
wererespectivelyTalakadinthesouth,andBankapur
inDharwar inthenorth—twofortifiedplaceson
eitherfrontieragainstthetwoemperors,oneoneither
side.Thissameyearheperformedtheroyalactof
tulapurusha, i.e.heweighedhimselfagainstgoldand
distributed itamongBrahminsandotherdeserving
recipients ofgiftsofcharity.Abouttheendofthe
year1138,hecrossedtheTungabhadraandlaidsiege
toHangal,notwithstanding somanypreviousstatements
astotheconquestofit.Thisandthefightnextyear
atDvarasamudra withJagaddeva indicatesthathis
advanceinthenorthwasnotacquiesced in.
Itmustberememberedherethatintheyear1138
SomesvaraBhulokamalla died,andwassucceededby
Jagadekamalla intheChalukya empire. Vishnuvar-
dhanamusthaverepeatedhisattempttoprofitby
asuccession. Thistimeagainhewasfoiled Ijythe
loyalMahamandalesvaras, helpedbytheSantaraprince
Jagaddeva. In1140BittiDevaisagainatBankapura
rulingthefollowing provinces :Gangavadi 9G,000,
Banavase 12,000, Santhalige 1,000,Hanungal 500.
Halasige 12,000,Mogelle 300,andtheHalve 12.
HavinggivenawayhisowncountrytoBrahminsand
templesandrulingonlytheforeigncountrieshehad
won,hewasinresidence atBankapura withthe
Krishnaandthethreeoceansastheboundaries of
hisdominions. Herehediedintheyeara.d.1141,
havingfallenshortofhisambitiononlyinnothaving

270. 246 ANCIENTINDIA
beenabletoassumethetitlesofroyalty,thoughhe
wasinundoubtedenjoyment ofthesubstance ofit.
VishnuvardhanawassucceededbyhissonVijayaNara-
simha,whowasbornintheyear1133,andcrownedat
hisbirth,probablybecausehisfatherlostallhisother
sons,or,atanyrate,thesonwhowasalreadyold
enoughtohelphiminthegreatworkofbuildingup
akingdom.
Whilethroughtheconstantendeavours, oftensuc-
cessfulthoughoccasionally foiled,ofVishnuvardhana,
Mysorewasrisingintoakingdom, theempire of
which itformedanintegralpart forcenturieswas
fastmovingtowardsdisintegration. Itis,therefore,
necessary, beforetakingupthetaleofNarasimha's
conquests, ofhisattemptsattheconservation ofhis
inheritance, toglanceatthehistoryoftheChalukya
empireandthecauseswhichledtoitsdisintegration.
Vikramaditya's longreignoffifty-twoyearswasoneof
peaceessentially,exceptforaninvasionoftheChola
dominionsandtorthecheckhehadtoadminister to
therisingambition ofhisHoysalafeudatory, about
theendofhisreign.Likehispredecessors,theearly
ChalukyaPulikesinIIandtheSatvahanaGotamlputra
Satakarni,hehadoftentocarryonwaracrossthe
Narbudda,buteventhishedoesnotappeartohave
hadtodoveryoften.Hisempireextendedindiagonal
linesfromBroachtoErodeandfromMangalore to
Sitabaldi. Thisvastterritorywasparcelledoutinto
anumberofviceroyalties ;amongtheviceroysmay
bementioned inorderfromthenorth-west—The
SeunasorYadavaswithcapitals atSinnar (near
Nasik)andlateratDeogiri ;theSilaharasofNorthern
andSouthernKonkanandofKolhapur ;nextcome
theKndambasofGoaandHangal ;eastoftheseare
theSindas ofYelburga, theGuttas ofGuttalin
DharwarandEattasofSaundatti inBelgaum ;then
comethedominionsunderthehead-quarters, namely,

271. BIJ.TALA 247
alltheNizam'sDominionsexceptthemosteasterly-
part,theKhamametdivision
;andlasilytheviceroyalty
withhead-quarters atSitabaidi. ThisleavesoutBane-
vase,NolambavadiandGangavadimoreorlessunder
theHoysalas,althoughtotheendofVishnuvardhana's
lifeotherviceroyscontinuedtobeappointed forthe
twoformer. Thisvastempirepassedontohisson
SomesvaraBhulokamalla ina.d.1128,thankstothe
loyalexertions oftheSindachieftains againstthe
southern viceroys. Somesvara diedin1138andthe
empirepassedagaintohisson,PermaJagadekamalla,
whoruledtilla.d.1150.Inthisreigncomesintonotice
ayoungmanofpromise,whosefatherwasgovernorof
Tardawadi 1,000,thedistrictroundBijapur,analter-
nativecapital oftheChalukyas. ThiswasBijjala.
Hewasgovernorofthesameprovinceashisfather,
butlateronhebecomes sufficientlyimportanttobe
appointedviceroyofNolambavadiandBanavase,gov-
erningtheseprovincesbydeputies,himselfkeepingat
head-quarters, liketheSaiyidbrothersundertheMoghul
emperorMuhammad Shah.Thischangeintheposi-
tionofBijjalaisnoticeableunderJagadekamalla, but
whenthelatterwassucceededbyhisbrotherTailaIII,
hekeepsgrowinginpower, tillin11.56hebecomes
virtuallyruler,thoughTailacontinuesnominallyemperor
tillA.D.1163.Thereisonlyoneexplanation forthis.
Heisseennamedingrantsasthecommander-in-chief
ofalltheforces,anofficerneverheard ofbefore.
Therewasprobablyarisingofallthemorepowerful
viceroysorananticipationofsucharising,whichwould
naturallyrequireamasterhandtodealwiththesituation.
Thatmasterhandnotbeingfoundonthethrone,awire-
pullerwouldnaturallyenoughcomein. IfBijjaladid
this,nothingelseisneededtoexplainhisownappoint-
menttotheprovincesmostunderdispute.
Aboutthistimeontheeasternfrontieranotherenter-
prisingrulerwasrisingonthehorizonofhistory. Since

272. 248 ANCIENTINDIA
theaccessionofVikramaChela,theeasternChalukya
dominionshappened tobeneglectedsomehow,andan
enterprisingchiefbetweenthetwoChalukyaempireshad
hisopportunity. Justwithinthefrontieristhehamlet
ofAnamkonda,theancestralcapitalofBeta,thefounder
ofthefamilyoftheKakatiyas,whowastobecome
famousastheKakatiyas ofWarangal,whichhisson
Prolafoundedandwhitherhehadshiftedthecapital.
ThisProlaclaimstohavedefeatedTailappasometime
inhisreign,and itisverylikelythatthisevent
occurredabouta.d.1155.Thisexternalshock,com-
binedwiththeinternallossofholdontheMahamanda-
lesvaras,musthavethrownTailappaintothearms
ofBijjala,whoforthewhileprovedthesaviour. This
saviourusurped firstthepowerandthentheposition
andparaphernalia oftheempire. Bijjala,however,
wasnotallowedtoeffecthisusurpationundisputed.
TheSindaswereloyalasusualinspiteofaclose
familyalliancewithBijjala,andthePandyaswere
equally so. Bijjalaandhissonscontinued inthe
empirefromll(i3to1183,whenageneralofBijjala,
bynameKamaDevaorKavana,hadasonBommaor
Brahma. ThislatterrestoredthesonofTailaIII
undertheimperialtitleofSomesvaraIVin1183,using
forthepurposethearmyunderhisfather,whoappears
tohavebeentotheKalachviryarulermuchwhatBijjala
himselfwastoTailappa. Somesvararuled tilla.d.
1189,andhisrulewasconfined tothesouthernand
south-western partofhisdominions.Acombination of
someofhischiefsagainsthimandhisloyalfeudatories
theSindasmadehimretiretothenorth-westfrontier
ofhisdominions,andnothingmorewasheardofhim.
Inthescrambleforterritorythatfollowed,notinan
orderlyCongressofViennabutbyappealtoarms,two
Powersstoodoutheirstotheempire,theYadavasof
DeogiriandtheHoysalasofDvarasamudra, theKaka-
TyasofWarangal takingtheirhumble shareofthe

273. NAEASIMHA 249
spoil,andthehistoryofthelatter willnowbe
resumed.
Narasimha, atenderboyofeightyears,supported
bytheremnant ofhisfather'sveterangeneralsand
ministers, succeeded tothedifficultposition ofhis
father.Heruledfroma.d.1141to1173,aperiod
ofthirty-twoyearsduringwhichallhisexertionswere
requiredtoconservethedominionsbequeathed tohim.
HisreigniscoevalwiththoseofJagadekamalla and
TailaIII,andrunsintoapartofeventheKalachfirya
usurper,Bijjala'sreign. Ithasbeenalreadyremarked
that,althoughVishnuvardhana's titletoBanavaseand
No|ambavadihadbeenrecognizedin1137to1138under
Sdmesvara III,otherimperial officerscontinued tobe
appointedfortheviceroyaltyofeachoftheseprovinces.
ThattheholdoftheHoysalasovertheseprovinces
wasoftheslightest isprovedbythefactthatinthese
localitiestheearliestHoysala inscriptions arethose
ofNarasimha'ssonYiraBellala.Nolambavadi under
twopowerfulbrothers,ViraPandyaandYijayaPandya,
afteritsrecovery,andBanavaseunderaseriesof
viceroys, firstoftheKadambafamilyandthenof
others,thelastofwhomwasBijjala,continuedtheir
allegiance totheempire.Exceptaninvasionortwo
intotheseprovinces,Narasimhawasabletodobut
little ;butinonedirectionhisarmswerevictorious.
HisgeneralBokkimayya, orBokana(theGarudaof
Vishnu),broughtundersubjection tohimtheTulu,
theChangalva,theKongalva,andBayalnadu in1155.
In1161,hemarcheduponBankapura,whichwas
occupiedbytheKadambas,anddefeatedthem. It
wasbetween thesedatesthatBijjalawascarrying
throughhisschemeofusurpation,andinconsequence
therewasastruggleamongthesouthernPowers. Xt
firstNarasimhaseemstohavehadthebetter of
itagainst theother viceroys, andthenagainst
Bijjalahimself. Itisthisopposition toBijjalaon

274. 250 ANCIKNTINDIA
thepartoftheSindasandthePandyasofNolamba-
vadithatledtothefinalconquestandabsorption
byBellalaofNolambavadi andBanavase. Bythe
year1165,hehadasonKumaraBellalaandcon-
tinuedtorule till1173,whenheisdescribedas
'
aroyalswansportinginthelakeoftheAndhra
women,asuntothelotusfacesoftheSimhala(Cey-
lonese)women,agoldenzonetothewaistofthe
Karnatakawomen,anornamentstampedwithmusk
oftheLata(Gujarati)women,thesaffronpasteonthe
goblets(thebreasts)oftheCholawomen,amoonto
thewaterlilies(theeyes)ofGaulawomen(apartof
Bengal),thewaveonthe...ofthebeautyofthe
Bengalawomen,abeetothelotuses,thefacesofthe
Malavas.' InadditiontothequeensChengalaDevi,
EchalaDevi(motherofBellala)andGujjalaDevi,
heisdescribed asmaintaining aharem of384
womenofgoodbirth. Itisnowonderthenthathe
diedattheearlyageoffortyintheyear1173unlike
hisfatherandothersofhisfamily,whohadbeen
trained inahardierschoolofdisciplinethanthe
innerapartments ofaroyalpalace.
NarasimhawassucceededbyhissonViraBellala,
whosereignwasacomparatively longandvigorous
oneofforty-sevenyears,a.d.1173to1220.ViraBellala
IIistheactualmakerofMysore,althoughhisgrand-
fatherdeserves creditnotonlyforhavinglaidthe
foundationbutalsoforhavingcarriedhisprojectmuch
fartherthanthat.Circumstances, however,combined
toputofftherealizationofhisideastothetimeofhis
grandson,whowasquiteworthyofsuchanoblemission.
Bijjalainthefullflushofhispowerhadcreatedoppo-
sitiontohimselfinthesouth,whichwastheopportunity
fortheHoysala. Bijjalacontinuedtoruletill1167,when
heabdicatedinfavourofhiseldestson,whoandhis
threebrothersruledtheempire till1183,insuccession,
whenBammarestoredtheChalukya,SomesvaraIV.

275. VIEABELLALA 251
ViraBellala isfoundassociatedwithhisfather's
generalTantrapalaHemmadi intheconquest of
themalechiefs,Kongalva,Changalvaandothers,who
werebroughtintosubjectionina.d.1168.Withthe
year1174tbereferences toChalukyasupremacycom-
pletelydisappear,probably,because itthenappeared
totheHoysalasthattherewasnochanceofthe
Chalukyasregaining theirpower,astheywellmight
havedone,undertheKalachiirya Bijjalaandhissons.
Thisfactnotwithstanding, itisremarkablethatVira
Bellaladidnotassumethetitlesanddesignations of
royalty.Heevenrecognized theover-lordship (in
A.D.1178)ofSankama,thethirdsonofBijjala. It
waseitherinthisyear,oralittlebefore it,thathe
besiegedandtookpossession ofUchchangiDroog,the
capitalofthePandyas.Heappears,however,tohave
restoredVijayaPandyaonhissubmission tothe
Hoysalaauthority. Thiseventmusthavehappened
whentheloyalSindasandthePandyaswerehard
pressedinthenorth.AgainstthesetheKalachurya
usurpersandthepowerfulsouthernfeudatoryHoysala
musthavecometoanunderstanding asbetween
themselves. Thiswouldaccountfortheinvasions of
theHoysaladominionsbyBammaorBrahma,who
restoredSomesvaraIV,thelastChalukya, tohisan-
cestralthroneina.d.1183.ThislastChalukyahad
tobetakehimselftothesouth-west ofhisdominions
undertheincreasingpressureputuponhimbythe
powerfulYadavasunderBillama hisownfeudatory
onthenorth-west,andtherisingpowerofWarangal
underProlaandhissonPratapaRudraDevaI.The
Yadavaextensionfromthenorth-westandtheHoysala
extensionfromthesouthbringthemfacetofaceon
thebanksoftheMalprabhaandtheKrishna. Inthis
neighbourhood abattlewasfouj^htatSoraturnear
Gadag,whereBhillamaYadhavawasfinallydefeated,
andthefortofLokkundi inDharwaroccupiedby

276. 252 ANCIENTINDIA
ViraBellala ina.d.1190.Thefortifiedplaceshe
rapidlytookthisyearorbefore itwere—Virata's
city(Hangalj,Kurugodu, theMatanga Hill,Dora-
vadi,Gutti,Guttavolalu, Uddare, Haladi,Bandanike,
Ballare, Soratiir, Bremberege (Yelburga), Halawe.
Manuve,andLokkigundi itself(allintheregionbe-
tweenthepresentMysorefrontierandtheKrishna).
Beforethisin1189SomesvaraIVwasdefeatedpro-
bablybytheYadavasandnomore isheardofhim.
ThetimewasnowripeforBellalatoassumeformal
independence ofanysuzerain,fortherewasnone,except
theYadavaJaitugiwhohadbeendefeatedwithhis
father.TheSindashavingbeenovercomealreadythere
wasnoonebetween thetwo.Hence,theMalprabha,
andafteritsjunctiontheKrishna,becametheparting
linebetweentheHoysalasinthesouthandtheYadavas
ofDeogiriinthenorth,andthisdivisioncontinued
tillbothwereoverthrowninsuccessionbyMalikKafur
inA.D.1310.ViraBellalainA.d.1191-2,assumedthe
followingparamount epithetsand titles—
'Samasta
Bhuvanasraya, SriPrithvivallabha, Maharajadhiraja,
Paramesvara andParamaBhattaraka', andthestyle
of
'Pratapachakravartin BhujabalaPratapaChakra-
vartin,HoysalaChakravartin,BhujabalaPratapaCha-
kravartin,andYadavaChakravartin,andstartedanera
inhisname.Thiscompletestheindependence ofthe
Hoysalas,althoughtheclaimtothewholeofKuntala
appearsmereextravagance. ByA.D.1191-2Mysore
asanindependentStatehadbeenmade,andtherest
oftheHoysalastorybelongstoanotherchapterofSouth
Indianhistory.
Wehavethusseenthestagesbywhichapetty
chiefandhisdescendants inthesouth-westcornerof
theKadiirdistrictworkedtheirwayuptotheestab-
lishmentofapowerfulState,whichmadeitsinfluence
feltinthehistoryofSouthIndia.Inthisworkthe
chiefsdisplayednotonlymilitaryability,butalsogreat

277. LATERHOYSALAS 253
diplomaticshrewdness bj'which,withoutintheleast
givingcauseforthesuspicionofdisloyalty,theyturned
everycircumstance totheiradvantageandwaited till
theycould,withoutfearofbeingchargedwithtreachery
anddisloyalty,assumetheregalposition. Inthiswork,
politicalcircumstances ofthetimescombinedwithper-
sonalskill,andthishappyconjunction itwasthatmade
theircourseuniformly successful ;forotherwisethey
wouldhavebeenoverthrownbeyondrecoverybyYikra-
maditya. Yinayadityawasperhapsamoreactivechief-
tainthanhispeers,butitwasthevaluableservicesof
hissontotherisingsunoftheChalukyasthatestablished
hisclaimtotheemperorsgratitude. HissonYishnu
renderedanevenmorevaluableservicetotheempire
—
notemperoronly—bystoppingtheadvancing tideof
theCholaconquest.Throughalongperiodofactivity
hewasabletogainimperialrecognition totherule
ofmodernMysore. This,however,hadtobemade
goodasagainstotherambitiousbutlo5'alchieftains,
whowereoverthrowndaringtheusurpation intheem-
pire.ThiswastakenadvantageofbyA'lraBellala,as
hasbeenpointedoutalready,whogavethecoupdegrace
andstoodintheplenitude ofpowerasthe
'Emperor
ofthesouth
'—merelythesouthofthewesternCha-
lukyaempireandnothingmoreasyet.There is
stilltheexpansionoftheHoysalaempire,whichgoes
sofarastoestablishanalternative capitalnear
Srirangam,andthencomesthefall,notintheusual
course,butthroughtheintervention ofadisturbing
element,theMuhammadan invasion oftheDekhan.
Thatisacenturyhenceandfallsinthereignofan
ill-fatedViraBellala.

278. CHAPTERIX
VISHNUVABDHANA
Inthe
'MakingofMysore 'Ihavedweltsomewhat
fullyupontheaspectofthisgreatrulerofMysore
asanempire-builder. Ihave,however,hardlytouched
uponthegreatchangethatcameoverhiminthecourse
ofhisroyalcareer,whichledtohisconversionfrom
JainismtoVaishnavaism. Iproposemthischapterto
dealwiththissideofhischaracter,andthusdescribe
thereligiousconditionofMysoreinhisdays.
Beforeproceedingtodealwiththisquestion,oneor
twocommonheresiesregardingtheparticularformof
worshipfollowedbythedisciplesofRamanujahaveto
bedisposed of. ItwasBishopCaldwellwhogave
currencytotheideathatRamanujawasthefounder
ofVishnuworshipandthattheAlvarswerehisdis-
ciples. Caldwellcouldbepardonedreadily, ifthelate
professoL'SeshagiriSastriarofthePresidency college,
withmuchoftheresultsofresearchthatCaldwell
hadnotbeforehim,couldholdthesameopinionand
identifytheYallabhaDfivaofthedaysofPeriyalvar
withAtiViraRamaPandyan, a.d.1563,andbring
otherAlvarslaterinpointoftime.Professor Julien
VinsonofParis,followinginthewakeofthese,with
muchmorereasonableexcuseinhisfavourthanthelate
Professor,believesthatVaishnavismbeganaboutthefif-
teenthorthesixteenthcenturies.TheCholainscrip-
tionspublishedbyDr.Hultzschinhislatestvolume
(Vol.III.P II.,)effectively dispose ofCaldwell's

279. EVIDENCESOFVISHNUWORSHIP 265
contentionandafortioriofthosethatfollowinhisfoot-
steps.Mr.A'enkayya,inhisreporttotheGovernment
lastyear(1904),referstooneinscriptionintheTripli-
canetempleofthetimeofthePallavas,therebyproving
theexistenceofthetempleinPallavatimes. Iffurther
proofswerewantedinthismatteronehasbuttolook
forthem.TheSilappadhikaram, aTamilKavyaof
thesecondcenturyoftheChristianEra(themost
unfavourable estimate ofitsantiquity placing itin
theseventhcentury .\.d.),referstotheVishnutem-
plesatSrirangam, TriuppatiandTirumalirunajolai.
Comingupfromthem,ParamesvaraVarmanPallava
(regardedbyDr.Hultzschasthesecondofthename)
builtthetempleParamesvaraVinnagaram (Ulagalan-
dhaPermalKoil)inConjevaram. Theperiodofthe
Pallavaascendency inSouthernIndiamusthavebeen
theperiod ofgreatHindu activity inreligion,as
againsttherivalfaithsoftheJinaandtheBuddha.
Thiswasexactlytheperiod ofthegreattemple
builders,andseveraltemplesdedicatedaliketoSivaand
VishnuinSouthIndiaowetheirexistence tothis
dynasty.SimhaA'ishnuorXarasimbaVarman,other-
wiseMahamalla,wasthebuilderoftherock-cuttemples
atMahabalipuram (theSeveuPagodas)andhewasthe
rivalcontemporary ofPulikesin II,whosecourtYwan
Chwang(HiuenThsang)visitedinhistravelsthrough
India.Kochengan, aCholawhomusthavepreceded
thePallava^.builttemplestoVishimandSivainclose
proximityoften,snthatfromtheseventhcenturyonward
SaivaismandVaishnavaism developed sidebyside
andwerealikepatronizedbytheroyalties ofthose
days.
Through allthistime,however,Mysoreremained
generallyJain.Theliangarulersappeartohavebeen
Jains,althoughtheKonguchronicle statesthatthe
greatRanganatbatempleatSrirangapatam wasbuilt
inthedaysofthelaterGangarulers.Therearerecords.

280. 256 ANCIENTINDIA
however, oftheexistenceofSivaandVishnutemples,
endowedbyindividualsovereignsoftheGangadynasty.
InthedaysofVishnuvardhanaatemplemanagerof
theSivatempleatMaddur{aliasSivapura)claimed
aplotoflandonthestrengthofacopper-plategrantof
^ivaMara II.{Girc.a.D.750).Therearesimilar
referencestoVishnutemples. ThisSivamara'sfather,
SriPurushaMuttarasa, isreferredtoasaworshipper
atthefeetofNarayana. ThusthenweseeVaishna-
vaismasareligionwasinexistencelongbeforethedays
ofEamanuja,howevermuchhemayhavereformed,
alteredoraddedtoit.
TheadvanceoftheCholaPowerinSouthIndia
markstheadvancealsooftheSaivareligion,asmostof
thesovereignswereoftheSaivapersuasionandrichly
endowedthetemples,whicheithertheythemselvesbuilt
orwhichwerealreadyinexistence,althoughoccasional
grantsweremadeandexistinggrantsconfirmedtothe
Vaishnavatemples.Abouta.d,1000,therefore,there
wasfreshvigourinreligiousdevelopment,partlybecause
thestruggleagainsttheJainshadbecomesomewhat
keener,andpartlybecausetheworkofthesaints,
SaivaandVaishnava,hadbornefruitintheincreased
attention toreligion. Itwaswhilethisreligious
fermentwasbeginning tooperatethattheChola
conquest ofMysorebegan. Thisconquest, which
graduallygavetheGangavadi96,000andthegreat
partofNolambavadi 32,000totheCholas,brought
theSaivismoftheCholasandtheJainismofthe
Chalukyas facetofaceintheMysorecountry. Nol-
ambavadihadbeenlostpractically totheChalukyas
beforethedaysofAhavamalla Somesvara, sothat
thecontinualwarsinthispartofthefrontierhad
alsoareligiouselementinit.WhenVishunvardhana,
therefore,cametotakepartinthepoliticsofMysore,
thecountrywasintheunsettled stateofreligious
debate.Jainismwasgenerallyintheascendant,while

281. vishnuvardhana's conversion 257
therewasaconsiderable followingfortheSaivasand
Vaishnavas aswell.
Itwaswhilematterswereinthisstatethatthe
Brahman youth ofConjevaram succeeded tothe
Vaishnava apostolic seatatSrirangam ofhisgreat
grand-fatherAlavandar. Thisj'oungmanwasEama-
nuja,who,bornintheyear987Saka,wastobecome
thegreatreformerofIndia,andwhosediscipleshold
muchofthecountrysouthandnorth.Havingput
awayhiswifeandassumedtherobesofanascetic^
hespentthebestpartofhisdaysinteaching the-
Vaishnavas ofSrirangam. Inhisvedanticteachings
hehadoftentocriticizeotherschoolsofthoughtin
religionwhichnaturallymadehimafewenemies,
though, ifwecanjudgeofthemanbyhisworks,he
musthavebeenfarfromamilitantpreacher.An
impertinentandhalf-blasphemous remarkofoneof
hisdisciples inreplytoachallengesentoutbya
doughtySaivachampionjeopardizedEamiinuja's posi-
tioninSrirangam. Theerringdiscipleplacedhimself
inthepositionoftheinoii'ensive preceptorandsent
thelatterforasylumintotheMysorecountry—the
landoftoleration. HereRamanuja spent,according
totheGuruparampara i,twelveyearsbeforehewas.
broughttothenoticeofBittiDeva,thengradually
becomingmasteroftheGangavadiDCi.OOO.Thesincere
pietyandthepersuasive eloquence ofRamanuja's
teachingmusthaveprevailedwiththeking,forhe
becameaconverttotheVaishnava faithabouta.d.
1116. BittiDevathenceforwardcontinuedinthesame
persuasionunderthetitleVishnuvardhana.
Theaccount ofthisapparentlysimpleincidenthas
comedowntousinavarietyofways.TheVaishnava
accountssaythatwhileatSaligramEamanuja'sstock
ofNamam(thekaolin-clayusedasthefacemarkby
theVaishnavas)wasspent,andthathewasindiffi-
cultiesastowhattodo,whenhedreamtofahill
17

282. 258 ANCIENTINDIA
ofthatearthnearMelukote. Thitherhewentand
onhiswayhefoundBittiDeva(VitalaDevaraya) in
campatTondanilr. Thislatterhadadaughter,who
waspossessedbyevilspirits,andallJainincantations
having failedtolaytheghost,Eamanuja brought
aboutasuccessful exorcism,whichconvinced Bitti
Devaofhissuperiority.HebecameaVaishnavaand
aftersuccessful disputation inBittiDeva'spresence
EamanujahadawholebodyofJainasceticsand
laymengroundinanoilmill,which isevennow
pointedoutatMotiTalab(Tondanur).
TheJainaccount statesthatthekingwasinflu-
encedbyEamanujathroughoneofhisqueensto
becomeaVaishnava.Heresistedthetemptation for
alongtime
;butwhen,owingtothelossofafinger
,ofhisrighthandinwar,theJainasceticsdeclined
dodinewithhim,heforthwithbecameaVaishnava.
Ofthesetwoversionsthelattermustbestamped
'asfalseentirely,becauseVishnuvardhana wasan
eminentlysensibleman,treatedhisJainwife,minis-
tersandsubjectswithgreatconsideration. Hiswife,
thefirstatleast,whoafterhisconversionwasaJain
totheday ofherdeath,andherBasadi, the
SavatiGhandavarana Basti atSravana Belgola, is
evidence ofherreligion.HisdaughterHarialewas
aJain.Morethanthis,hisright-handmaninthe
workoffounding akingdom, thegreatGeneral
Gangaraja inwhosememorywasbuilttheDroha-
gharattaJinalaya atHalebid,wasalsoaJainof
eminence ;fortheinscriptions saythat,byrestoring
Jaintemplesinthekingdom,hemade itresemble
KopanaorKoppalintheNizam'sDominions. Itcould
not,therefore,bethathebecameaVaishnavabyany
underhanddealing,norcouldhehavehadanyparti-
culardislikeofJainismassuch.
Theotherversionsimplybringsinamiracle to
explainanordinaryeventinthelifeofagreatman.

283. THEOILMILLINCIDENT 259
Inthosedaysitwasthecustomforeminentdivines,
Jain,HinduorBuddhist, todiscourseuponrehgious
topicsunderthepresidency ofthegreatlaymen
—
kingsorrulersofprovinces.Wehavenumbers of
references toitintheShimoga inscriptions. Very
probablyRamanujaheldsuchadiscourse,andground
downinthemillofhislogicthearguments ofhis
rivals.Theoilmillaffaircouldhavebeennomore
thanthis,forevenifRamanujashouldhavebeenso
minded, BittiDevacouldhardlyhavepermitted it,
ifnotoutofclemency, atleastoutofpolicy.With
hiswife,andhisgenerals,andcouncillors allJains,it
wouldhavebeentheheightoffollyinhimtohave
doneso. Itis,therefore,nothingmorenorlessthan
aboastfulassertionoftriumphant successonthepart
oftheVaishnavas ofasucceeding generation. Nor
werethey—theonlysinnersinthisparticular.
Wereadinaninscriptionofabouta.d.1128atSra-
vanaBelgolathattheJainAkalankaachievedasimilar
feat.TheBauddhsofKanchitogetridoftheJains,
challenged theirgreatteacherAkalanka,fromSudha-
puraorSodeinNorthKanara,toadisputationunder
Himasltala A.d.855.Havingoncebeforedefeated
theBuddhistsonbehalfoftheViraSaivas,hewent
forthconfidentlyandhaving, afterdaysofargu-
mentationhadthebetterofthedebate,Himasitala
orderedthemtobeground inoilmills.Akalanka,
truetohischaracter,asthepreceptoroftheAjivakas
interceded,andgotthembanishedtoCeylonandother
distantislands. Strangelyenoughafterthisgeneral
destruction oftheBuddhistsbytheJains,wehearof
Buddhists asgovernors ofprovinceseven ;towit
Buddhamitra, governor ofPonparrinearRamanadin
thereignofKulottunga II.
Theoilmillincidentwasanacceptedembellishment
inhandingdowntheaccountsofthesedisputations, of
whichtheremusthavebeenanumbergoingonat

284. 260 ANCIENTINDIA
differentplacessimultaneously. Thatitisimpossible
thateitherVishnuvardhana orhissuccessors could
havesanctionedanysuchthing, isborneoutbya
numberofincidentsintheirhistory. Itwasfrom
theroyalresidence atMelkotethatVishnuvardhana
makesagranttothe^aivatemple, atChamund
Hill.Hedoesreceivethe'holyfood'presentedby
theJainsaftertheconsecration oftheJinalayaat
Halebid,anddirectstheimagetobenamedVijaya
Parsvanatha inhonourofhisvictory.Hehonours
SriPalaTrividyaDeva(theJaincontroversialist) and
evenappointshimtutortohischildren. Itvs^as
aboutthistimethattheVira^aiva(theso-called
Lingayat) sectcomesintoprominence, sothatinthe
courseofthecenturyJainismwassubjectedtothe
simultaneous attacksoftheVaishnavasfromthesouth
andtheViraSaivasfromthenorth.Themannerin
whichtheHoyasals—rulersandministersalike—dealt
withtheserivalsectsisasupremeinstanceoftheir
religiouspolicyfromwhichmoremodernrulersmight
learnlessonsofwisdom.Hereisthehistoricalac-
countofthefoundation ofthetempleatHarihar
;
'Thegreatminister,thesetterupoftheChola,Vira
NarasimhaDevaPolalvadandanatha causedtobemade
atemple forthegodHarihara, shiningwithone
hundredandfifteengoldenKalasas.' Theobjectof
buildingtheshrinewastoreconciletheopposingsects
oftheSaivasandtheVaishnavas.
'Somesayingthat
besideHarithere isnogodonearth,andsome
sayingthatbesidesHarathere isnogodinthe
earth,inordertoremovethedoubtsofmankind,was
assumedwithgloryinKudalurtheoneformofHari-
hara.Mayhewithaffectionpreserveus.Thecele-
bratedSivaacquiredtheformofVishnu,Vishnu
acquiredthegreatandfamousformofSiva,inorder
thatthissayingoftheVedamightbefullyestab-
lished,inKudaltherestoodforthinasingleform»

285. RELIGIOUSTOLERATION 261
praisedbytheworldHarihara—mayheprotectthe
earth''TherenownedVaishnavaChakravarti, thiscele-
bratedPolalvadandadeva, istheonlyonewhoobtained
successwiththecollyrium ofmerit
; ifnothow
couldhesuccessfully acquirethetreasuretocreate
theloftymansionofHarihara,shiningwithahundred
goldenKalasas?FormerlyHermmadi Eajawanted
tomakeatempleforHarihara, butstoppinghim
inadream,saying :
"Afaithfulonewillbeborn
hereafterwhowillmakemyabode,youstop,"and
Hariharahavingwithaffectionsaid :
"youonlymake
mytempleinasuitablemanner,Polalva,"hemade
it.'Thisachievement ofaVaishnavaministerinre-
concilingthetwoopposingsectsisauniqueinstance
ofabreadthofviewinreligion,whichishardtofind
elsewhereatthetime.
Thiswasthefeatofoneofaclassofpersons,
rulersandministers,whohavebeendevotedVaish-
navas.Vishnuvardhana afterhisconversion,perhaps
through thecourse ofhiscareer, builttemples
dedicated toNarayana—atanyrateendowedthem
richly—suchasViraNarayana atTalakad,Vljaya
Narayana atBelur,KirtiNarayana atBannvir.In
hisprogressthrough hisdominions hehadtaken
painstoinquireintotheconditionoftheseandother
foundations,andsawthattheywererestoredtotheir
formerposition ofeminence asplaces ofworship.
Hedidnotinthisshowanypartialitytoonesector
theother.Hisgeneral Gangaraja endowedJain
templesequallywiththesanctionofhismaster,asthe
severaldonations toJaintemplesbythisgeneraland
otherJaindevoteeswouldshow.Thisexamplewas
followedbyhissuccessors,equallywellwhetherthey
wereVaishnava orSaivaforsomeofthemwereof
thelatterpersuasion also.
Thusthenitisclearthatinthematterofreligion,
thisVaishnava Constantine, Vishnuvardhana, asthe

286. 262
. ANCIENTINDIA
disciples ofRamanuja tookdelightincallinghim,
wasfarfrombeingasectarian.Noattemptwas
madeatanyuniformity ofreligiousbelief,andthe
policyoftherulerswasthemostliberalthatcouldbe
imagined. Ifotherstatesandrulershadmaintained
thisneutralityinreligiontheworldover,theworld
wouldhavebeensavedmanybloodywars.Had
Vishnuvardhana andhissuccessorsadoptedanyother
policyinreligion,theywouldhaveshownafatuity
whichmighthaveruinedthem.Thattheydeliber-
atelyadoptedthispolicyofreligiousneutralityspeaks
muchfortheirstatesmanship.

287. CHAPTEEX
BIJJALA
Ithasbeenpointedout-inthechapteronthemaking
ofMysorethatthekingdom couldberegarded as
suchonly aftera.d.1193.ahnostinthemiddleof
thereignofVira-Bellala. Vishnuvardhana hadmade
itinaway ;butitrequiredtheenergyandenterprise
ofhisgrandsonbeforehisrulecouldberegardedas
complete.ThecreditofconsolidationbelongstoVlra-
Bellala,whosucceededhisfatheronthetwenty-second
JulyA.D.1173.
TheKarnataka, ortheChalukyaEmpire,stretched
outsouthwardsfromtheSatpuramountains tothe
endoftheDekhanplateau,andhadbeendividedinto
anumberofgovernorships, eachunderaMahaman-
dalesvara,withmoreorlessofotherauthorityvested
inhim,according tothecharacter oftheofficialand
thedegreeoffavourenjoyedbyhimatcourt. Of
thesepotentatesthoseroundaboutthehead-quarters
oftheemperorweremoreunderimperialauthority,
andwereusuallyloyal,asavirtue,perhaps,ofneces-
sity."Whether thiswasactuallysoornot,wehave
references toasoutherntreasury oftheempireand
byinferenceothertreasurieslikewise.Eachofthese
largerdivisionsappearstohavehadacommon fiscand
included anumber ofprovinces.Anattempthad
evidentlybeenmadetobringthefrontierviceroys
underthedirectcontrolofthehead-quarters officers
bytheappointment ofaboardofcontrol,whosechief
functionsappeartohavebeenfinancial,thusbringing

288. 264 ANCIENTINDIA
thesinewsofwarbeyondtheabsolutedisposalofthe
viceroys. This,wesee,wasthepracticeunderthe
usurperBijjala,anditletsusthusintothesecretof
hiselevationtotheempire.
Bijjala'sfather,Permmadi,wasgovernorofTarda-
vadi1,000districtroundBijapurunderSomesvaraIII
Bhulokamalla (a.d.1128).HissonwasBijjala,who
mayhavesucceeded tohisfather'sestateofgov-
ernoroftheTardavadi 1,000.Whetherhedidsoor
not,heisheardofabouttheendofthereignof
theemperorJagadekamalla II(1138-49)withno
official titles ;but
'
hisservant 'VijayaPandyawas
rulingtheNolambavadi 32,000.Asinscriptions of
YiraPandya aremetwithuptoa.d.1148,the
inscriptions referred toabovemustbeaboutthe
endofJagadekamalla's reign. Itisinhisreignthat
Bijjalarisesintoimportance,andwhatismoreheis
foundbusyontheveryfrontierwhichwasfastpass-
ingoutoftheemperor'shands.TheHoysalashad
madethemselvesmastersoftheGangavadi(which is
notincludedinthe
'SouthernTreasury,') forsome
time
;buttheirclaimstotheprovincesofBanavase
andNolambavadiwereverystronglycontestedbythe
Muhamandalesvaras themselvesandbytheemperor.
ItwasagainstthesetwosetsofrivalsthatVira
Bellalahadtomakegoodhisclaim.
OftheseNoJambavadihadsurelyfallenunderthe
Cholapower.ThefactthatChalukyainscriptions of
anearlierperiodareabsent,andtheCholainscriptions
arefoundintheprovinceshowstheCholaholdupon
theprovince.ThePandyasofNolambavadiwereas
forwardastheHoysalastorenderserviceagainstthe
Cholasandhadearnedthegratitude ofVikrama-
ditya—nolessthantheircompeersandrelatives,the
Hoysalas. Thenceforward thedynastyofviceroys,the
PandyasofUchchangiruledfromtheirhill-fortthe
provincesorecentlyrecoveredfromtheCholas.When

289. bijjala'srisetopower 265
wecometothereignofViraBellala,twogenerations
ofPandyashadruledafterthebrotherofIrukkapala
thefather-in-law ofVishnuvardhana's fatherErej'anga.
WhenBijjalaappearsonthescene,Vira-Pandya,one
oftheroostpowerful ofthedynasty,wasinpower,
whichwasabouttopasstohisyoungerbrotherVijaya
Pandya.
Theneighbouring province ofBanavasehadlong
beenundertheempire.Vikramaditya hadhimself
beenviceroyunderhisfather,andwhenhebecame
emperor,hisyoungerbrotherJayasimhawasviceroy.
Sothatthishadcometoberegardedasthepremier
provinceofhisempire.Whateverwasthereasonfor
it,upontheloyaltyoftheviceroyofthisprovince
dependedtheimperialauthority overtheprovinces
belonging tothesouthern treasury.When Bijjala
emergesintothefulllightofhistory,wehearofhim
astheviceroyofthetwoprovinces,rulingbydeputies.
Thismusthavecomeaboutsomewhat inthiswise
:
Bijjalamusthaveshowngreatadministrative capacity
whichincludedinitgreatmilitaryability,asgovernor
ofhishereditaryprovince ofTardawadi,whichmust
havebeentoonarrowasphereforthefulldisplayof
hisfaculties. Eithertoputthemtothebestuseor
togetridofthem,hewasentrustedwiththeduty
firstofallofwatchingandcounteracting themachi-
nationsofthesouthernviceroys—
perhapsasthefiscal
officersentoutbytheemperor. Thiswouldexplain
why,whileclaimingthePandyaforhisservant,he
appearswithoutofficialtitlesofhisown.Thissupe-
riorpositionhewasabletoturntoaccount,when
lateronJagadekamalla wassucceeded intheempire
byhisbrotherTailaIII.Underthelatterhegrew
tobesousefulandloyalthathewascalledtothe
head-quarters tohelptheemperor,governingBanavase
andNolambavadi bydeputies. Thesedeputies,what-
evertheirloyalty,hesubordinates andkeepsunder

290. 266 ANCIENTINDIA
theeyesoftheemperor,andthatishimselfbysend-
ingoutfivecommissioners tocontrolostensiblythe
finances ofthesoutherntreasury.Bysodoinghe
keepsthemostturbalentoftheseviceroyswellinhand.
Unfortunately fortheempiretherearisesthenew
poweroftheKakatiyas ofWarangal,andBijjala's
activity,sosuccessfulinthesouth,iswantedinthe
north-east,themoreso,asthenewpowerunderProla
inflicted adefeatupontheempire ina.d.1155.
Bijjala'snamehasbeenhandeddowntouswiththe
stigmaofcrueltyandpersecutionattachedtoit;first,
becauseofhisusurpation,andnextbecauseofhisper-
secutionoftheso-calledLingayetsandtheirfounders.
Boththesechargesagainsthimhavetobecarefully
examinedinthedry-lightofhistorybeforetheverdict
ispronounced bythehistorian. Bijjaladoesnot
appeartohaveusedanycrueltyinhisascentto
power,thoughnodoubthemadeaveryskilfuluseof
theadvantageofhispositionandtheadversecircum-
stancesoftheempire.Hewasnotaloneinthis.
Everyviceroytriedtotakeadvantageofthetroubles
intowhichtheempirewasthrown,whileBijjala
oughttobegivencreditforhavingearlyobservedthe
trendofaffairsandforhavingmadeasuccessfulattempt
tostoptheflowingtideofdisruption. Exposed as
itwastosimultaneous attacksofthepowerfulCholas
inthesouthandtheChalukyas intheeast,the
empirewaspreservedfromdismemberment through
thegeniusofVikramaditya. Ifitdidnotbreakup
immediately afterhisdeath,itwasbecausetheenemy's
powerswereotherwiseengaged,andtheMahaman-
dalesvarasofVikramadityarememberedwithgratitude
hisservicestothem.Nevertheless, thetendencieswere
thereand,witheachadvanceoftheviceroys,other
powerswererisingonthehorizon.TheHoysala
activityinthesouthandtheKakatiyaexertions in
theeastwerekeptundercontrolbyBijjalataking

291. bijjala'scharacter 267
advantageofthecounteracting forces.Thisnaturally
ledhimontothepinnacleofpower,anditwasonly
whenhefoundthattherewasnopossibilityofkeeping
upthephantom ofanemperor thatheassumed
imperialstate.Inonesense,therefore,hemightbe
regardedasthebenefactor oftheempire,notemperor
ofcourse,inkeeping ithalfacenturylongerthanits
appointedtime.Tohimalsoprobablybelongsthe
credit oforganizing theimperialresourcesandof
bringingtheviceroysundercontrolbyplacingthem
underfinancialcontrolfromhead-quarters. For itis
inhisreignthatweseethefiveKarariamsbeing
sentouttokeepawatchoverthedoings ofthe
viceroys ofBanavaseandprobably ofothertrouble-
someprovincesaswell.
InthereligiousaspectofthequestionagainBijjala
hadbeenbroughttothenoticeofposterityonlyby
thereligious literature oftheVira-Saivas, mostly
composed centuries afterthetimetheytreatof.In
theseheisheldupnaturallyenoughtoexecration.
Butinscriptions ofhistimeintheShimogadistrict—
particularlyatBalagamve—throwacuriouslightupon
themuch-abusedmanandtheruler.Ontheone
handtheinscriptions pointtoafargreatercontrol
overtheviceroys,asgrantshavetobemadewith
permissionfromhead-quarters oratleastobtainsanc-
tionwhenmade.Ontheotherhand,thelandsand
othergrantsmadetoSaiva,VaishnavaandJain
shrinesareallplacedunderthecontroloftheleading
menofallpersuasions. Theplacewassacredalike
toallthreeofthese.In a.d.11()'2,whileBijjala
hadmadehimselfsupreme,hisviceroywasKasyapa,
withwhomnoonecanbecompared
'
intakingsole
chargeofacountryruinedbytheadministration of
othersandbringing itintoprosperity'.
'Withtheper-
missionofthatgreatone,Barmmarasawasgoverning
theBanavasenad.'

292. ^68 ANCIENTINDIA
'TheroyalinspectorswerethefiveKaranams—
SridharaNayaka,AchanaNayaka,ChattimayyaNa-
yaka,MalliyanaNayakaandTikkamayyaNayaka
:
—
theseshone likethefivesenses tokingBijjala
Deva'—all
'
benevolenttoothers,powerfulastheocean,
inministerial skillunmatched, boldasfiercelions,
ableindetecting frauds,superiortoallopposition,
theirgreatfame likethesound ofthetHrya (a
musicalinstrument),strengthenedwithallmannerof
self-acquired merit,devoted tothefaith ofthe
Isvara,—theseKaranamsweregreat.'Barmmarasa's
greatministerwasEavideva.
'While allthese,united intheenjoyment of
peaceandwisdom,wereonedaydiscoursing on
Dharmma, BijjalaMaharajahavingcomethere,in
order tosubduethesouthern region, encamped
inBalagamve, KasappyaNayaka risingandstand-
inginfrontofhisMaharaja,foldinghislotushands
said,"Deva,apetition",andspokeasfollows
:
"ThesouthernKedara isthemeansoftheabso-
lutionofsin,theverypresence ofSivamanifested
toallthecitizens, visiblydisplaying alltheglory
oftheKritaYuga.Besides this,itsmatha islike
theancientKamatha (tortoise) asupport ofallthe
world."
'
Descended inthelineofthegurusofthatMatha,
thediscipleofGautamacharya, isVamaSaktiMunls-
varacharya.'
'ThereforeweretheDevatoperformin
thatMathasomeworkofmerit, itwillendureas
longasthesunandmoon.'
'Onhissayingthus,theKingBijjalataking itto
mind—forthedecorationoftheGodDakshinaKeda-
resvara,forgiftsoffoodtotheascetics,forgiftsof
learning,forrepairstothetemple,andforsatisfying
thegoodandthebeloved,—inhissixthyear,etc.,at
thetimeofthesun'seclipse,washing thefeetof
Gautamacharya's discipleVamaSaktiPanditaDeva,

293. PERSECUTION IMPOSSIBLE 269
madeagrant.'*Onthesamedayasthishemade
grantstootherSivatemplesaswell.
Severalothersofhisviceroysandgovernorswere
staunchSaivasandVaishnavaswhobuiltanden-
dowedSivaandVishnutemples,thegreatestamong
thelatterhavingbeenKesavaDandanayaka.Aruler
whocouldnotmerelytolerate,butalsoactivelyparti-
cipateinbenefactions tothereligiousinstitutions of
therivalsectscouldnotbechargedwithpersecution
withoutampleevidence. Itdoesnotmatterforthe
question,whetherthiswasoutofsinceretolerationor
asamatterofpolicytokeeptheviceroyswelldis-
posedtowardshim.Thiswouldappearthemorere-
markableinBijjala,whenitisremembered thatthe
timewasoneofgreatreligiousactivity.TheVaish-
navaismofRamanujawasgainingstrengthinthesouth
andontheborder ofMysoresomeofthesects,
thePasupata,Kapalika,Kalamukha, etc.,oftheSaivas
werestrong.Whatwasmore,Vamadeva Pandita,
thediscipleofGautamacharya, wasthemostimpor-
tantfigure,oftencalledininscriptions theEajaguru,
andintheinscriptions atBalligamve,heisshownup
asaprominentteacherinwhom isplacedsomuch
faithbyGovernmentandpeoplealike,thattheendow-
mentstotemples, Saiva,Vaishnava, Jaina, etc.,are
placedinhischarge.WhileBijjalawasstrengthen-
ingtheimperialholdupontheviceroys,localgovern-
mentsappeartohavebeenworkingwithgreatvigour
aswell—thepattanaswamis ortownmayorsplaying
avervimpoi'tantpartattheheadoftheirtown
councils.ThefactwhichMr.Ricenotices ofJina
imageshavingbeenpareddownintoIjingamsmust
havebeenofalatertimewhentheso-calledLingayets
orYiraSaivas,gottheupperhandinthoseregions
;
forweseethatinthenextgenerationthestruggleon
1102ofShikarpur,EpigraphiaCarndiaka, vol.vii.

294. 270 ANCIENTINDIA
theborderlandisnotbetweentheJainsandthe
SaivasbutbetweentheVaishnavasandthelatter.
Inthisstruggleagaintherulersshowedacommend-
ablespiritnotmerelyoftoleration, butalsoofan
attemptatreconciliation, thedirectoutcomeofwhich
policyistheHariharatempleatHarihar.
Thusinreligionandequallysoinadministration,
Bijjalaandhissons,whofollowedinsuccession,pursued
aconciliatory policywhichkepttheturbulentviceroys
undercontrolandtheiradministration, strongand
popular. Ahavamalla, thelastofthem,chargedhis
viceroys oftreasuries thus :
'Governthecountry
whichisthetreasuryofthesouthlikeafather.'One
KesavaNayakaruledsowellunderhisGovernment,
thatnonewasconceited,noneconspicuousinsplendour,
noneinopposition,noneclamouring forinfluence,
nonecreatingadisturbance,nonewhowasinsuffer-
ing,noenemies filledwithanger,andnonewhore-
ceiving titleshadhisheadturnedbythesongsof
poets !ThoughausurperBijjalawasabletoretire
infavourofhissonsandletthemsucceedpeacefully,
acontingencyveryoftennotmetwithinrulerseven
ofthemostundoubtedsuccession. Hisassassination
whichappearstohavebeenafactmusthavebeen
broughtaboutbysomeprivatemisunderstanding and,
ifsuchscandalcouldbebelievedin,hadbeenbrought
aboutbyaliasonwiththeministerBasava's sister
whoiscreditedwithanimmaculate conception, by
theBasavaandChannaBasavaPuranas,theoutcome
ofwhichwastheYoungerBasavaorChannaBasava.
Thiswouldalsoaccountforthemainplankofreform
oftheLingayats—there-marriage ofwidows.
Duringallthisperiodofusurpation intheempire,
theHoysalaactivityappearstohavebeencarefully
checked ;andthroughmuchofthisperiod,Narasimha,
ablysecondedashewasbyhisfather'sviceroysand
hissonKumaraBellala,hadtobecontentwiththe

295. BELLALA Il'SACCESSION 271
Gangavadi96,000.Anyactivity,noticeableatall,was
againstthepetty chiefs,theKongalvasandother
hill-chiefs ofthewesternfrontier.WhenVira-Bellala
cametothethrone ina.d.1173,hehadtobegin
toworkonthelinesofhisgrandfather Vishnuvard-
hana,whiletheempirehadpassed toRayamurari
Sovi-Deva.

296. CHAPTEEXI
MYSOREUNDERTHEWODEYABS
Thischapter isanhistoricaloutlineoftheoriginand
growthoftheStateofMysoreunderthepresent
dynastyuptothetimeofHaidar'All.Thisperiodof
thehistory 'ofMysore ishardlytouched atallin
anyhistoryexceptinthatbyColonelWilks,who
wasnotinpossession ofthehistoricalmaterialnow
available tothestudent ofhistory.Theerrorshe
hasfallenintoareratherseriousbutquiteexcusable
inonewhowrotesoearlyinthecenturyashedid,
andwhoobtained alltheinformationthenpossible.
Thepublication ofthevolumes ofinscriptions in
MysorebyMr.Eice islikelytothrowafloodof
lightuponMysorehistoryandthatofsomeother
contemporarykingdoms. Thisandthelatelypublish-
edworksofMinisterTirumalaIyengararethemain
authoritiesonwhichthispaperrestsforitsinforma-
tion.ThehistoryofMysoreinKannadaprosecom-
piledatthedirection ofhislateHighness,though
notofmuchvalueasanhistoricalcomposition, is
stillofuseassupplying fullerinformationonwhat
isotherwisefoundtobethetruth. Itisnotasan
1
1refertotwoworks—ThePalaceHistoryandWilks'History.
ThePalaceHistory is a,CiiaaresecompilationfromtheVamsdvali
andotherMSrecordsinthepalace. Itwascompiledattheinstance
ofHislatelamentedHighnessSriChannarajendra Wodeyar. Itis
basedontraditionsofamoreorlessreliablecharacter.
TheHistoricalSketchesofSouthIndiabyWilksisreferredtoin
thechapterasWilks'History.

297. VIJAYANAGARAFTERA.D.1565 273
authoritativecompositionthatIwritethischapteron
Mysore. Itisonlyasmallcontribution,whichmay
eventually leadtothewriting ofagoodhistoryof
Mysore,ofwhichthisisbutanimperfect sketchof
aperiodcoveringnearlytwocenturies.
Intheepochmakingbattle ofTalikota, inwhich
theMusalmansandtheHinduscontended forsupre-
macyinsouthern India,andwhichendedinthe
completevictoryoftheMuhammadan coalition, the
emperorRamaEaja,thelastrealone, fell.His
onlysurvivingbrotherHiriTimmaraja fledwiththe
wreck ofthearmytoVijayanagar,andfinding it
impossible tosustainhimselfanylongerthereagainst
theconquerors, heshiftedhiscapitaltoGhanagiri
(Penukonda). Herehediedleavingthreesons,Sriranga
Rayal,RamaRaja,andVenkatapatiRaya.Thedivi-
sionoftheempirewasmadeduringthefather's
lifetime inaccordance withwhich,SrirangaRayal
ruledfromPenukonda,nominally atleast,thewhole
oftheTelugucountry
;RamaRajahadforhisshare
theKannadacountrywithhiscapitalatSrirangapatna
;
VenkatapatiRayaruledfromChandragiri
^overthe
largestportionaswouldappear,namely,overtheTonda,
Chola,andPandyaMandalams. Butthatthisrule
wasanythingmorethannominal ismatterfordoubt
aswillappearfromthesequel.Asitwas,however,
theVijayanagarempireextendedfromthebanksof
thenorthernPennar, ifnottheTungabhadra toCape
Comorin,andwasdividedin1597intotheviceroyal-
tiesofPenukonda, Ginjee,Tanjore,INIadura,Channa-
patna,andSrirangapatna, thefirstoneandperhaps
nominally thewholeunderSrirangaRayal,thenext
threeunderVenkatapatiRaya,andthelasttwounder
RamaRaja.'
1ChikhaDevaBajaVamsdvali,pp.1-16.
3Wilks'History,vol.i,p.59.
18

298. 274 ANCIENTINDIA
Aboutthistime,SrirangaEayaldiedwithoutissue,
andEamaEajaalsofollowedleavingTirumalEaya,his
son,aminor ;sothatthewholeempiredevolvedupon
VenkatapatiEaya.TirumalEayalivedwithhisuncle,
leavingatSrirangapatna asvice-regentEematiEevati,
orTimatiVenkatathegeneralofEamaEaja.The
viceroys,awareoftheweaknessofthecentralauthor-
ity,boretheyokeratherlightlyandwaited for
anopportunity toshakeitoff,whenanincidenthap-
penedtoacceleratethenaturaltendencies todisrup-
tion. Thisincident isreportedby|TirumalaAiyan-
gar,wholivedinthelatterhalfoftheseventeenth
andtheearlier halfoftheeighteenth centuries,
occupying allalongacommanding positioninthe
courtsofsuccessiverulersofMysoreasfollows :
'The
MaduraNaikrevoltedandVenkatapatiEayasent
hisnephew(probablynowamajor)toputdownthe
revolt.Insteadofdoingthis,hisplainduty,Tirumala
Eayareceivedbribesfromtherebellioussatrapand
marchedwithallhisarmytoSrirangapatna, thereby
bringingonhimselfadeservedretributionandshow-
ingtoonlookers thehoUowness oftheempire.'
'
Itwasunderthesecircumstances thattherearosea
particularly cleverrulerinMysore,whoturnedthem
alltohisadvantageandlaidthefoundation ofthe
presentMysoreState.
Weshallnowproceedtoinquirewhothisperson-
agewasandwhathisposition. Thereseemstohave
beeninuseintheterritoryofMysore(andevenout-
sideit)eversincethedawnofhistorythedesignation
ofWodeyarssignifyingacertainfeudalstatus.What
theamountofthelandwas,thepossession ofwhich
gavethishonorifictitletothepossessor, isveryhard
todeterminenow.TherehavebeenWodeyarswhose
possessions variedfromavillageortwotothirty
JChikkaLevaBajaVijayam,2ndCanto
;ChiklaDeiaBajaVamad'
vali,pp.
1-16.

299. ORIGINOFTHEFAMILY 275
orforty.TheWodeyarofKaroogahally
*ownshimself
masterofonlyonevillage;andEajaWodeyar of
Mysoreaboutthesametimewaslordoftwenty-three
villages.'ButthetermWodeyar isalsolargelyused
inanothersensebeingmerelyequivalent to
'
lord'.
Thisisthetermusedinaddressing priestsamong
theLingayets. Itmaybeacombination ofboth
vphenapplied tothemembersoftherulingfamily.
ButYaduEaya issaidtohavebeenrequestedby
hiswifetoassumethistitleasamarkofgratitude
toaLingayetpriestwhohelpedhimintakingposses-
sionofMysorefromtheusurperDalawayMaranayaka.*
Whatevermaybethevalueofthisstory,thetitle
seemstohaveretainedboththeabovemeaningsas
appliedtotheMysorefamily.
Thisfamilytraces itsdescentfromacertainYadu
Rayawhoisbelieved tohavereignedfrom1399to
1423.Heissaidtohavecometothisprovincefrom
Dwaraka.TheobjectofhisjourneytoMysorewith
hisbrotherKrishna isdifferentlygivenbydifferent
authorities ;somegivingtheworshipofgodNara-
yanaofMelukote astheobject,andothersthatof
thegoddespChamundi oftheMysoreHill.Whatever
themotive ofthesebrothers, theyappeartohave
beenfugitiveprincesofthelatelyoverthrownHoysala
familywhichhaditscapitalatDwaravativthemodern
Halebid),orofthatoftheKakatiyasofWarangalwhich
claimedtobelongtotheChandraA'amsaaswell.*
ButWilksmentionsthemasYadava fugitivesfrom
thecourt ofVijayanagar,whichseemsverylikely.
TheycametoMysorewherecircumstances favoured
1ChikkaDevaRajaVamsivali, p.16.
*Thirty-three villagesaccordingtoWilks{videvol.i,p.21,footnote).
sPalaceHistory,p.16.
tThisviewseemstoreceivesupportfromtheauthorofcopperplate
No.64ofSrirangapatna.
Videpage23translation.
EpigraphiaCamitaka,vol.i,part1.

300. 276 ANCIENTINDIA
theirfoundingafamily.Hereagainaccounts differ,
buttheonegiveninthePalaceHistorylooksmore
probablethanthatofWilks.AcertainChamaEaja
Wodeyar ofMysore diedleavingbehindhimhis
widowandanonlydaughter.TheDalawayMarana-
yakaassumedtheregencywhichhetriedeventually
toconvertintoroyalty.Thewidowandherdaughter
seemtohavebeenhelplessinhishands.^Perhaps,
hewouldhavemarriedthedaughterandthusgiven
anappearance oflegalitytohisusurpation
;buthis
unpopularityandthediscontentamonghisofficers
cametoaheadinaconspiracy againsthim.The
palacepartyseemstohavehadthesympathy ofthe
peopleandtheconspiracy againsttheusurperhad
gainedinstrength,whenYaduEayawasreadytoplay
hispartbyheadingtheconspiracy. Successattending
theconspiracy,YaduwonthehandoftheWodeyar's
daughter,andhesucceeded toherfather'sestateas
wasagreedtobefore. Itwasa
'jungam 'priestthat
negotiatedthetreaty,andhencethetitleWodeyar
attachedtotheprincesofthefamilyasmentioned
above.
Thisisthehistoricalfounderofthefamily,andhe
ruledoverMysoretownandafewvillagesabout it.
WhattheactualextentofthissmallStatewaswe
havenomeansofascertainingnow.Hesettledupon
hisbrothei-anestate,whichhetookfromoneofhis
father-in-law's relatives,anddiedin1423.
HissonHiriBetadChamaEajaWodeyarsucceeded
himin1423. Nothing isknownofthispersonage
excepthisname.Hewasinturnsucceededbyhis
sonTimmaEajaWodeyarintheyear1458.Hisson
HiriChamaEajaWodeyarascendedthethrone of
thelittlekingdom, ifwemaycallitakingdomatall,
intheyear1478.Thisruler'ssonwasBetadChama
1PalaceHistory,p.9,etseq.

301. BETADCHAMARAJA '277
Baja^whosereignbeganintheyear1513,and itis
thisperson ^YllOhasthehonourofbeingmentioned
intheinscriptionsandcopperplatesnexttoYadu,
theinterveningnamesbeingomitted. BetadChama
EajaiscreditedbythePalace Hi.'^torijwithhaving
constructed abigtankinMysore,andbyWilks
withhavingrepairedthefortofMysore
'
tillthen
knownasPuragery.' Heisalsosaidbythesame
authority tohaveremoved thecapital toMysore,
probablyfromHadana,theplaceconqueredbyYadu.
Thisaccount,ofcourse,differsfromwhat isstated
above. Alltheauthoritiesreferredtoagreeingiving
thispersonthreesons,TimmaEaja,KrishnaEaja,
andChamaEaja
'thebald '.During hislifetime,he
arranged,according tocustom, tosettleHemanalli
uponTimmaEaja,andKembalauponKrishnaEaja.
TimmaEajawas,however,tosucceedhisfather,*
ChamaEaja
'
thebald
',rulingafterhim.This is
probablywhatisreferredtobyWilksasthepartition
oftheestate.Butitisbettertoregard itasasettle-
mentonly,sincealltheotherpartiesappeartohave
beensubject totheruleratMysore. Thisisborne
outbythesettlementmadeathisdeathbyEaja
Wodeyar. BeforeleavingBetadChama Eaja,* it
oughttobementionedthatthiswasthepersonwho
isregarded ashaving,byhisprowess,earnedthe
titleof
'Birudantembara Ganda '(themanofthose
thatsaytheyaresoandso)mentioned inthein-
scriptions.
Thisrulerwassucceededin1.5r)'2byhissonTimma
Eajaaccordingtothetestamentofhisfather.Timma
EajaISreputedtohaveacquired theundoubtedand
solerighttothetitleof
'Birudantembara Ganda
*
'VideSrirangapatna, 64,100-^ndothers{Epi.Car.).
'
Wilks'Bistory,vol.i,p.22.
3PalaceHistory,pp.18,99.
4ChikkaDevaRajaVamidvnli, p.
5(1,etscq.

302. 278 ANCIENTINDIA
bydefeatingotherWodeyarswholaidclaimtoit
likewiseduringavisittoNanjanagudu.Hefollowed
upthisvictorybytheconquest ofUmmaturand
Sinduvalli.* Duringhistime,Mysoreterritorymust
havebeenverysmallinextent,ashehadtoget
permissionfromotherindependentWodeyars topass
throughtheirterritorytoNanjanagiidu.
Thisrulerwassucceededbyhisyoungestbrother
Bole'^ChamaRajaorChamaRaja'thebald'.Thiswas
nodoubtthewishofthefather,butwhyhiselder
brotherKrishnaRajawaspassedoverisnotquite
clear. Can itbethathediedbefore1571?This
ChamaRajathenruledforfiveyears1571-6,andis
creditedbyWilkswithhavingevadedthetributedue
totheviceroyatSrirangapatna.^ Itisnownotten
yearsafterthebattleofTalikotawhichtookplacein
1565.Theviceroy issaidtohavebesiegedthefort
ofMysore,anditisrecordedthathisDalaway
*Revati
Remati,orTimatiVenkata,wasdefeatedandforced
tocedeKottagala. Thisshowsthewantofefficiency
intheviceregalgovernment.
Aboutthistime, also,Akbarhadmadehimself
almostmasterofHindustan, andwasturning his
attention tothesouthernsideoftheVindhyas. This
newelementofdisturbance,andtheresistancewhich
itprovokedintheMusalmanPowersoftheDekhan,
gavetothefurthersouthcomparative peace,eventhe
BijapurandGrolcondapriuceshavinghadtodivide
theirattention. ItwasonlytheimbecilityoftheVijaya-
nagar rulersthatgavethesepettyWode^'arsan
opportunity forrisingtogreatness.RamaRaja,the
1Wilks'History,vol.i,p.22
;PalaceHistory,p.19.
3HiriChamaRajaofWilksandDodChamaRajaofSriraugapatua,
157.Page36,translation{Epi.Car.).
3Vol.i,pp.12-13.
<ChikJeaDevaRajaVamsdvali, p.45,etseq.Srirangapatna64and
others.

303. BETADWODKYAR '279
viceroy, wa=;deadleavingbehind hinatheminor
TirumalEayamentioned above,whosetreason cost
himhisvieerox^ally.
BoleChamaEaja leftathisdeathfoursons,
EajadhiRaja,BetadChamaRaja,MuppimDevaRaja
andChama Raja.' Herethere isadisagreement
amongtheauthoritieswhichappea.rshardtoreconcile.
ThereisaconfusioninNYilks"HL^torybetweenBetad
Wodeyar,TimmaRaja'sson,andBetadChamaRaja
Wodeyar,BoleChamaRaja'sson.WilksmakesRaja
Wodeyar,thesonofTimmaRaja,inopposition toall
theotherauthorities.Heisevidentlywrong,asthere
isaninscription,'dated1614(RajaWodeyardiedin
1617),whichrepresentshimasthesonofDodda
ChamaRaja^VodeyarofMysore.Butbeforegoingto
RajaWodeyar,wehavetodisposeofaBetadChama
RajaWodeyar,whoruledfortwoyears(1576-8).
ThePalaceHistorymakeshimtheeldestsonof
ChamaRaja'thebald'. Buttheinscriptionsand
otherworksreferredto,makehimtheyoungerbrother
ofRajaWodeyar. Wilks,'ontheotherhand,makes
thesuccessorofBoleChamaRaja,aBetadWodeyar,
hisnephew.Heseemstobeintheright,becausethe
inscriptionsandtheworksofTirumalaAiyangar,above
referredto,makenomentionofthisruler. Besides,
sinceboththecousinsborenearlythesamename
thereisroomforconfusion,andtheshortduration
oftheruleofBetadWodeyarhasasuspicious airof
forcedabdicationratherthanofvoluntaryretirement.
Theideaofayoungerbrothersupersedingtheelder
togetoverfinancialembarrassment, orofthecompul-
soryretirement ofthelatterbytheeldersoftheland,
seemsnottobeverycommoninthetraditions of
Indianrulers.ThefatherTimmaRajahavingruled,
1VideGenealogicaltableNo.8.
2Srirangapatna, p.36.Translation(Epi.Car.).
3Wilks'History,vol.i,p.
'21.

304. 280 ANCIENTINDIA
BetadWodeyarnaturallywishedtosucceedhim,but
hisunclecameinthewaywiththeauthorityofthe
testamentabovementioned. Athisuncle'sdeath,
hesucceeded intheabsence ofapreviousarrange-
ment,andwasprobablypersuadedtoretireinfavour
ofhiscousinEajaWodeyaronthegroundofthe
settlement ofHemanaUiuponhisfather,Mysore
fallingtothelotofChamaEaja
'thebald.''Accord-
ingtoWilks,there isnothing strange inBetad
Wodeyar'squietretirement, orinhisacceptingthe
officeofDalawayunderRajaWodeyar. There is
nothingworthy ofmention inthisreignoftwo
years.'
In1578,therecametothethroneofMysorea
ruler,atoncecapableandpolitic,wholaidthefoun-
dationsofitsgreatnessandconsolidated, toacertain
extent,thedisintegratingviceroyalty ofSrirangapatna
;
thiswasRajaWodeyarwho,forreasonsgivenabove,
maybeconsidered theeldestsonofBoleChama
EajaofMysore.Theminority ofTirumalEayaof
Srirangapatna gaveamplescopetotheaggrandize-
mentoftheWodeyarsgenerally,' andRajaWodeyar
benefitedmostofall.Aglanceatthelistsofhis
conquests shows thatthereweremanypowerful
Wodeyarsalongwithhimunderthenominalsuzerainty
oftheviceroy atSrirangapatna. TheseWodeyars
canberoughlydividedintotwoclasseswithrespect
toEajaWodeyar. Many ofthemwereconnected
withhimbymarriagesorotherwise;whilethere"were
otherswho,havingsuffered athishands,keptaloof
fromhimandintrigued attheviceroy's court.To
theformerclassbelongedtheWodeyars ofKalale,
Bilugula, Bilikere,Hura,Hullanahalli, Mugur, etc.
TothelatterclassbelongedtheWodeyars ofAmma-
1VideGenealogicaltablesiandiv.
2PalaceHistory,pp.474-8.
3Ibid.,pp.22-3.Wilks'History,p.28.

305. RAJAWOPEYAR 281
chavadi, Kanniambadi, Talakad, Karoogahalli, etc'
Eachmember ofthesetwoclassesseemstohave
beenindependent anddidnotalwayslookuptothe
viceroyforhelp,asisevidencedbythealliancesand
treatiesenteredintoindependently. Eachoneseems
tohavethoughtonlyofmakingwhatusethename
andprestigeoftheviceroycouldaffordhim.Atthe
commencement ofhisreign,RajaWodeyar issaid
tohavebeenmaster oftwenty-three andahalf
'townships
'^witharevenueofthreethousandbonnus
lahonnuisarupeeandahalf).Thisterritorywas
dividedamong300jagirdars,eachwithahead-quarter
townofhisown.Theprincipalsourcesofrevenue
weretaxesderivedfromthisestate,plundergotfrom
war,andtributespaidbyotherWodeyars. With
thesemeansathisdisposal,heseemstohavebeen
atroublesomeneighbour, firstattackingtheWodeyars
oftheChannapatna viceroyalty, andlatterlyunder
somepretextorotherthoseofSrirangapatna itself.
Foralltheconqueststhusmade,heappearstohave
soughttheauthority, atleastafterconquest, ofhis
suzerain.Butthesuzeraintywasatthistimedivided
betweenthetraitorousTirumalEayaandhisuncle
VenkatapatiEaya.EajaWodeyar, inhisaggressive
conductagainsttheviceroyofSrirangapatna, received
themoralsupportofVenkatapatiEaya,thenominal
ruleroftheVijayanagar empire. A^enkatapatiEaya,
aboutthistime,madeanumberofgrantstoRaja
Wodeyarwhichappeartohavebeenconquestsrather
thangrants.' Thisgrowth ofpowerandterritory
oftheWodeyarnaturally alarmed theviceroy at
IChikka,DevaBajaVamsdvnli.pp.15-26.
'Ibid.,p.26,etseq.
3Srirangapatna 157.Tirumakudlu Narsipur116.CompareC'likka
DevaRaja7a7nidvaU,pp.17-20.
ChikhaDevaRajaVamiavali, pp.17and20
;Wilks'History,vol.i,
p.25.

306. 282 ANCIENTINDIA
Srirangapatna,whotriedtobringaboutthedeathof
RajaWodeyar.Warwasthoughtof,butstratagems
werevotedbetterbyhisvassalcouncillors.Ageneral
musteroftheviceregalarmywasorderedunderpre-
tenceofareviewfortheDussarah,andEajaWodeyar
wasinvitedtopayafriendly visit.RajaWodeyar,
inhisturn,andontheadviceofhisbrothers,Betad
ChamaRajaandDevaEaja,assembled hisarmy,
havingbeenpreviouslyinformedbyhisspiesofthe
realstateoffeelingatSrirangapatna. Hethought
itbetter,however,toleavethearmyunderBetad
ChamaRajaandpaidhisvisittotheviceroywith
hisbrotherDevaRajaandafaithfulbodyoffollowers.^
Theviceroyreceivedhimwithapparent cordiality,
havingpreviouslyarrangedanambuscadetotakeEaja
Wodeyarprisonerwhilegoingoutforaride. But,
luckilyforRajaWodeyar,apettyincidentthwarted
theproject.AssoonasTirumalRayaturnedhis
backonRajaWodeyar'squarters afterhisvisit,the
Wodeyar's attendants began,asusualonallpublic
occasions,torepeathistitles,amongthem
'
Birudan-
tembaraGanda'sofruitfulofquarrelsinMysorehistory.
TirumalEayasentwordthatthisoneofallthe
titlesmightbegivenupbybothparties,asneither
ofthemcouldlayclaimtoitasahereditary title.
Thiswasresented. EajaWodeyarwithhisfaithful
retainersmarchedthroughthearmyoftheviceroy
whichwasdescribedasfollows:
'Thecontingents of
Ballapur,Kolatala,Bangalore,Magadi,Punganoorand
otherMorasacountriesweretwentyelephants,two
thousand horse,twentythousand foot ;ofTalakad,
Yelandur,Ammachavadi, Tirukanambiandotherin-
teriornads(states),tenelephants, fivehundredhorse,
tenthousandfoot ;ofKalale,Belur,Keladi,andother
Malnarts (hill-states),twentyelephants,twothousand
IChikkaDevaRajaVamidvali,p.33,etseq.

307. SEIEANGAPATNAACQUIRED 283
horse,twentythousandfoot;ofChintanakal, Chikka-
nayakanahalli, Banavara,Basavapatna, Siraandother
Bedarnads(hunterstates), fiveelephants, fivehun-
dredhorse,tenthousand foot.'EanaJagaDevaEayal,
KereyoorTimmaNaikaandother
'
EavutaPayakas
'
(cavalryandinfantry officers)suppliedcontingent of
fifteenelephants, fourthousand horse,twenty-four
thousand foot. "\A'iththereserveforceofthirtyele-
phants,threethousandhorse,thirtythousandfoot,the
totalrunsuptoahundredelephants,twelvethousand
horseandonehundredandfourteenthousandfoot.'
ThisisreallyXapoleonic indeedforanarmythat
wasdefeatedbyEajaWodeyar !Itisnotprobable
thattheseweretheactualnumbers inthefield
;
buttheabovecomputation showsthemiscellaneous
composition ofthearmy,andwhatlittlecommon
interesttheycouldhavehadinfighting forthe
viceroy.Theviceroyresolvedafterduedeliberation
tolaysiegetothefortofKesaregonteandnot,as
originallyproposed,toJVIysore.Thefirstseemstohave
been,atthetime,unfitforstanding asiege. It
wassituatedbetween Srirangapatna andMysore.
BetadChamaEajaWodeyarheldouttillarelieving
forceapproachedfromMysore,andthemiscellaneous
viceregalarmywasthenputtoflighteasily.Tirumal
Eaya,theviceroy,wasalreadymeditating flightfrom
Srirangapatna,whensomeoftheWodeyarswhohad
formerlycounselled theadvance ofthearmy,now
persuadedhimtostandasiege,andencampedwith
theirforcesonthenorthernsideofthefort.These
wereagaindefeatedbyNarasaEaja,theeldestsonof
EajaWodeyar,andTirumalEayanowfledtoTalakad
1ChikkaDevaBajaVamsdvali,pp.26-33.
IntheStatesdependingonBijapurandGolcondaweremaintained
200,000horse.
Footnote2atp.58,vol.iofWilks'History,

308. 284 ANCIENTINDIA
leaving hisfamilybehind.' Thisevent isgenerally
regardedashavingtakenplacein1610.But itis
recordedthatEajaWodeyar receivedSrirangapatna
asagrantfromVenkatapati Eayain1612.' It
v?ouldthusappearthatRajaWodeyarobtainedthe
sanction ofVenkatapatiEayaforkeepingpossession
ofvs'hatheactuallyconquered. Ontheflightof
TirumalEaya,thetreatmentaccordedbyEajaWode-
yartothewifeoftheex-viceroy isvariously related.
AccordingtoTirumala
'Aiyangar,EajaWodeyarpoint-
edouttoherthedesirability ofaccompanying her
husbandandprovidedherwithanescorttogoto
Talakad,andthisauthority callsherSriranganayaki.
ButthePalaceHistory (pp.31-2),givesadifferent
versionwhichappears tobenearertothetruth.
TheladyisnamedAlamelumanga, andshewentto
Malangi afterherhusband. EajaWodeyar, atthe
instanceofthepriestofEanganayaki, thegoddess,
sentforsomejewelsbelongingtothegoddess inthe
possession oftheviceroy'swifeatthetime,witha
threatthatthejewelswouldbetakenfromherby
force ifshedidnotsurrenderthematonce. She
refusedtosurrenderthemallonthescorethatthey
wereherown,thoughsheveryoftenlentthemfor
thedecoration ofthegoddess.Having saidthis,and
beingafraidofherownsafety,shedrownedherself
inawellatMalangi.Butthepopulartradition is
thatEajaWodeyarhoundedhertodeathforthe
sakeofherjewelsandperhaps ofherperson too.
Sheissaidtohavepronounced acurseatherdeath
whichmayberenderedasfollows :
'MayMalangibe
nomorethanatank;mayTalakadbeburiedunder
sand
;maytheEajaofMysorehavenoissue left.'
1Wilks'History,vol.i,p.26.
2TiruraakudluNarasipura62(a.d.1622,actualdateSakayear1534,
theyearofcycleparidhSvi).
'ChikkaDevaBajaVamsavali,
pp.31-2.

309. VENKATAPATIKAYACONFIEliS 285
AndEajaWodeyar isbelieved tohavelostallhis
fourgrown-upsonsonaccountofthis. Itiscustom-
aryevennowintheroyalfamily toperforman
expiatoryceremonyontheninthdayoftheDussarah
toappeasetheangry spirit ofthisinjured lady.
Fromthiscustom itwouldappearthat,whatevermay
havebeenthecauseofherdeath,RajaWodeyar,
inhaving arranged for thisceremony, thought
himselfresponsible forhertragicend.ThuswasSri-
rangapatna masteredonceandfor all;butRaja
Wodeyar, inspiteofthegrantofVenkatapatiEaya
in1612,didnotassumefullsovereignty. Inallthe
inscriptions* ofhisandofhisgrandson'sreigns,the
Vijayanagaremperor isintroduced astherulingsov-
ereign,thegrantsbeingmadeinhistime.Thefirst
inscription, inwhich thiskindofintroduction is
dispensed with,isonedated1646,duringthereign
ofKantiravaXarasaEajaWodeyar,
^whileanother
ofthefirstyearofthisrulerdulyacknowledgesthe
suzeraintyoftheVijayanagar ruler.
Ontheoverthrow oftheviceroyatSrirangapatna
RajaWodeyarreceivedanambassador,^ namedGam-
bhlraEajaVirupanna,fromVenkatapati Raya,who
conveyed hismaster's congratulations totheEaja
Wodeyaronhisvictoryovertheviceroy.RajaWodeyar
wasprobablythenappointedbytheemperor tosuc-
ceedTirumalRaya,thusmakingtheappointment
avirtueofnecessity. RajaWodeyarthenruledfor
aperiodoffiveorsixyears,nominallyasviceroy,but
actuallyassovereigninhisterritory,which,withthe
additionshemadetoit,embracednearlythewholeof
thepresentMysoredistrictandapartofHassan.
Butbeforeclosing hishistory, awordmustbe
saidastohisadministration. Heappears tohave
>Srirangapatna 103,pp.29-30,Translation{Epi.Car.).
2Nanjanagudu 198,pp.115-6,Translation(Epi.Car.).
3ChikkaDevaRajaVamiavali,pp.55-6.

310. 286 ANCIENTINDIA
beencarefultotaketheactualadministration ofthe
conqueredterritoriesintohisownhandsandtoappoint
hisownofficers.Heisalsoreputedtohavecele-
bratedtheDussarah festivalonagrandscaleand
madetherulethat,infuture,thedeathevenofthe
closestrelativesoftheroyalfamilyshouldnotinter-
ferewiththefestivities. Thisquestionhadtobe
discussedbyexpertsinhisreignonaccountofthe
deathofhiseldestsonNarasaEaja.Theappoint-
mentofaDalaway,discontinuedeversincetheusur-
pationofMaranayaka, wasnowrevivedowing,as
EajaWodeyar ismadetosay,tothevastadditions
tohisestates.Thefirstappointmentwasunsatisfac-
tory,asindeedmanyofthemwerethroughout. The
firstDalawayunderthepresentdynastywasRaja
Wodeyar'snephew,KarikalaMallarajayya ofKalale,
ofthesamefamilyastheDalawaybrothers,who
broughtaboutthedownfall oftherulingdynasty
andtheriseofHaidar'AH. Mallarajayya resigned
shortlyafterhisappointmentandwassucceededby
BetadWodeyar.* ThisBetadWodeyarmusthave
beenthesame asRajaWodeyar'scousinwhowas
supersededbyhim.Thisactoftrustonthepartof
thelatterflatteredthefeelings oftheformerwho
hadquietlyabdicatedtheroyalposition. Previousto
theappointment ofaDalaway,RajaWodeyar'sarmy
appears tohavebeenuniformlyledbyhisbrother
BetadChamaEajaWodeyar ;and,therefore,hecould
nothavebeenthenewDalaway. RajaWodeyar,
bythistime,had lost allthefourofhisgrown-
upsonsandhisyoungest brotherChama Raja.
Hesettledthesuccession, therefore,inconsultation
with histwosurviving younger brothers,Betad
ChamaRajaandDevaRaja,onChamaRajaWodeyar,
hisgrandsonbyNarasaRaja.Heissaidbysome
1PalaceHistory,p.4§.

311. OHAMAEAJAWODBYAR 287
authorities tohavelefttotheinfantImmadiEajathe
JagirofWestDannayakanakote,' butImmadiEajais
generallyregarded aposthumous son.Thesonsof
BetadChamaEajaandDevaEajareceivedtheJagirs,
EangasamudraandNullurVijayapuraandArikereand
Yelandurumangala respectively
^Havingmadethese
settlements,heretiredwithhisbrothers toMelkote
wherehediedin1617.
EajaWodeyaraccordinglywassucceededbyhisgrand-
son,ChamaEajaWodeyar,whoruledfrom1617to1637.
Ithasbeenmentionedthat,underEajaWodeyar,the
officeofDalawaywasrevivedtomeettheexigencies
ofincreased territoryandadministration. ThisofSce
combined initselftheofficesofPrimeMinisterand
Commander-in-Chief. Attheaccession ofChama
EajaWodeyar,BetadWodeyar heldthisimportant
officeandexercisedhisauthoritynotsomuchasthe
Dalaway,butasguardian totheyoungEaja.The
EajaandtheDalawayverysoonfelloutonasmall
matter, theonehavingbeenastenacious ofhis
authorityastheotherofhisdignity.BetadAVodeyar,
itwouldappear,dismissed afewservantsnearthe
personoftheEajawhowerefoundtobeabusingthe
trust.Thiswasresentedandconsequentlyanattempt
wasmadebyBetad,Wodeyar'sson,topoisontheEaja.
BetadWodeyarfledforhislifewhichwasgrantedhim
atthecostofhiseyes.TheofficeofDalawayalways
appearstohavebeenunfortunate inMysore,forthe
officerswerereadytomisbehave,whenevertherulerwas
notstrongenoughtokeepthemundercontrol.There
werefourDalawaysinthisreign,thelastofwhomwas
VikramaEaya,thenaturalsonofBetadChamaEaja,
brother ofEajaWodeyar. Chama EajaWodeyar
'ChikkaDevaRajaVamadvali, p.57,etseq.
2Wilts'History,vol. i,p.29.PalaceHistory,p.49,makesRaja
Wodeyarprophesythebirthofamalechildtohispregnantwife.

312. 288 ANCIENTINDIA
entrustedthewholeadministration totheDalawaysin
ordertohavetimeenoughtodischarge hisdomestic
duties.*SolongastheDalawaysweremenunconnected
withtherulingfamily,theyvaluedtheirpositiontoo
muchtointrigue,aswasthecasewiththesecond
andthethirdDalaways ofthisreign.^ TheseDala-
ways,however,madeanumber ofconquestsand
annexationsandextendedChamaRaja'sinheritance
inalldirections. Itisduringthisreignthatthe
viceroyalty ofJagadevaRayalwasreducedtonoth-
ingbythecaptureofChannapatnaandNagamangala,
andbythesiegeofHoskote.' Itisevidentthat
ChamaRajapersevered incarryingontheadminis-
trationaccordingtothelineslaiddownbyhisgrand-
fatherbykeepingdowntheWodeyars,byconciliating
theryotsandbynotincreasingtherents.*Heissaid
tohavecollectedagreatdealofwarmaterialandto
haveestablished ad6p6tatSrirangapatna.' Heis
alsocreditedwithhavingwrittenacommentaryon
theRamayanaandtheMahabharata.Hediedwith-
outissuein1637,andwassucceededbyhisboyuncle,
ImmadiRajaWodeyar.DalawayVikramaRayalorded
itoverthenewruler,whomhefoundtobenotthe
nominalonethathewouldhavehim,andsohehad
himpoisonedintheyear1638.
Whowastobethenextruler?AtthetimeofRaja
Wodeyar'sdeathhisbrother'schildrenwereprovided
withjagirsasbecametheirdignity.Thoughnothing
isrecordedaboutDevaRaja,BetadChamaRajaissaid
tohavebeenlivinginretirementatRangasamudranot
withoutexercisingawholesomeinfluenceatcourt.Now
1InoneoftheinscriptionsVikramaRayaisreferredasthenatural
sonofEajaWodeyar.
''Nanjangadu 9,p.96,TranslationEpi.Car.
3PalaceHistory,p.51.Wilks'History,vol.i,p.29,
<ChikkaDevaRajaVamidvali, p.60,etseq.
5PalaceHistory,p.61.

313. KANTIRAVANARASA I 289
thatRajaWodeyar's linefailedofmaleissue,people
naturallylookeduptothochildrenofhisnextyounger
brotherBetadChamaEaja.Fromthepalacegenea-
logical
*
tree, itappearsthatBetadChamaRajahad
onlyonesonlivingatthetimeandthatwasKantirava
NarasaEajaWodeyar. Thispersoncannothavebeen
themerenominee of^'ikramaBaya,whowasthe
naturalsonofl'>etadChamaKaja,asBetadChama
Rajawashimselfliving,nndasKantiravaNarasawnuld
havesuited illtheambitionsschemesoftheDalaway.
ThePalaceHisturij (p.(15)besidesmakesKantirava
NarasatheadoptedsonofRaja\V.deyar,and,assuch,
hewasinvitedandcrownedbyoneofhiswidows.The
adoptionseemslikelyenough,asRaja^Ycdeyarmust
havehadreasonstofearthatthedirectlinewould fail.
Itmustalsohavebeentheinterestofthepalaceparty
nottohaveanomineeoftheDalaway fortheruler.
Thesubsequent insolentbehaviour ofthePajaway
wouldalsosupport thisview.Howevernominated,
KantiravaNarasabeganhisruleina.d.1638. Itis
thispersonagethatfirstmadegrantsinhisownname,''
evenhispredecessorChamaRajahavingownedthe
nominalsuzeraintyofthephantomruleratGhanagiri.
Thefirstinscri[)tion inwhichanelaborategenealogy
oftheMysorerulersaloneisgiven,withoutreferenceto
theruleratPenukonda, isdatedA.D.1046,andisa
grantbyKantiravaNarasa.
ThereignofKantuavaNarasacommencestheglorious
periodofthepresentdynasty,andthethreesuccessive
rulers,himselfandhistwosuccessors,maybecalledthe
makersofmodern l^f^•sore.Thefirstactofthisreisn
isthedismissalfromserviceofDalaway^''ikramaRa\a',
andtheinflictiononhimofthecondignpunishment
IVide(leiiealogioal tableNo.4.
iSrirangapatna 108,pp.2;l-:W{Epi.Cnr.).
3PalaceIlintory,p.liT.
19

314. 290 ANCIENTINDIA
forhistreasonagainsttheformerruler.ThePalace
HistorystatesthattheDalawaywaspunishedafter
dueinquiryandconfessionbyhimself ;butWilksap-
pearstoberightinsayingthathewasdespatchedby
thehandoftheassassin.'FortheDalawaywasnot
onlyanaturalsonofBetadChamaRaja,^butalsothe
firstofficerintheState.Assuch,hemusthavebeen
toopowerfulandperhapstoopopulartobepunished
likeanordinaryservant. Thisseemstohavetaught
KantiravaNarasaagoodlesson,andweseehimthrough-
outhisreignmakingvigorousandrathersuccessful
attemptstocurbthepoweroftheDalaways,sothatwe
seetheofficechanginghandsalittletoooften.This
TuleriscreditedbyWilkswithhavingcelebratedthe
Dussarah festivalonagrandscaleandforthefirst
time.Whateverthescaleofthecelebration,hewas
notthefirsttocelebratethefestival,EajaWodeyar
havingdoneitmanytimesduringhislife.'Kantirava
Narasa,finding itinconvenient tohaveanumberof
differentcoinsincirculation, assertedhissovereignty
overotherWodeyarsbyestablishingamintandcoining
inhisownname.'' Thisisthefirststepatunifying
thelooseconglomerate ofthepettychieftaincieshe
inherited,andhiscoinsseemtohavehadcurrencyin
otherpartsofSouthIndiaaswell.Heisalsogiven
creditforhavingmadeanelaboratesurveyofthelands
undertheWodeyars,and,havingfoundthepurse-proud
ryotstootroublesome,hetookawayallthattheyhad
overandabovewhatwasnecessary fortheirbare
livingandoccupation.^ Thishadthedesired effect,
andnotonlycowedtherefractoryWodeyarsand
1Wilks'History,vol.i,p.31.
•iPalaceHistory,p.59.Niinjaagiid 9,dated164-3,makeshimtheson
ofRijaWodeyar.
Videantep.286.
^PalaceHistory,p.34
;Wilks'History,vol.i,p.32,
!>Wilks'History,vol.i,p.32
;PalaceHistory,p.80.

315. KANTIEAVAANDHISDALAWAYS 291
otherlandlords,butenrichedKantiravaNarasabeyond
allexpectation. Thisactofpublicplunderwasnot
questionedinthosedays,asthepeoplehadnoother
meansofassertingtheirrightsthanthatoftakingarms
againsttheruler. Thislattermeasuremustclearly
havebeentotheirownruin,for,intheplaceofone
strongmaster,howeverunjustifiable hismeasures,they
wouldhavehadmanymoveplundererswithoutthe
advantage ofprotectionwhichtheformer offered.
ThenextstepKantiravaNarasatookwastokeepthe
Dalaways incheck.TherewereinalltenDalaways
inthisreign,allofwhom,excepting one,heldthe
ofticebutforabriefspaceoftime.Underastrong
ruler,theDalawayshadonlytoplayasubordinate
part,and,-n-henevertheyattemptedtomakethemselves
something more,theyearned theirdismissal. This
office,thefirstinimportanceintheState,hadalways
beengiventoapersonintimatelyconnectedwiththe
rulereitherinbloodorbyassociation. "Whenever
thechoicefellonrelatives,theappointment didnot
provehappy,astheyattempted toassume allpower
andtoturntheattention ofthesovereignsolelyto
theenjoyment ofhomelife.AA'henever theappoint-
mentfelltothelotofsomeoneoutsidethecircleof
relations,thechoiceprovedhappier,becausetheyhad
notthesameinfluenceinthepalaceastheothers
had,andsocouldbeeasilydealtwithbytheruler.
KantiravaNaiasaappearstohavemadeadiscovery
ofthisfact,and,therefore,deviatedfromtheprinciple
ofchoiceinauguratedbyliajaWodeyarwhoseDala-
^^a.yswerenearconnexions inblood.PerhapsEaja
Wodeyarcouldnotasyethavetrustedothersoutside
hisfamily,butKantiravawasmuchtoostrongfor
fearofthatkind. So,afterthefallofhishalf-brother,
DalawayVikramaKaya,heappointedThimmappa
Nayakaandsixothersinsuccessionwhowere, if
atallconnected,verydistantrelatives. Thuswesee

316. 292 ANCIENTINDIA
thatKantlravaNarasaalwayskeptallrealpowerin
hisownhands,andsodidhistwosuccessors. Hence
thevigouroftheadministration duringthethree
reigns.
Thisrulerseemsbesidestohavepaidmuchatten-
tiontopublicworks.HerebuiltthefortsofSri-
rangapatna andMj'sorewhentheygotdamaged
duringthesiegebyEanadhoolaKhan.Thedetails
givenofthesefortsarenotofmuchimportance.
Withthemoneyheobtained,asabovementioned,he
providedthefortswithallthatwasneedfultoprotect
themfromassault,andappearstohavemounted a
largenumber ofgunsovertheramparts.Heis
saidtohaveconstructed severaltanks,andalsothe
canalwhichrunsoverthebridgeonthesouthern
armoftheKaverybringingfreshwaterintothefort.
Healsomaderichendown^ents totheteruplesin
theprovince, particularly tothoseofSriranganatha
andofgodNarasimha atSrirangapatna. Heseems
tohavecommanded armiesinperson,ratherthan
trustthemintothehandsoftheDalaways.Heis
knowntohavebeenveryremarkableforhisstrength
andcourage,andhis firstexploitwasthedefeat
ofaremarkable prize-fighter atTrichinopoly. Hav-
inggonethereincognito,hereturned, afterkilling
theman,withoutwaitingtoreceivetheprize.This
gave risetooneortwounsuccessful conspiracies
againsthislifewhichmaybepassedoverhere.But
themostimportantmilitaryactofthereignwasthe
defence ofSrirangapatna againstEanadhoolaKhan,
thegeneralofBijapur.^Thesiegewasbroughtabout
asfollows :KantiravaNarasaincitedKengeHanuma
ofBasavapatnaandotherWodeyars ofIkkeriagainst
theirliegelord,VeerabhadraNa\aka.Thedisturb-
ancewaspromptly quelledbytheIkkeriNayaka.
1Wilks'History,vol.i,p.31.

317. BIJAPUEINVASION 293
KengeHanumawenttoBijapur tosolicittheaid
ofthePadisha there.*Atthistime,therewasalso
anotherfugitiveWodeyar,ChanniahofNagamangala,
latelyconqueredbyChama Raja W'odeyar. The
Padishasenthismostreputedgeneral,Eanadhoola
Khan,attheheadofanarmyoffortythousandmen
toreinstateKeugeHanumaandtotakeSrirangapatna
ifpossible. Thegeneralhavingeasilysucceeded in
doingthe first,wasverynearaccomplishing the
secondaswell.Havingtakenpossession ofIkkeri,
Sira,andBangaloreonhisway,helaidsiegeto
^MysoreandSrirangapatna simultaneously. Besiegers
anddefendersseemtohavefoughtwell,buttheloss
oftheformermusthavebeenimmense,considering
that,evenafterhaving effectedabreach,theywere
notabletoeffectanentryintothefortofSriranga-
patna. Theywerenotmoresuccessful inMysore
either :andthedoublevictory isascribed todivine
interventiononbehalfofthedefenders,thusindicat-
ingthattheMysoreanswerehopeless ofvictoryin
spiteoftheirstubborndefence. Despitethisfailure
totaketheforts,KantiravaXarasafound itimpos-
sible,eithertostandanothersiegeortofighthis
enemyintheopenheld. So,throughthemediation
ofKengeHanuma, apeacewasconcludedwhich
lefttothejNIysoreans allthecountry
^southof
theKavery,thatonthenorthoftheriverbeing
madeovertoBijapur.Buttheadministration ofthe
BijapurportionwasstillleftinthehandsofKanti-
ravaXarasahimself,oncondition ofpayingoverto
Bijapurallthesurplusrevenueaftermeetingthecost
ofadministration. Thistookplaceintheyearofhis
1ChikkaDevaRaja\'-ivi<drnli.pp.
r,?-'-:,etseq.
ChikkaDevaRajaTijaiiain,inACanto.
2ChikkaDevaRajaratnsavali,pp.67-S,etscq.
ChikkaDevaRajaVijayam,2ndCanto.
PalaceHistcn'y,p.75.

318. 294 ANCIENTINDIA
accession1638-9. ThoughKantlravaNarasaagreed
tothistreatyinhishelplessness, hedoesnotseem
tohavethought seriously offulfilling hispromise.
EanadhoolaKhan,ontheotherhand,leavingKenge
HanumaastheBijapuragent,returned toBijapur,
hishead-quarters. Veerabhadra Nayaka ofIkkeri
availedhimself ofthisopportunity toavenge his
wrongsonEanadhoolaKhan,andsentanembassyto
BijapurtoexposetothePadishahthehollowness of
theagreement, andtheunreliable character ofthe
agent.EanadhoolaKhanwassuspected,andaroyal
commissionwassenttoinquireintotheaffairsof
KengeHanuma,ofwhichNagamanglaChanniahwas
amember. KengeHanumafalteredandKantirava
Narasagrewdefiant.Toaddtothis,Channiahwas
murderedbyKengeHanuma, ashewastheonly
memberofthecommissionconversantwiththedetails
oftheadministration.^ EanadhoolaKhanwas,in
consequence,supersededbyKhanKhan.Thisgeneral
andhissuccessor,MustafaKhan,weresentinsucces-
siontotakepossession ofSrirangapatna, thefortof
whichhadbeencompletelyrebuiltsincethefirstinva-
sion,buttheyfarednobetterthantheirpredecessor.
Aplundering raidundertakenbyHemajiPunditof
Bijapurand'Abdu'IlahKhan,ageneral,effectednothing
ofimportance exceptthetemporary occupation of
Turuvekere. Havingthusfarbeenonthedefensive,
KantlravaNarasacouldnowtaketheoffensive. In
hisaggressivemarcheastward,hedefeatedtheBijapur
forcesandtookpossession of itslateconquests.
HavingdefeatedtheVanangamudiMudaliarofKongu,
hetookSamballi,Bomballi,andSatyamangala, having
previouslyworstedtheMaduraNayaka,hisliegelord.
Onthewest,hedefeatedNanjaEajaWodeyar of
Coorg,andafterhuntinghimfromplacetoplace,
1PalaceHistory,pp.77.70.

319. DODDADEVAEAJA 295
tookpossession ofPeriapatam, hiscapital,andsix
otherdistricts(Ghadis).^ Inthenorth,heextended
hisconquests tothefrontiers ofIkkeri,Chitaldroog
andSira.Aftersuchaneventfulreignhediedin1659
leavingnomaleissuetosucceedhim.
Thedescendants ofMuppinDevaRaja,thethird
brotherofEajaWodeyar,cameinfortheirshareof
rulenow.ThisDevaRajahadfourchildren,oneof
whomsucceededKantiravaNarasa. But,astowhich
ofthesefoursonssucceeded, thereisconsiderable
difference ofopinionamongtheauthorities. The
PalaceHi.'^tory (p.91)makesthesuccessorthethird
son,Wilks'thefourth,andTirumalaAiyangar,acon-
temporary, thefirst.Inalltheinscriptions ofthis
ruler'sandhissuccessor'stime,thelatterisrecorded
asthenephewoftheformer.TirumalaAiyangarhim-
selfmakesDodDevaRajasucceednominallyonly,
whileKempaDeviah,histhirdbrother,wascarrying
ontheadministration infact.'Thetruthappearsto
be,thatKempaDeviah,thethirdson,wasthesuc-
cessorrulingforashorttimeinthenameofhis
eldestbrotherwhomusthavebeenold,andthenin
hisownname,oncondition thatthesaidbrother's
sonshouldsucceedhim.AVilksandthePalaceHis-
toryalikeseemtohavegonewrongincertainpar-
ticularsaboutthisruler,andthemistakeisaccounted
forbyallthefourbrothersbearingthesamename,
DevaRaja,withaqualifying epithet. Besidesthe
factthatChikkaDevaRajaandhisfatherwerein
prisonatTirukanamby isnotborneoutbyanyother
authority. It is,however,mentioned tlaatChikka
JChilikaDevaBajaVamsarnU,pp.GS,ctseq. ;Wilks'History,vol.i,
pp.33-5
:PalaceHUtory,pp.67,69.
•^
Wilks'Historii,vol.i,pp.35-6.
3ChikkaDevaBajaVamsdvaji,pp.IS,etseq.,andChikkaDevaRaja
Vijayam,ivCanto,Stanzas170,ctseq. Sriran'^apatna 14,64and
others. TideGenealogicaltableKo.iii.

320. 296 ANCIENTINDIA
DevaEajawassentawayasayouthwithhistwo
wivestoGundlu,remotefromCourt,tokeephim
fromprofligatewaysintowhichhewasfalling.*His
father,ontheotherhand,livedwithhisyounger
brotheratSrirangapatnaandthenretiredtoavillage
wherehediedsoonafter. Besides,ChikkaDevaEaja
isrecorded tohaveofferedhisservicesagainstthe
confederacy ofrulersbesiegingErode,andwaswell
nighentrustedwiththecommand ofthearmy.Be-
sidesthis,ChikkaDevaEajawasamereyouth,being
onlytwelveyearsold,whenhisuncle,agrown-up
man,succeededtothethrone.^Thus,then,Kantirava
NarasawassucceededbyhiscousinKempaDeviah,
whobecameDodDevaEajaWodeyarofMysore. At
theaccessionofthisrulertofullsovereignty,hewas
thelegalsuccessor, hisnextelderbrotherhaving
died.ChikkaDevaEaja,thenayouth,^Yasrecog-
nizedheir-apparentandeachofthem,therulerand
theheir,wasguardiantohisyoungerbrother.
Thetworemarkable,eventsofthisreignwere,the
invasion ofthecountrybyChokkalingaNayakaof
Madura,andthesiegeofSrirangapatna bySivappa
NayakaofIkkeri,whohadbutlatelyoverthrown his
masterandestablishedhimselfinhisplace.Inboth
theseeventsSrirangaEayal,thefugitive rulerof
Vijayanagar,wasputforthastheleader.Chokkalinga
Nayaka,havingmadehimselfindependent rulerof
Madura,wantedtomakethemostoftheimperial
fugitivethenwithhim,andadvancedinthelatter's
nametoErode,onthesouth-eastfrontierofMysore,
assistedbyAnantoji ofTaiijore,Vedoji ofBijapur,
Golconda,Gingee,andlyyyppahNayaka (ajagirdar).
Perplexedbythemagnilude oftheinvadingarmy,
DoddaDevaEajawished to ti-ydiplomacy,when
ChikkaDevaEajaoffered liisservices toleadthe
1ChikkaDevaBajaVijayam,Cantov.
2PalaceHistory,p.100.

321. INVASIONSUNDERSEIEANGARATAL 297
Mysoreforcestovictoryoverthedisunitedmassof
theinvadingarmy. Chokkalinga Nayaka,however,
ontheadviceofhisambassadoratSrirangapatna re-
tiredtoTrichinopoly, leavinghisalliestotakecare
ofthemselves. Itwas,perhaps,true,asChikkaDeva
Kajaismadetosay,thatthealliedarmy,though
largeinnumber,waswantingindiscipline
;butone
cannotbutsuspectthattheambassadorwasbribed
intoeffectuallydetaching hismasterfromthecoali-
tion. ChokkalingaNayakaapart,theotherswere
easilydefeatedbytheDalaways,thesuperiorgeneral-
shipofChikkaDevaKajahavingbeenfoundunne-
cessary,lyyappaNayakawasslain,andamongthose
defeatedwastheBrahminNayaka ofGinjee.^The
^lysoregeneraltooktheelephant Ivulasekhara and
itsmateasspoilsofwar,andmadethepermanent
conquests ofOmalfiru,ErodeandDarapuram. Thus
endedtheformidable coalitioninthenameofthe
lastScionoftbeVijayanagar family,^^honowbetook
himselftoBednore.
SivappahXayaka,immediately afterhisaccessionto
power,sentanembassytoMysorepinfessing friend-
shiptotheruler.Thisseemstohavebeenrefused
acceptanceasbeneaththeruler'sdignity,comingasit
didfromausurper. Thisgaveoffence,andSivappah
Nayakaprepared tolaysiegetoSrirangapatna. Sri-
rangaRayalwasnowwithSivappahNayaka,who
extendedhisfrontiersinthenameofthefugitive.
Thisinvasionwassuccessfully repelled,theBednore
Xayakahavingbeencompelled tocedethefortresses
ofHassanandSakkarr-patna. Nothinguiorewasheard
ofSrirangaEayal,an.lthuscametoanendtheonce
gloriousdynastyofVijayanagar.
DoddaDevaRajaneverappearstohaveledanarmy
inperson.Hewasgenerally pt'acefnlly inclined.He
1Srirangapatnii 14,p.10,Translation (£'pi.Car.).

322. 298 ANCIENTINDIA
devotedagreatdealofattentiontoworksofcharity.
Heissaidtohaveestablished anumberofagraharas
(villagesforBrahmins)andbuiltway-sidechoultries,
atshortintervalsofdistancethroughouthisdominions.
Heconstructedseveraltanks,oneofthoseatMysore
amongthem.HisdevotiontothegoddessChamundiled
totheconstruction ofthestepsupthehill,andtothe
Basavanandi (agiganticbullinstone)halfwayup.*
Hisprincipalitemsofexpenditure ofthemoney
gainedinwarsarenaively saidbythehistorian
^
tohavebeenthree :providing (1)ornaments tohis
queens
;(2)endowments tohisBrahminfriends
;and
(•S)rewardstoservantsformeritorious services.
Afterareignofthirteenyears,hediedin1672in
aprogressthroughhisdominionsatChikkanaikanahalli.
Hewassucceededbyhisnephew,ChikkaDevaEaja
Wodeyar, ashadbeenpreviouslyagreedupon.The
reignsofDoddaDevaEajaan5hissuccessorarecoeval
withthatofAurangzebinHindustan,andwhenitis
borneinmindthatChikkaDeva'sreigncoincidedin
timewiththeriseofSivajiandthedifficulties ofthe
Moghulemperorinthesouth, itwillnotbedifficult
tounderstandhowthisrulerconsolidated hisStatein
comparative peace.TheMusalmanpowerofBijapur
wasthemostaggressiveandtroublesomeneighbour
ofMysore. Bijapurexpeditions intoMysorehave
beenforonereasonorotherfrequent,andthisPower
veryofteninterfered intheaffairsoftheWodeyars.
Butnow,thisandtheotherMusalmanPowersof
SouthIndiahadtoturntheirattention,andtodevote
itallagainsttheadvanceofMoghularmsinthesouth,
andtheriseofamoredangerousenemyfromamongst
theirownservants,theMaharattas.' Eventheline
1PalaceHistory,pp.94,etseq.
Wilks'History,vol.i,pp.35-6.
2ChikkaDevaRajaVijayavi,endotthevcanto.
3Wilks'History,vol.,p.56.

323. CHIKKADEVARAJA 299
ofconquests ofShajiandhissonSivajiwentround
theMysoreterritoryanddidnotgopastBangalore,
thusleavingMysore attheanglebetween their
northernandsouthern possessions. Atthistime it
wasthatChikkaDevaEajacametothethroneof
Srirangapatna,andworkedunostentatiouslyandcleverly
attheunification ofthepettyStateswhichhehad
inherited.
Duringthefirsttwentyyearsofhisreign,he
graduallyconsolidatedtheconquestsofhispredecessors
and,afterreconquering thoseplaceswhichhadbeen
takenback,heextendedhisconquestsprincipally in
twodirections. Tothesouth-eastheextendedhis
conquests asfarasTrichinopoly, whiletothenorth-
westhepushedhisfrontiersfarintotheterritories
ofhisneighbours. Thusheaddedalargepartof
TumkurandKadurdistrictsandaportionofChital-
droogtohisowndominions. Thepowerfulgaudof
Magadiwasgraduallygivingwaybeforetheonsets
ofmorepowerfulneighbours,andbytheacquisition
ofBangalore in1687-8,bypurchasefromEkoji,the
halfbrotherofSivaji,ChikkaDevaKajaWodeyar
reducedhimtoaninsignificant position, tilllateron
hewascompletelyoverthrownduringDoddaKrishna
RajaWodeyar's reign. Hisconquests before1679
aredetailedasfollows
'
:
'
Intheeast,havingconquered
thePandyakingChokkainbattle,hecapturedTripura
(Trichinopoly)andthewealthyAnandhapuri. Inthe
westhesubduedtheKeladikings,whocameagainst
himwiththeYavanas,andgainedSakalespuraand
Arakalgudu. Inthenorth,havingconqueredEana-
dhoolaKhan,hetookKetasamudra together with
Kanhikere, Handalageri, Gulur,TumkurandHon-
navalli. VictoriousinbattleoverMushtikawhocame
withMorasasandKiratas,heseizedJatakanadurga
1Srirangapatna 157,p.35,Translation{Epi.Car.).

324. 300 ANCINETINDIA
andchangeditsnametoChikkaDevaEayaDurga.^
TheVarahaatSrimushna,whichhadbeenbroken
intheYavanainvasion,hebroughttoSrirangapatna
outofdevotiontoVishnu.HetookMaddagiri,Mida-
gesi,BijjavaraandChennarayadurga, havingconquered
ThimmappaGandaandEamappaGauda.'By1686
'
Vishnu, incarnate asChikka Deva,didsubdue in
Panchavati,Dadoji,Jaitajiandothersintheformof
Maharattas. Sambhulosthisvalour,KuttibShahfailed
inhispurpose, IkkeriBasavawasdisgraced, Ekoji
wasdesertedbyallwhenthemightyChikkaDeva
Eaja,havingcutoffallthelimbsandslitthenoses
ofJaitajiandJesvata, setforth forwar.'Chikka
DevaEaja,however, ismoreremembered forthead-
ministrativereformsheintroducedintothegovernment
ofhisState.HisfirstministerwastheJainVisha
LakshanaPanditofYelandur,whoexercised great
influenceovertheEaja.Hewashiscompanion, or
histutor,when,asaprince,hewassenttoGundlu
nearTuukanambi inordertokeeptheEajafrom
evilways.AVhentheprincesucceededhisuncle,he
appointedthePundittobehischiefministerand,
underhisguidance,hebegantoreformeverydepart-
mentoftheadministration. Ithasbeenalready
mentionedthat,inKantirava'sreign,therewasagreat
varietyinthecurrencyoftherealm,andthatthis
wasputanendtobytheintroduction oftheKantirava
coinsasthesolecurrency. Therewasalsoagreat
dealofvarietyinthedetailsofallthedepartments
oftheadministration. Thiswasalldoneawaywith,
anduniformitywasintroducedbyChikkaDevaEaja.
Thefirstreformwasarevisionoftaxeswhichcost
thelifeoftheJainPundit,theresponsibleauthorof
therevision. Thisaffronttothedignityoftheruler
1Videmapatthecommencement ofWilks'History,vol.i,map.
2Srirangapatna 14,p.11,Translation{Epi.Car.).

325. chikkAdeva'sadministration 301
wasmorethanavengedbyawholesalemassacreof
thefanaticalJungam priests,whoweresuspectedof
beingtheauthors,ortheinstigators ofthemurder.
Fromtimeimmemorial therentoflandremained
fixed,andwhateverextrarevenuewasneededwas
raisedbymeansoftaxes. InthereignofEaja
AVodeyar, theonlysourcesofrevenue,asmentioned
above,wererentsofland,plunderfromenemies,and
tributefromotherWodeyars. KantiravaNarasa is
saidtohavetakenanextraordinary contribution of
almostallthemovalilesundersomepretextorother.
Thusweseethat,thoughextraordinary contributions
weredemanded, therewasnothing likearegular
systemoftaxation. Intheabsenceofanyprecedent
forenhancing therentoflaud,ChikkaDevaEaja
Wodeyardeemed itnecessarytolegalizeandsystema-
tizetheextrademandsbyinstituting anumbei-of
taxes.Thesetaxeswerenoneofthemthecreation
ofChikkaDeva,butoldoneswhichhadfallenoutof
useduringthedisturbedtimesthatintervened. Inone
oftheinscriptions,dateda.d.1:290,wefindincidenlally
alistoftaxescollectedunderPerunialaDandaNayaka,
theprimeministerofXarasimhaDevaoftheHoysala
dynasty. Onacomparison ofthislistwiththose
given inWilks'History ofMysoreand inthe
PalaceHistory, itwillbefoundthatthere isaclose
agreement, thusshowingthattheywereonlyold
taxesrevived.
Whenallthiswasdone,ChikkaDevaEaja^^'ode-
yarturnedhisattentiontotheadministrative divisions
ofhisterritory,anddivided tliewholeState,asit
thenexisted,intoeighty-four ^hadis(divisions)each
underasubahdar. Somesuchdivisionappears to
havealreadyexisted,butChikkaDevaEajaequalized
theirextent.Thecentraladministration wasdivided
intoeighteendepartmentsonthemodeloftheMoghul
administration. Thismusthavebeentheresultof

326. 302 ANCIENTINDIA
theembassytotheimperialCourtduringtheclosing
yearsofthecentury,whentheGreatMoghul,inhis
difficulties,condescended toreceive
'
aVakilfromthe
Zemindar ofMysore '.Thisarrangement stillsur-
vivesinthepublicoffices,whicharepopularlyknown
asthe
'Eighteen Cutcheries '.ChikkaDevaEaja
WodeyarkeptdowntheWodeyarswithanironhand,
andreducedthemtocompletedependenceonthe
centralauthority. Thiswasdonebymeansofone
ofhisdepartments,whichcombinedthepostaland
thespysystem,andwhichinformedhimofallthat
tookplaceevenatgreatdistancesfromCourt.^He
issaidtohaveintroduced akindofmilitiapolice
system,eachhobli,orsub-division ofaghadi,main-
tainingacertainnumberofmeninitsservice,who
weretobepolicemeninordinarytimesandsoldiers
intimesofwar.'Inoneword,then,ChikkaDeva
introduced orderandsystemwhereconfusionhad
reigned.Oneothermattershouldbementionedhere.
Havingintroduced uniformity inmeasures,weights,
etc.,henextintroduced thesystemofpayinghis
officials halftheirsalaryinmoneyandtheother
halfinkind.Theconvenience ofthisarrange-
mentinthosedayswasbeyondadoubt.Afterall
thesereforms,thetotalrevenuederivedbyChikka
DevaEajaWodeyarfromhisterritories issaidto
havebeensevenhundredandtwentythousandpago-
das.Themethodofthecollection ofthisamountwas
somewhat peculiar. Itwasarrangedtobringintwo
thousandpagodaseverydaytotheroyaltreasuryat
Srirangapatna,andunlessthisdailyinstalmentcame
inChikkaDevaEajarefusedtotakebreakfast.Thus
heensuredthecollectionoftherevenue,buthowthis
dailyamountwasraisedandwhatwastheactual
•Wilks'History,vol.i,p.31.
3PalaceHistory,pp.134-7.

327. DOMESTICARRANGEMENTS 303
amountpaidbytheryots, itisnotpossiblenowto
determine. Thisrevenue, atthreerupeesapagoda,
wouldamount totwenty-one lakhsandsixtythou-
sandrupees,thepresentrevenueoftheState(in1898)
beingonecroreandseventy lakhsapproximately.^
Therearenotdataenoughavailabletoinstituteany
realcomparisonbetweentherevenues oftheState
nowandthoseoftwocenturiesago.
ChikkaDevaEajadivided thewhole class of
Wodej'arsintotwosections ofthirteenandeighteen
families.The firstofthesesections includedthe
royalfamilyitself,whichwasknowntohavepreserved
its,bloodfreefromanyadmixture. Thisclasswas
prohibitedfromgiving a\va>-theirgirlstomembers
oftheotherclass,thoughpermittedtotakethegirls
ofthelatterforjuniorwives.Thesecondsection
waschargedwithhavingcontractedmarriagealliances
withpeopleoflowerclasses,andthustheywere
treatedasbeinginferiortotheother.'Thisclassiii-
cationwasreallj'duetothefactthatthesecondclass
of^^'odeyars comprised therecently conquered
AVodeyars. Theirpovertyandcastedistinctionsmay
alsohavecalledforthisclassification. Nowadays,how-
ever,nosuchdistinction iskeptup,andallclassesof
arasusareregardedasone.
DuringthereignofChikkaDevaEaja,theDala-
waysdonotseemtohavemadethemselvesprominent.
Hewasguidedbythecounselsofafewfriends,who
wereunconnected withtheroyalfamily,although
theyheldhigh offices. Theseministerssometimes
advisedconjointlybutveryoftensingly.Thechief
ofthese,afterthemurderoftheJainpunditA'isha
Lakshana ofYelandur,wasTirumalaAiyangar,the
companion oftheEajafromhisboyhood. Heis
1FalaceHistory,pp,
124-5.
Wilka"History,vol.i,p.63.
3PalaceHistory,p.127,

328. 304 ANCIENTINDIA
theauthoroftheKannadaworksah-eady,referredto
butheunfortunately breaksoffhisnarrativewhenhe
comestothereignofChikkaDevaEaja,thusleaving
hisworksincomplete.
ChikkaDevaEajaWodeyar,inhislaterdays,was
astaunchfollower oftheprinciples ofEamanuja.
TheYijayanagar viceroys ofSrirangapatna wereall
ofthemYaishnavas,andRajaWodeyarseemstohave
beenofthesamecreed,eitheroutofpolicyorof
faith,butitcannot,also,besaidthatallhissucces-
sorswereconsistentlysuch.ChamaEajaandDodda
DevaEajadonotappeartohavebeenveryzealous
aboutthesect. KantiravaNarasadevotedhimself
heartandsoultoVishnu.ChikkaDevaEaja,probably
throughtheinfluenceofTirumalAiyangar,became
aVaishnava, perhaps afteradopting theprinciples
ofhisfirstministertheJainPundit
*forsometime.
InhiszealfortheVaishnavas,heissaidtohave
commanded alltheWodeyars tobecome .Vaishnavas
too.Thisorderwaswithdrawnonthestrongrepre-
sentationofannmberofWodeyars^Hisdevotionto
Vishnuledtotheconstruction ofatempleatMysore,
dedicated tothegodSwetaVaraha(whiteboar) of
iSrimushna. Theidolseemstohavebeenroughly
handledbytheMuhammadans inoneoftheirincur-
sionsintothefarsouth,andwasinconsequence
broughtbyChikkaDevatoMysore
.^
Thushavingconsolidated hisdominionsandintro-
ducedasettledformofadministration, hebequeathed
hiskingdomtohisdumbson,KantiravaNarasa,in
1704,justthreeyearsbeforethedeathofthegreat
MoghulAurangzeb.FromthedeathofChikkaDeva
EajadatesthedeclineofprosperityoftheWodeyars,
'Wilks'History,vol.i,p.124.
2PalaceHistory,p.132.
3Tideantep..300(quotation).

329. THERISEATTHEDALAWaYS 305
justasthatofhisimperialcontemporarymarksthe
turningpointinthehistoryoftheMoghuls.
Thesuccessionofadumbruler,impossibleundera
lesssettledgovernment,wasbroughtabouttosuitthe
father'swishbyhisfriendTirumalaAiyangarunder
thepretence ofasupernatural intervention.' The
rulercouldnothavedoneanything,andthusinthis
reignalone,thereinsofgovernmentslippedperceptibly
outofthehandsofthesovereignintothehandsof
theDalaways. Theselatterofficersgraduallyusurped
therealpowerintheState.TheDalawaysofthis
reignareKanthiaandhissonNanjaraja
;hisson
BasavarajandhissonNanjaBaja. Thelastwas
succeededbytheKalaleVeerajiah,thesonofDodda
Eaja,andthefatherofthebrothersDalawayDeva
RajaandNanjaRajaofthelaterreigns.Underthe
firstDalawayandhissonandgrandson,theMysore
peopleconquered thetwoBallapurs, Midigesi,and
Sira. ItisalsoduringthisreignthattheNawabof
Arcotmakeshisappearance inMysore,levyingthe
'
contributionwar
'.'Thushavingreigned,ratherthan
ruled,fornineyearshepassedaway,leavingthesuc-
cessiontoDoddaKrishnaRajaWodeyar,whowas
moreremarkable forrecklesscharitythanforany
administrative qualities.
ThisKrishnaEajaWodeyar is,incontradistinction
tooneofhissuccessorsofthesamename,knownas
DoddaKrishnaEaja.Heiscelebrated insomeof
theinscriptions ofhistimesforlargeandnumerous
giftstoSriVaishriavaBrahmans inparticular. This
reign isremarkable forgivingthebestofopportuni-
tiestotheDalawaybrothersfortheirascenttopower.
Theyeventuallybecametheking-makers ofthepro-
vince. Itis,however,worthnotingherethatthe
1PalaceHistory,pp.145-6.
sWilts'History,vol.i,p.140.
20

330. 306 ANCIENTINDIA
timeitselfwasrichinproducingusurpersandking-
makers. ThisisseeninDelhi,PoonaandMysore.
ThelastDalawayofKantlravaNarasawasVeerajiah
ofKalale.TheelderofthetwosonsofthisDalaway
wasDevaEajawho,inhisturn,becameDalawayand
retainedtheofficealmosttilltheusurpationofHaidar
'AH.ThisDalaway,whose sisterwasoneofthe
wivesoftheEaja,sooncontrivedtofillupimportant
officeswithhisownpeople,and,bypamperingthe
kingwithallconceivable luxuries,managed tocon-
centrateallrealpowerintheStateinhisownhands.
Theriseofthispersonintoprominence ultimately
broughtaboutthedownfall ofthedynasty,though
forthetimebeing itmadetheadministration some-
whatvigorous. Themostimportanteventsofthis
reign,otherthantheabove,aretwoinvasionsofthe
provinceendinginthesiegeofSrirangapatnaandthe
finaloverthrow oftheGaudofMagadi.Thefirstof
thesetwoinvasionswasundertakenbyaconfederacy
ofnewlycreatedNawabs. TheMysoreterritorywas
surroundedbythedominions ofNawabSa'adatu'llah
oftheKarnaticPaenghatandAmeenkhan ofthe
KaranaticBalaghat. Besidesthese,therewerethe
NawabsofKurpa,Kurnool,andSavandi. Therewas
alsoaMaharatta neighbour SiddojiGhorepara of
Gooti. Srirangapatnawaslaidsiegetobyallthese
sixtogether,andKrishnaEajaboughtthem alloff
bythepayment ofseventy-two lakhsofrupeesto
beequally dividedamongthem,andtwenty-eight
lakhsinadditiongiventothenegotiatorofthepeace,^
Sa'adatu'llahKhan,thoughthePalaceHistoryclaims
avictory toMysoreinthiscaseasinthenext.
Buttheelaboratecopperplategrants^Yhichdwellat
greatlengthontheothervirtuesofKrishnaEaja
makenomentionofanysuchvictory,andavictory
1Wilks'History,vol.i,pp.141-2.

331. DODDA.KRISHNABA.TA 307
isthelastthingtobesilentlypassedoverbythepane-
gyrist.^Besides this,thevictories oftheothersov-
ereignsarecarefullymentionedinthesamegrants,one
ofwhichmakesmentionofthevictoriesofDalavs'ayDeva
Raja.^Theauthorofoneofthegrantsreferredto
isTirumalaAiyangar,v7homust,atleast,havelived
upto1729,whereasthedatesofthesetvfoinvasions,
asgivenbythePalaceHistory, are1725forthe
confederate invasion,and 17'27fortheMaharatta
invasion. SoinboththesetheMysoreansmusthave
hadtheworstofit.^Thesecondexpeditionwas
undertakenbyBajiEaoattheheadoftheMaha-
rattas,andthePeshwawaslikewisebought offby
KrishnaEaja.ToredeemthesefailuresDalaway
DevaEajasucceeded intakingpossession ofthe
impregnable rockofSavandroog, thestronghold of
theGaudofMagadi.TheGaudhimselfwastaken
prisonerandallowed todieinthestateprisonof
Srirangapatna.^ Inspiteofthis,however,theweak-
nessoftheMysore Statetodefend itselfagainst
foreigninvaderswasprovedbeyondadoubtbythe
twoinvasionsmentioned above,andthisdiscovery
ledtoagreatdealofforeigncomplications, which
facilitated theupwardcourse, firstoftheDalaway
brothersandsecondlyofHaidar'Ali.Havingreigned
foreighteenyearsDoddaKrishnaEajadiedwithout
anheirin1731.DalawayDevaEaja,withthecon-
sentofthewidowofKrishnaEaja,who,however,was
nothissister,placedacertainChamaEaja,connected
butremotelywiththerulingfamily,onthethrone-
Thelegitimatelineofrulersthuscametoanendhere,
andChamaEajahadnomoreclaimtothethrone
thanwhathederivedfromthenomination ofthe
1Srirangapatna64and100.
2TirutnakudluNarasipur63,pp.79-80(Translation).
3Srirangapatna 64,p.24(TranslationEpi.Car.).
«Wilks'History,vol.i.,pp.140-3.

332. 308 ANCIENTINDIA
widowandtheDalaway. Thispersonagewasnot
longinshowinghimselftobeveryfarfrombeingthe
docileinstrument oftheDalawaythathehadagreed
to-become,whenhewasnominated ruler.Hewas,
herefore,madethevictimofanintrigueandsentto
Kabbaladroogwithhisfamily. ThistimetheDalaway
wascarefultoplaceaninfantthreeyearsoldonthe
thronetoavoidtherecurrenceofthedifficulties. This
nominationwasinperfectkeepingwiththeprojects
ofking-makers generally,therealrulersofMysore
nowbeingDalawayDevaEajaandSarvadhikari,
NanjaEaja,theDalaway's uncle.Ontheretirement
ofthislatterofficer,theappointmentwasconferred
uponKaraChnriNanjaEajiah(thebrother ofthe
Dalaway),who,lateron,becamethefather-in-law of
theinfantrulerImmadiKrishnaEajaWodeyar.The
administrationwascarriedonbythesetwobrothers
withthenominalPradhanVenkatapati ofCanniam-
badi,withconsiderable vigour till,owingtothead-
vancedageofDevaEaja,thebrothersexchanged
offices. Thischangeledtoamisunderstanding be-
tweenthebrothers,whicheventuallyprovedfatalto
theirpower,andthuspavedthewayfortheriseof
Haidar'AH,whobecamethedefactorulerina.D.
1761.Thuswasbroughttoanendtheruleofthe
Wodeyars inMysore, tillitwasrevivedunderthe
aegisoftheBritishpowerafterthefallofSriranga-
patnaina.d.1799.ThepoweroftheWodeyarsthus
passedthroughallthestagesofdecaythattheMoghul
ruleunderwent, butithadthegoodfortune tobe
revivedwhichwasdeniedtotheother.
Wehavenowtracedthegradualgrowth ofthe
smallprincipality ofEajaWodeyaruntil itbecamea
compactandpowerfulStateunderChikkaDevaEaja.
Wehavealsomadearapidsurveyofthedeclineof
fortuneoftherulingfamily,untiltheStatepassed
outofitshandsintothoseofaforeigner.

333. GENEALOGICALTABLE 309
I.WILKS'GENEALOGICAL TABLE.
Vijaya.,(HadanaandIvfirugahalli.)
ChamaRaja.(Arberal=SLx-fingered.)
BetadChamaRaja. ,,
,, (1507.)
I 1 I
AppanTimmaraj Krishna BoleOhamaraj
Hemanhalli. (ICembala). (llvsore.)
i
'
1
I I
^ f ^
:
I.II
Betad Raja MuppiuDevaraj.HereOhamaraj.
Wodevar Wodeyar I
(1576to1578). (1578to1617).
|
Kantirava
f ^ (^
I
I
'
Narasa |
j I I I I
(1638to1659). Narasa. Immadi Dod 2nd 3rdKempa
I Raja Devayya. Devayya
I (Posthumous) '
Chamaraja (1637-8).
(1617to1687).
Cbikka
Dovaraj
(1672to1674).
(1659to1672).
DodDevayya.
Kantlravaraj (1704to1714).
DodKrishnaraj(1714to1731).
1
TwousurpersOhamaraj(1731to1734).
ChikkaKrishnaraj(1734to176(1).

334. ANCIENTINDIA.
-DALAWAYGRANTNo.63,TIEUMAKUDLUNAKSIPUE
{Epi-Karndtaka.)
Chamaraja.
r \ 1
I I I
Timmaraja. Krishnaraja. BetadChamaraja.
('
I
KantlravaNarasa
I
I
r
—
ImmadiRaja.
'1
J
1
I
Devarajendra.
I
f
'
I
ChikkaDevaraj.
KantlravaNarasa.
I
KrishnaRajaNripathi.
KrishnaRaja.
RajaWodeyar.
NarasaRaja.
Chamaraja.

335. GENEALOGICALTABLE 311
III.
—
Srirangapatam, Nos.64and100opEpigraphia
Karnataka.
(Gopjnrplate(Handluscription100ofSrirangapatam.)
Yadu.
BetadChamaraj(AnthcnibaraGanda).
Timmaraj. KrishnaBhupati. ChamaNripati,
(VictoroverRevatiVenkata).
{'
I I I I
RSjadhiEaja.BetadChamaraja. Devarajendra. Chamaraja.
Amrithamba=Dod Chikka Devaraj. MarlDeva.
Dc\araj. Devarajendra.
I 1
Devamamba=Chikka KantlravaMahlpati.
Devendra.
KantlravaNarasa=Oheluvaiaraamba.
Kiishnaraj=Drviijammahandeightothers(Hencetheeightnamesof
eighttanksatMelukoto).

336. 312 ANCIENTINDIA
IV.—PALACEHISTORY.
YaduRaja(1399to1423).
HereBetadGhamarajaWodeyar(1423to1458).GhamarajaWodeyar.
1
TimmarajaWodeyar(1458to1478).
HereGhamarajaWodeyar(1478to1518).
BetadGhamaraja(1513to1552).
I i I
Timmaraja(1552to1571).KrishnaRaja.BoleGhamaraja
(1571to1576).
1
Betad Raja MuppinDevaraj.Chamaraj.
Ghamaraja Wodeyar. I
(1576to1578). (1578to1617).
|

337. GENEALOGICALTABLE 313
V.—THEGENEALOGICALTEEEADOPTEDINTHISCHAPTEB.
Yadu(1399to1423).
r
HereBetadChamaraj(1423to1458).
TimmarajaWodeyar(1458to1478).
I
HereChamarajarasa(1478to1513).
I
BetadChamaraj(1513to1552).
I
f
\
Chamaraja.
Timmaraj(1552to1571). Krishnaraj BoleChamaraja
(1571to1576).
BetadWodeyar
(1576to1578). RSjadhiRaja
(1;)7>'^to1617).
I
Betad
Chamaraja.
I
Muppin
Devaraj.
r
1 \ I 1
NarasaRaja. Betad Nanjraj.Chamaraj. ImmadiRaja
I
Wodeyar. (1637-8).
ChamarajaWodeyar
(1617to1678).
RajaWodeyar
(diedyouDg).
KantiravaNarasa
(1638to1659).
f T
\ 1
DodDevaraj.ChikkaDevarajendra. KempaDevayyaMariDeva
I
(1651.)to1672).
ChikkaDevaraj(1G72to1704).
KantiravaNarasa(1704to1713).
I
DodKrishnaRaj(1713to17:U).
"1
KantiravaNarasa.
Chamaraja
<1731to1734).
ChikkaKrishnaraja
(1734to1761).

338. CHAPTEEXII
THEVALVEOFLITEBATUEEINTHE
CONSTRUCTIONOFINDIANHISTOBY
Itisanotorious factthatIndianliteraturehasfew
professed histories,andtheinferenceseemswarranted
thatthehistoricalfacultyreceivednodevelopment in
thecountry. History,asweunderstand it,isentirely
aproductofthenineteenthcenturyeveninEurope.
Workswhichconstitutegoodmaterialforhistoryhave
beenmany,whatever theirshortcomings fromthe
pointofviewofthemodernhistorian. Itisinthe
senseofprofessedhistories,whichmaybesubjected
tocriticismandusedasmaterial,thathistoriesare
wanting-inIndia.
SotheproblemofconstructingthehistoryofIndia,
asawhole,orofanypartofit,issubjecttothis
additional defect. Defective itmaybeandmuch
moresothaninEuropean countries. Stillthere is
amplematerialyetleft,despitemuchvandalismwhich
mayyieldgoodresults ifexploitedsystematically. His-
toricalmaterialinIndiaaselsewhere,maybegrouped
intothreeclasses
:
—
1.ArchsBological (includingarchitecture).
2.Epigraphical (includingnumismatics).
3.Literature.
Ofthesethefirstgoesbacktotheearliesttimes
reachedinthiscountrybyhistoricalresearch.What
canbegatheredfromthissourceis,however,scanty,
thoughreachingtotheearliestantiquity.Thesecond

339. SOUTHINDIANLITEBATUEB 315
doesnotgobeyondtheperiodoftheAsokaInscrip-
tions. Forperiodsanterior tothis,wearethrown
upon literature only,bothVedicandBuddhistic.
WithrespecttoSouthIndiaalsoarcha?ological evi-
dencemaytakeusfartherback,buttheepigraphical
doesnotgobackbeyondthebeginningoftheChristian
EraexceptforafewAsokaandSatavahana records.
Whether literature \illtakeusbeyond thislimit
maywellberegardeddoubtfulasweareatpresent,
butcarefulresearch inthisdirectionmaytakeus
pastthislimitandmayyieldusresultsbeyondour
expectations. Ihavenotsetmyselftoinquirehere
whether itisso,norwhether allliteraryevidencehas
beenbroughttobearonhistoricalresearch. Ishall
onlytrytoshowthattheinquiry willnotbein
vainifitismade.
Thisinquirynecessarily leadsustothequestion
oflanguages. Poranyworkofresearchconcerning
India,Sanskrit isindispensable. Thisisclearfrom
whatweknowofthepre-Buddhistic periodofIndian
history.WhenwecometodealwithSouthIndia,
Tamilbecomesequallyessential. OftheotherDra-
vidianlanguages,Telugudoesnottakeitsavailable
literaturemuchanteriortotheeleventhcenturya.d.,
andthisliteratureseemstobemodelleduponSan-
skritentirely. Kanaresehascertainlyamoreancient
literature.Aworkoftheninthcenturyundoubtedly
istheKavirajamarga ofNripatunga. Ifaworkof
poetry like thishadbeenwritten intheninth
centm-y,wemightpresumethattherewasanamount
ofanterior literature torequire this.Malayalam
seemstohavegrownoutofTamilintheearly
centuries oftheChristianEra.ButTamilwhich,
accordingtosome,isthemotherofthesethree,goes
backtoafargreaterantiquity. Ithas -awealthof
literature forparticularperiodswhichisworthstudy
onscientificlines.Thisbodyofliterature,independent

340. 316 ANCIENTINDIA
ofSanskritandyetsocloselyinterwovenwith it,
deserveswellofthosewhowishtobeamongthe
educated oftheircountry's sons. Itmaynotbeall
whocanaffordtostudy it,butthosewhocanought
nottoneglecttodoso.Howisthisvastliterature,
bothSanskritandDravidian, tobeexploited toany
purpose,andwhatislikelytobetheutilityofsuch
exploitation forhistory?
Ibeganwiththestatement thathistorydepends
uponarchaeology, epigraphyandliteratureforitsma-
terials.Theworkonthefirsttwohasbeenconsidered
tobelongtotheprovince ofGovernment, foritis
beyondtheresourcesofprivatework,thoughprivate
agencymaydomuchiffacilitiesareprovided.Work
uponthethirdissofarleftentirelytothepatriotic
loversofliterature. Itisnotliterature asliterature
thatismyconcernhere,butliterature sofarasit
canbeofuseforthemakingofhistory.
Thatliteraturecanprovideforhistoryneedsnoproof
now.ThestudyoftheliteratureofPali,theverna-
cularofNorthernIndiainthecenturiesbeforeChrist,
openedtousafreshvistaintothedomainofthehis-
toryofancientIndia. WilltheDravidianlanguages
similarlyopenanothervista? ItisthisquestionI
shallattempttoanswerhere,confiningmyobserva-
tionstoTamilliterature,theoldestandthemostvolu-
minous ofthesesouthern tongues,astheyareat
present. Thatasystematicstudyofthisliterature
willyieldresultsofgreatvalueevenwhereoneleast
expectsit,Icanillustratefromthefollowingincident
inthelifeofEamanuja,theVaishnavaapostle.
Tradition states,andtheGuruparamparais record,
thatEamanujaconstructedthetempleatthetownof
Tirupati,andenshrinedtheimageofGovindarajathere.
Thisimagewasbelievedtohavebeentheimageof
Govindaraja atChidambaram, pulledoutofthetemple
andcastintotheseabyacertainCholaking,called

341. CtOVINDABAJAtempleatCHIDAMIiAKAM 317
KrimikantaLytheYaisbnavas, apersecuting Chola.
SofarasIknowatpresent,thereseemstobeno
inscriptionbearingupontbi,^question,andthematter
wasbelievedtobetraditionalandnothingmore. It
wasassertedinacourtoflawthattheexistenceof
theVishnushrineatChidambaram wasduetothe
piousfraudofaVaishnavaBrahman,whoplantedthe
imageofA'ishnuoverniglit,anddupedthepeople,who
wokeuponemorningtofindtheimageofVishnu
intheSaivaHolyofHolies. Ifthewitnesshimself
believed init,asinhonestyweareboundtogrant
hedid,hemusthavebeenacredulouspersonindeed.
Wearenotconcernedwithhiscredulityorotherwise,
butwearewiththecredibility ofthetale.Stanza
86oftheTiruchchirrambalal-Ji-orai ofManikkavasagar
runsasfollows
:
—
Lfjii-'Si—ii ^rrsarisf-siremuirenr LfeSeSesarQ Ljds/Stuir
^iTikiSQi—ssr^Gd-ssrrStauu^^m esraiSj-a,Qaasresfiirem®
SffEsi—ifiirQ^&!TSO SITI—I—wpguiks^m aiTLLuf-Qt^eir^
enjriiiQi—ii ^irssrrSso'ieti luijoueoQpmrSedLD LDinuisiQ<sx!T.
Theabovestanzastatesinthewordsofthedevotee
thatVishnuwaslyinginthecourtyardofthetemple
atChidambaramsupplicating Siva,when,inresponseto
^'ishnu'sprayer,afterfruitlesslypenetratingtheearth
todiscoverthefeetofSiva,hedisplayedonefoot,thathe
mightshowtheotheraswell.Thisisacleverdescrip-
tionoftherelativepositionsandposturesofthetwo
deitiesinthetemple. Natesa isinhisself-forgetful
dancewithhisrightfootliftedup.Govindaraja isin
hisbhogasayana(recliningposture).
KulasekharaAlvarstatesregai-dingthesameGovin-
darajaasfollows
:
—
Q^ii^eifliTajiTuj LneoinBansQfcrQfQgi^em Q,fiT'Se\i^
efrij^esmirs Qefrir^QpiSjir uSireuQu^^
wssSiLBsSimr fsara^ioiriB^ euisiLDirsBr (rrfQesr.

342. •318 ANCIENTINDIA
ThestatementhereisthatVishnuwasrecumbenton
athrone,withthethreethousandBrahmanschanting
hispraiseintheChitrakuta ofThillaicity,surrounded
bycoolandshadygardens,smilingwithflowersand
tendershoots.
NextcomeswhatTirumangaiAlvarsaysaboutthe
same
:
—
BSUthQuirek^ Qp^glio LDensfliLjmQsireswiTii^
uemi—LDekssreuir ue\]e\>sniTQsnasru sssfti^
QfiiQuTeirLDessfl LDiri—iEJsar (^ipii^fie\j'?eo^
^0f&^irs^i—(i^.3=ms)i Q-s=^uSa!rsQetr.
e^(TKmirsi—^lLQt—ik^ir^eui^
QpsmpujiTGO ensssriEiseii euemiEJaiTUJQfir^^
ThefirstextractsimplyindicatesthataPallavaking
madesomecostlydedications tothetemple. The
secondthatVishnuwasinalyingpostureonhisser-
pentcouch.Thethirdthatthethreethousand of
Thillaiworshippedaccording toorthodoxrightsthe
GodofGods.
Thus,then,inthedaysofthetwoAlvarsandManik-
kavasagar,theVishnushrineoccupiedthepositionthat
itdoesnow.Letusproceedthentoalaterperiod,
theperiodofthelaterCholas.TheCholadeclinemay
bedatedascommencingwiththedeathofKulottunga
CholaI.HewassucceededbyhissonVikramachola
;
andhebyhissonKulottunga II,whowassucceeded
byEajaEajaII.ThepoetcalledOttakkuttan, there
arereasonsforbelieving,wasacontemporary ofallthe
three.Amongtheworksascribedtohimarethree
ulas,astheyarecalled,piecesofconventionalcompo-

343. KULOTTUNGA II,UPROOTSGOVINDAIMAGE 319
sitioncelebrating apatronashepassesintriumph
throughthestreetsofhiscapital,appealingtohisvanity
byelaboratedescriptions oftheeii'ectsproducedupon
theladyfolkofthecity. Itakethefollowingextracts
fromtheKulottungachdlaiiuld andBajardjamda regard-
ingtheVishnushrineatChidambaram
:
—
^QjesB3nrlr»(T^^mirfruu—iseuS^Q^iTiui
Qfi^fip
SQfmjsi—sii Qsfr&)'ie\>iiSs)ir enrii^s
s;,-^es>^sseifls^irs(^uilSlLQu—QuirprSl^syQiLp
Quirasrsisflp(^uSpfSuqpwiSIp(gg)ii-Du'2e!!T^^
ipesraifii)aLsodEffiPso ipjIigaS'^^—Ccffdrcaf
Thesetwopassagesindicateinnouncertaintermsthat,
incarryingouttherenovationofthetemple,Kulottunga
foundtheopportunity togetridoftheVishnuimage
whichwasobnoxious tohispiety. ThattheVishnu
shrinewaswhatwasparticularly offensive tothis
piousdevotee isclearfromtheexpression Qpsaasflp
si—eSIsi) Qpifi(^eS^fi,whichmeans
'submerging inthe
sea,theformerhouse".Thisveryideaoftheauthor
andthesameactofhiszealouspatronfindexpres-
sioninanotherwork,theTakkaydgapparani :—
QpesrrSlpQi—ik^S(T^wsi—eoQuiriu(Lpasr'^esTSsi—io
LDOsrguiQi—skissmi—Qsrremi—ei)Quppwss^
QLDQKsaeacuni^^^euQesT—
ItisclearthenthatKulottunga II,thegrandsonof
thefirstofthatname,perpetrated thisactofpious
hostilitytotheGovindai-aja shrine,whichledtothe
establishment byEamanuja ofthesb]-ineatTirupati
town.

344. 320 ANCIENTINDIA
LastofallisaSanskritextractwhichletsusknow
howtheGovindarajatemplecametobeagainwhere
itisatpresent. ItisaquotationfromthePrapannam-
ritramofacertainAnantarj'a,adescendant ofAndra-
purnawhowasacontemporary ofEamanuja. Itisa
lifeofEamanuja attheendofwhichtheauthorof
thelifegiveshisowngenealogy. Inthecourseof
thispedigreeoccursthefollowingpassage
:
—
Freelyrendered, itmeansthatEamaraya,whocame
afterKrishnaraya, oncewenttoChandragiri taking
withhimhisGuruTatarya. Mahacharya (Dodda-
yacharyaasheispopularlycalled)oftheVadulagotra
attheheightoffameforlearning,wastheninresid-
enceatGhatikachallam (Sholingar). Hewishedto
restorethetempleofGovindaraja atChidambaram
(Chitrakuta),whichhadbeenuprootedbytheChola
Krimikanta. Overcoming inargumenttheinvincible

345. RAMARAYARESTORESGOVINDATEMPLE 321
Saivas,thisgreatoneinlearningrestoredtheGovin-
darajatemple atChitrakiitawiththeassistance of
Eamaraya. ThisGovindaraja thusestablishedby
Mahacharya isevenyettobeseenatChidambaram.
Theseareisolatedfactsgatheredfromanumberof
works,showingnoobviousconnexionwitheachother.
Howaretheytobebroughttogetherandusedto
servethepurposesofhistory '?
Thefirstessentialtohistory ischronology. Ifthe
factsarenotplacedintheorderinwhichIhave
placedthem,theywillbeunintelligible
;andtoplace
theminthisordermore isrequiredthanmere
individual ingenuity. Ifthelastfactoftheabove
seriescouldonlybeplacedbeforeitspredecessor, the
contention oftherecent litigantswouldfindsome
justification. "Unfortunately, however,forthemIam
notmarshalling herefactsinlawforajudgeand
jury,butfactsofhistoryforacriticalstudent.The
investigation ofthehistorianoughtfirstofalltobe
chronological.
ThedateofManikkavasagar cannotyetberegarded
asasettledfactofhistory.Varyingdatesareas-
cribedtohim,asoftenwithaswithout evidence.
Somereferhimtothefifthcenturya.d.
;othersto
theninthcentury ;othersagaintoanantiquitynot
definitely ascertainable. ThatSundaramurtinayanar
doesnotincludehimamongtheTiruttondar isone
factallareagreedupon ;andthathewasacon-
temporary ofaVaragunapandyan isalsotradition
acceptedonallhands.Theepigraphistwouldkeep
himtotheVaragunaoftheeighthcenturyafterChrist.
Theliterarycriticseesquotationsandadaptationfrom
Manikkavasagar intheworksoftheearlieradiyarsof
theSaivahagiology. Thathisworkswerewellknown
inthethirteenth century,andtheworkthatreadily
challengedcomparisonwiththoseofManikkavasagar
wastheTiruvbymoli ofNammalvarareinevidencein
21

346. 322 ANCIENTINDIA
thefollowing linesoftheSatagoparandadi, ascribed
toKamban,who,therearegoodreasonsforbelieving,
livedinthetwelfthcenturyA.D.
SIpwiTisSsaojuSEi QsirrriTiiSirw SjhaeuisQ^a&&)iTQu!rtjj
wpeurr^tuirQs^rrsarenr sullffffild(ild60i1LneaisuuL/^/wa
speurrsSl^uuitejQsmQup Qsuir^ikiseireaseueiluQiU—
Inthis,asisevident,Kambancomparesthethou-
sandofNammalvar toathousandmilch-cows,bothto
therenouncedandtheworldly ;andtheTiruvasagam
tocowswhichgivenomilk.Wearenotconcerned
withthejudgement here,butonlywiththefactof
thecase,although itmustbesaidinpassingthat
thisprinceofpoetsinTamil isfarfrombeinga
fanaticalsectarian;forhesaysintheBamayana:—
^irear^s^eossirii^ euifluj^sesr sisarQ/srazrag
uns^Qs^ek rosai—euifliu uiflCoS^Quireo
Asitisimpossibletoattainsalvationforthosewho
disputeinignorancethatHaraisthegreaterorthe
worldmeasuringHari,etc'
Regarding thetwoAlvarsthedatesarenomore
fixedthanforMauikkavasagar. Theyarebothofthem
anterior tothemiddleoftheeleventhcenturya.d.i
inscriptions ofwhichdaterefertotheworksofthese
Alvarsashavingbeenheldinhighesteem.Oneof
thedecadesofTirumangaialvar referstotheoccupation
ofKanchibyakingcalledVairameghan
:
—
LDebresrsueir Q(r>/'emes>L^LuiTQsrresr eijemiEi(gi§e<r
lOfii^LDirleoeuuSjrQwasir
^smsnsilsisir Ljaifi(^ifiifi sffSiujiLi— i^ujsir^firr^—
Thefirstbeing,thatisinAttabhuyagaram inKanchi
thatwassurrounded bytheforcesandfameof
Vairameghan oflonggarlandandhighcrown,entitled
totherespectfulsubmission ofthePallava,theruler
oitheTondas(peopleofTondamandalam).

347. DATESOFTHE'REFERENCES 323
TheonlydatesofarknownforVairameghaDantidurga
oftheEashtrakutadynasty isA.D.754.Thelatter
halfoftheeighthcenturya.d,may,therefore,betaken
astheageofTirumangaialvar.' Theearlierquotations
wouldthenreferustotheeighthandninthcenturies
A.D.atthelatestfortheexistenceoftheGovindaraja
templeatChidambaram.
Thenextbatchofreferences leadstotheinference
thatitwasKulottunga II,thesonofVikramachola
andthefatherofEajarajaIIa.d.[circa)1133to1150,
whouprootedtheshrineinhispiousworkofrenova-
tionofthegreatSaivatemple. Thisisclearfromthe
quotationsthemselveswhicharefromtheworksof
acontemporary author.
Lastly,theSanskritquotationrefersthereconstruc-
tiontoDoddayacharya throughthegoodofficesofa
EamarajawhoruledafterKrishnaraya. Itwasin
thisconnexion thatthisacharyacameincontact
withAppaiyaDikshita,thegreatSouthIndianscholar
andphilosopher. Inhiscommentary onVedanta
Desika'sYddavabhyitdaya, thisscholar saysthathe
tookuptheworkofacommentaryonthiskavyaat
theinstanceofPinnaThimma,grandsonofEamaraja.
TheEamaraja referred toisclearlytheonethatfell
atTalikota. There isnothingveryimprobable in
AppaiyaDikshita'shavingbeencontemporaneous with
Doddayacharya orEamarajaontheonehand,and
withPinnaTimmaraya ontheother.Besidesthe
•writerofthePrapannamritam itselfwasadiscipleof
Kumaratatarya, popularly Kotikanyakadanam Tata-
char,whosepatronwasVankatapatiraya, whoruled
tillA.D.1614. Itmustthereforebesometimebefore
A.D.1565thatthetemplewasrestored.
Wearethusabletoobtainanaccountofthevicis-
situdesofthistempleforaboutfivecenturiesatleast.
1VideChapterXIX.

348. 324 ANCIENTINDIA
Ihavetakenthisasasimpleillustration ofwhathis-
toricalinformationcanbegainedevenfromapparently
unconnebted literature.Thefactshereareallthe
morereliable,evenincludingthelast,astheyaremere
incidentalreferences. Itwillnowappearthatthere
canbenohistorywithoutchronology,andtheat-
temptstofixthedatesofworksandauthors,which-
tomanyappearabsurd,isoftheessenceofhistorical,
research.
Whatiswanted,therefore,nowforhistoricalresearch.
isasystematicandorganizedstudyofliterature,both:
vernacularandSanskrit,inawaythatwillfacilitate
workbothliteraryandhistorical. Thisworkcannot
bedonebyonemanallthroughforhisownrequire-
ments.Hewillrequirethecollaboration ofanumber
ofothers.Astudentengagedinhistoricalresearch
hastokeephimselfinclosetouchwiththearchaeolo-
gical,epigraphical andliteraryworkthatmaybe
goingon,andmustbesomething ofanarchaeologist
andepigraphisthimself ;butthatanyoneshouldbe
allthethreebyhimselfisbeyondhumanpossibilityin
mostcases.Thisisveryoftenrecognized,andthetwo
branchesareheldtobedistinct. Inpointoflitera-
turealso—Iamconcernedwithliteratureonlyasan
auxiliarytohistory—thecollectionofmanuscriptsand
documents,andthebringingoutofgoodandcritical
editionsofworksoughttoberegardedasquiteadis-
tinctbranch.Mosteditionsoftheclassicspublished
inIndia tillquiterecently,bothinSanskritand
thevernaculars,wereuncriticaleditions. Itisthe
BombaySanskritSeries,thatsetthefashionforSanskrit.
Ouresteemedcountryman,Mahamahopadyaya Swami-
nathaiyar,hasgivenusanumberofremarkablywell-
editedtextsofimportantTamilworks.Theadvan-
tageofthiskindofediting isquiteapparent. The
variousreadings aregivenforthereadertochoose
from ;thevarietyofcommentsarealsonoted.When

349. CRITICALLYEDITEDTEXTS 325
thisiswellandaccuratelydonethetexteditorhas
renderedgoodservicetothehistorian.Whatthenis
theutilityofsucheditions '?Togiveonlyanexample
ortwo.ThelearnededitoroftheSilappadhikaram,
PunditSwaminathaiyer, hastakencaretogiveina
footnotethirteenlinesatthebeginningofthesecond
canto,foundonlyinonemanuscriptamongthosehe
consulted.Heremarksinanotherplacethatmanu-
scriptsfoundinthesamequarterhavebeenthemost
reliable inmany particulars. Thesethirteen lines
refertoKarikalaastheruleratthetime,andstate
thatthePatHnappdlaihadbeendedicated tohimby
theauthor.Therearereferencestothesameincident
inothervyorksbutfarlaterinpointoftime.
SimilarlyinstanzafourteenofKalidasa'sMegJiadrda,
wherethereisthereferencetoDiunaga, itstruckme
thattheinterpretation ofthewhole, asappliedto
Dinnagacharya,wasforced,forinthealternative inter-
pretationthecommentator Mallinathahastoomita
partofacompoundword.ThepunditswhomIcon-
sultedconsiderthatthatisnobartotheslesha. I
understandnowfromaBombayeditionofthetext
andcommentary thatHemadridoesnotcountenance
theinterpretation. Theresultisthattheestimate of
Kalidasa's age,basedonhiscontemporaneity with
Dinnaga, fallstothegroundsofar.Hemadrimay
berightorMallinatha ;butthosewhoreadwitha
viewtobuildingupahypothesis inhistoryought
tohaveanopportunity ofknowingboththecom-
mentaries.Thenheformulateshishypothesis athis
ownrisk.
FurtherdownMallinatha laysdownthatthethree
•slokaswhichhecommentsonareinterpolations.He
doesnotchoosetotelluswhyhethinksso,though
hisreasonswouldhavebeenvaluable. There isa
greatandimportantamountofworktobedone,in
thewayofexaminingcriticallythetextswithaview

350. 326 ANCIENTINDIA
todistinguishthegenuinefromthespuriouspartof
it.Associationsandprivateorganizationsmaywell
paysomeattentiontothislineofwork.TheGovern-
menthaveorganized theirarchaeologicaldepartment
forworkinarchaeologyandepigraphy. Theyare
alsodevotingsomeattention tothecollectionand
cataloguing ofmanuscripts. Associations, likethe
SouthIndian,maywellsupplement thework of
Government bydirectingsomeofitsenergiesboth
materialandmentaltocriticalworkuponthesema-
terials.TheinitiativemaybetakenbytheAssocia-
tion
;buttheresultdependsentirelyuponthesupport
andencouragement itreceivesatthehandsofthe
moreintelligentandenlightened ofourcountrymen.
TheSouthIndianAssociation atMadrasoughtto
takeinthisparticulartheplaceoftheAsiaticSocie-
tieselsewhere ;andifthoseofuswhoareinaposi-
tiontodosomething forourcountrymakeupour
mindstocontributetowardsthefulfilment ofthis
laudableambition, itwillnotbelongbeforethe
SouthIndianAssociation willachieve it.
Itisalleged,oftenwithtruth,thatthehistorian
readshisthoughtsandfeelingsintothewaitingsofthe
past.Thisnodoubtisadefectthathehastoguard
himselfagainst. Iftherecordofthepastisplaced
inhishandsinanaccurateformheoughttohave
noexcuseformakingsuchmistakes.Thedefectarises
fromaninsufficiency ofinformationwhichwouldenable-
himtoformacompleteideaofthemenandof
theperiodheisdealingwith.Thisisapointthat
thelateProfessorMaitlandseemstohavelaidgreat
stressoninthecourseofhislectures. Itisinregard
tooathsandtheinfluencethattheyexercisedon
truthfulnessthattheProfessortookoccasiontomake
theremark. Thisdefectiveappreciation isconsider-
ablyinevidenceamongaclassofscholarsengaged
inresearchwork. Itistraceabletotheimportingof

351. ILLUSTRATIONPROMTHEBHIHATKATHA 327
ourownideasandthecircumstances aboutusto
periodsofwhichwehaveeitherno,orhavenomeans
ofhaving,fullinformation. Toillustratetheposition
IgobacktotheBrihatkathd. Theworkwaswritten
inPaisachiandappearstohavebeenheldinhighesteem
bysuccessivewritersofnoteinSanskrit literature,
atleastfromthedaysofDandi totheageofthe
KasmiriaaSomadeva.Wehavefourdifferentversions
ofitasouronlysourceofknowledgeofthework.
TheKathdsarithsdgam ofSomadeva, isprofessedly a
translation
;Brihatkathdmanjari isacollectionofstories
fromtheBrihatkathd; athirdversionorcollection
wasobtainedfromNepal ;andlastlyaTamiltrans-
lationofit,whichisofanantiquitypriortothatof
thenowknownSaiigamworks. ProfessorSpeyer,a
Dutchscholar,whohasmadeacriticalstudyofthe
Eathdsarithsdgara has,onthestrengthofthesuperna-
turalpowersascribedtoNagarjunainthework,referred
theBriliatkathd toaperiodbetweenthethirdand
thefifthcenturya.d.ThisisbecausetheProfessor
thinksthatpeoplewoaldhardlyhavebelieved in
supernaturalpowerunlessaconsiderable intervalhad
elapsed.Theinferencewouldcertainlybewarranted,
ifallpeoplewererationalandscepticaltoanequal
degreeatallperiodsofhistory. Alltheworldover,
andinregardtoallreligions,miraclesplayanim-
portantpartataparticularstageofdevelopment ;and
peoplearenotwantingintheenlightened twentieth
centurywhohavefullfaithinoccultismandspiritual-
ism.ThisitisthatmakesseveralIndianworksseem
ridiculouslyabsurdtoEuropeanscholars. Iftheycould
appreciate theinfluence abeliefintransmigration
exertsuponthemindsofsimplepeople,andhow
closelyinterwoven itisinallthevaryingbeliefofthe
peopleinIndia,theywouldseethatwhatstrikes
themasabsurd isquiteobviouslybelievableevenby
contemporaries. Thatthishas,asamatterofcourse.

352. 328 ANCIENTINDIA
beenthecasecouldbeproved, ifTamilliterature
andliterarytraditionwerecalledintorequisition.
ThereareseveralworksinTamilcalledmahakavj-as.
Thetranslation oftheBrihatkathd, asirukappyamora
minorkavyacalledUdayanankadaiorPentngadai or
evensimplykadai,isbelievedtobetheworkwhich
gavetheauthority fortheuseofthewordkavya.
Thisworkisascribed totheperiodofthemiddle
6ai)gam,that is,anterior tothethirdSafigam,the
worksofwhichwehaveinsomenumber. Ihave
putforwardmyarguments forreferringthethird
SaigamtotheearliercenturiesoftheChristian era
;
hencethisworkoughttobereferable toaperiod
coevalwiththebeginning oftheeraofChrist. If
onlythiscouldbeestablishedbeyondadoubt,the
historyofVikramaditya andKanishka,aboutwhich
thereisyetconsiderabledivergenceofscholarlyopinion,
w*ouldbecomesettledtoadegreenotdreamtofby
anyyet ;because,Somadeva, thetranslator ofthe
Brihatkatha, saysinsomanyclearwordsthathe
makesnochangeinthematteroftheoriginalbeyond
themerechangeoflanguageandthenecessaryabbre-
viation. It"wouldbehyper-criticism todisputethe
assertionoftheauthorwithoutestablishing aclear
motive asanessential prerequisite. Thishasnot
alwaysbeenconcededtohim.
Thereisworktobedone,therefore, intheco-ordi-
nationofthestudyofthetwolanguages, Sanskritand
Tamil,intheinterestofboth.Intheabsenceofthe
original, iftheSanskrittranslation couldbecollated
andcomparedwiththeTamil,theresultwouldgofar
towardssolvingoneofthemostimportantproblems
ofancientIndianHistory ;namely,theoriginofthe
Samvaterawhichhashadtobeaccounted forinso
manyfancifulwaysbygreatscholars. Therearere-
ferencesinboththeKathdsarithsdgara andtheBri-
hatkathdmanjari, toaVikramaditya-Yishamasila,who

353. COKCLUSION 329
gotridoftheMIechatrouble,andcaruetoberegarded
anincarnation ofthedivineenergyofVishnuor^iva,
itdoesnotmatterwhichtous.Thisquestion istoo
longfordiscussionhere.
Myobjectisnottosettledisputedquestionsortofor-
mulateanewhistoricalhypothesis.Nowthatarchaeo-
logicalandepigraphicalworkhavemadesomead-
vance,Iappealforabetter,morerational,andsyste-
maticstudyoftheliteratureofthecountry,withaview
tomakingthemyieldtheresultsthattheyarecapable
of.Inscriptionsandarchaeological researchcanafter
allprovidethedrybonesonly. Allelsewillhaveto
begotfromliteiatare. Besides,thereisaperiodto
whichinscriptions donotleadus.Forsuchperiods
wehavetodependuponliteraryevidencealone,ifthis
isavailable,eitherfromSanskritorthevernaculars.
Itisadutythateveryoneowestohiscountrytodo
allinhispowertoadvancethestudyofthisliterature.
Inaddition tothedischarging ofaduty,thisstudy
ofliterature willbeasource ofpleasureevento
busypeople.Hereindividual eti'ortcantakeusonly
asmallway.Butiftheseeffortsweremadetoflow
intoonechannel,thevolumewouldbethegreaterand
theworkturnedoutthelarger.

354. CHAPTEKXIII
THETHIBDTAMILSANGAM
InalearnedarticleontheageofManikkavasagar in
theAsiaticQuarterlyBeview forApril,1902,Mr.
L.C.Innesarrives attheconclusion that, ifthe
Saiigamexistedatall,itmusthavecomeintoexistence
aboutA.D.1100
'
justpriortoorcoincidentwiththe
timeofKambar
'
,theauthoroftheTamilBamayanam.
TheEpicoftheAnkletorSilappadiJcdram, anadmit-
tedlySaiigamwork,waswrittenbyIlangovadigaJ, a
youngerbrotherof^enguttuvan Sera,atwhosecourt
residedalsoanotherSaiigamPoetSittalaiSattanar,
otherwise Kulavanihan Rattan,theauthor ofthe
companionworktheJewelBeltorManimekalai.
Tiruvalluvar's Kuralagain isquotedbythesetwo
authorsandacknowledged tobeaSaiigamworkalso.
There isanothergroupofSangampoets,theauthors
oftheTenPoemsorthePattuppattu,ofwhichtwoby
Eudirangannanar celebraterespectivelyCholaKarikala
andTondaiman Ilandiraiyan.FromtheSilappadi-
kdramwelearnthattheCholakingatthetimeofits
compositionwasKarikala,withhiscapitalatPuhar,Koli
orUraiyurbeingalsoanimportant city ;thePandya
kingNedumseliyan withhiscapitalMaduraandthe
CeylonkingGajabahu. Therewereaccordingtothe
sameworktwonorthernkingsattheCourtofSen-
guttuvan.KanakaandVijaya.Ofthesepersonages
theMahdvamsa ofCeylonmentionstwoGajabahus,
oneaboutl_33,^^c_^andtheotheraboutA.D.1142.
Oneofthesetwokingsissaidtohaveinvadedthe

355. GAJABAHU'SINVASION 331
Chola countrj'inrevenge forapastconquest or
occupation ofCeylonbytheCholas. Thisconquest
Mr.Innesthinksimpossible fortheCholas,solong
asthePandyaswerepowerful, forstrategicand
geographical reasons.Hethinksitwouldhavebeen
imprudentonthepartoftheCholas,and,therefore,
unlikelythattheyshouldexposetheirflankunde-
fendedagainsttheirswornenemies.Theinvasionof
CeylonbytheCholascannothavetakenplacebefore
thereignofKulottungaCholaI,whoascendedthe
throneinA.D.1070andinwhosereignthePandyas
wereoverthrown. EvenapartofthePandyacountry
wascolonizedalongtheroadtoKottarunearCape
Comorin.Haditnotbeensotheywouldhavehad
topassthroughthePandyacountry.Thesetworeasons
cannotstand,asweknowinfactthatCeylonwas
invadedmanytimesbeforethetimeofKulottunga,
whosefather-in-lawRajendra's inscriptions arefound
inthecountry. EajendraChola,whoruledfromA.D.
1001to1042,capturedafterasea-fightKadaramand
otherplacesintheEamnadZemindari,'andevenhis
fatherEajaraja (a.D.984tolOlG)hadafleetwith
whichhedefeatedtheSerasatKandulCir.Aninva-
sionofCeylonwouldhavebeenanavalinvasionand
thePandyaswouldhavebeenalwaysontheflank.
TheCholaswereengaged inwarsinthedistant
Kalingam,onthebanks oftheTungabhadra and
evenontheMalabarCoast,beforethePandyaswere
subjugatedbyKulottunga I.Sothereisnodifiiculty
inthewayofouraccepting theaccount ofthe
MahavamsaabouttheoccupationofCeyloninthefirst
centuryb.c.orso. Ifthechroniclecannotberelied
onfortheperiodearlierthanthemiddleofthefifth
century a.d. itmaybesound toinferthatthe
earlierGajabahu'sdatemaybesomewhatlaterthan
1NowprovedtobeinBurma.

356. 332 ANCIENTINDIA
itactually isstated tobe,andthattheTamil
occupation ofCeylonmayhavetakenplacelaterthan
thefirstcentury b.c,sayaboutthefirstcentury
A.D.Itthusappearsquitepossiblethatthefirst
Gajabahumight aswellhaveinvadedtheChola
countryasthesecond.AbouttheyearA.D.1142
theChola rulermusthavebeenEajaraja II,and
fromthepublishedinscriptions ofhimandofhis
predecessornothingcanbetracedastoaninvasionof
theCholacountrybytheCeylonese. Eajaraja II's
successorKulottunga IIIclaims tohaveconquered
theCeylonese,Madura, etc.;butKulottungaIIIruled
fromA.D.1178toprobablyA.D.1216.
Thenextpersonageofimportancewhofiguresin
theSilappadiharam isaKarikalaChola.Mr.Innes
isofopinionthatthisneednotbetheearliestChola
ofthenamethatweknowof.This isverytrue.
Whetherwehavetotakehimtobetheearliestor
thelatestmustbesettledongoodgrounds. Sofar
asweknowthehistoryoftheCholas,weknowfour
Cholasofthisname.ThefirstisKarikalaofthepoems
Silappadikaram, Pattinappdlai andPorunarcirrup-
padai
;thenextinchronological order isAditya
II,Karikala,theelderbrotherofEajarajatheGreat,
(a.d.984to1016);thethirdisnotaCholasovereign,
butonlyaviceroyandyoungerbrotherofEajendra,
whoisthefather-in-law ofKulottunga I;andlastly
Kulottunga Ihimself. Karikala,thecontemporary of
Senguttuvan, oftheSangamfame,mustbeoneof
thesefour.AsIunderstand thearticle,Mr.Innes
considerhimtobethelast.TheSrivaishnava saint
EamanujaatSrirangamgaveoffencetoaSaivaruler
J^arikalaandinconsequencehadtofleethecountry.
HewentintotheMysorecountryandconvertedthe
theJainkingBittiDevaaliasVishnuvardhana ofDvara-
samudratotheVaishnava faith.Subsequent tothis,
hefoundedthetempleatMelukote,whicheventis

357. THEKAKIKALAEEFERBEDTOTHEEAELIEST 333
placedbytheGuruparamparai in^akaA.X).1021or1099.
InthisworkitisnotstatedthattheKarikalawasthe
CholasovereignhimselfandEamanuja isstatedtohave
stayedanumberofyearsatSaligramainMysorebefore
meetingVishnuvardhana. Itwouldstandmoreto
reasontoidentifyhisenemyKarikalawiththeyounger
brotherofEajendra,asheisdefinitelystatedtobethe
viceroyofKoliorUraiyur.BatitmattersHttletoour
presentpurposeevenifhebeKuJottungaIhimself,but
itisunlikely,asthelatter'scapitalwaseitherGangai-
kondaCholapuramorKanchi.AgainthesameGuru-
paramparaimakesmentionofaTondaimanChakravarti,
whocouldbenootherthanKarunakaraTondaiman,
thegeneral ofKulottunga I,andtherealhero of
Jayamkondan's Kalingaftupparaiii. Thesetwowere
undoubtedly contemporaneous withEamanuja. Mr.
Inneswouldidentifytheseworthieswiththeheroes
ofEudirangannanar's Pattinnppalai andPermabandr-
ruppadai.Thiscannotpossiblybe.Jayamkondanabove
mentioned isprofessedlyacontemporary ofKulottunga
CholaI,andcelebratesinhispoem,theKalingattuppa-
rani,theconquestofKalingambyKarunakaraTondai-
manofYandai(Vandalur) forhismasterKulottunga
I.Inthecantoofthepoemdealingwiththeroyal
genealogyhestatesexplicitlythatthetwopoemsin
praiseofKarikalaweresunginpraiseoftheearliest
ofthename.ThePeruinhamrruppadai ofEudiran-
gannanarcelebratesaTondaimanindeed ;butaTondai-
manIlandirayan,thesonoftheancientCholakingKokilli
bytheNagaPrincessofNegapatam,asexpresslystated
inthepoemitself.Inthefaceofthis,itisafeatof
boldnesstoidentifythetwogroupsofpersonages. This
isnotall.Karikalaofthesepoemsiscloselyassociated
withPuharorKaverippambattinam ashiscapitalwith
apossiblealternative ofKoliorUraiyurorUrandai.
Butinallthepublishedinscriptions ofthelaterGholas
IhavenotcomeacrossanyreferencetoPuharatall,

358. 334 ANCIENTINDIA
ThePandyakiagatthetimeoftheeventsnarrated
intheSilappadikciram isNeduipseliyanwhowas
succeededbyIlamseliyan,theviceroy,probably,ofKorkai,
anotherPandyacapital.AtaboutA.D.1175wecome
uponalineofPandyarulerswiththealternating titles
ofKulasekharaandSundara.Withtheriseofthese
rulersthePandyasalsoriseintoprominence,buttill
thenthePandyaswereinnoconditionforan
'academy
'
atMadura. EversincethedaysofEajarajaIthe
Pandyacountryhadbeensomuchharassedbythe
Cholasthattheyhadtomaintainaperpetualstruggle.
Thisculminated inthecompletesubjugation ofthe
countrybyKulottunga,whomarched throughthe
Pandyacountryandplanted colonies inagricultural
partsalongtheroadtoKottaru intheTravancore
countrynearCapeComorin. Thiswouldhardlybe
thetimefortheSaiigamwhichadmittedly flourished
inthePandyacountry.
TheSaiigam,therefore,oughttohaveexistedata
timewhentheCholacountrywasruledbyKarikala
andhissuccessorPerunarkilli atPuharandUraiyur;
whenthePandyacountrywasruledbyNedunseliyan
ofMuduraikkdnji andNedtmalvddaifameatMadura
andKorkai
;whenSenguttuvanSerawas rulingat
Vanji ;whenGajabahuwasrulinginCeylon.Asfar
asisknownatpresenttheearlierGajabahu'stime
wouldanswerbetterthanthereignofGajabahu II.
Ifitcouldbeprovedbeyonddoubtthatthealphabet
wasnotknowninSouthIndiabeforethethirdcentury
A.D.,wemayhavetobringGajabahuIuptowithin
livingmemoryofthetimeoftheauthoroftheMahd-
vamsawrittenaboutthemiddleofthefifthcenturyA.D.
KambarmightnothavelivedevensoearlyasA.D.
886.Itisclearfromhisreference toEamanuja that
bemusthavefollowedthelatter.Thepopularaccount
whichwouldbringtogetherKambar,Ottakkuttar,Pu-
galendi,etc.,andplacetheminthecourtofKulottunga

359. KAMBARNOTKNOWNTOTHESANGAM 335
maybecorrectinsofarastheseauthorsareconcerned,
butnoneofthesehadanythuigtodowiththe^aigam.
Kambar,wearetold,wentfromplacetoplacetogain
theapprovalofthelearnedforhisBamaijanam, but
heisnotsaid,likeTiruvalluvar, tohavegonetothe
Saiigam,whoseimprimaturwouldatoncehavestamped
hisworkwithauthority.Kambarthereforecouldnot
havebeenacontemporary oftheSaigam,andthere
isnothingagainst hishavingbeen totheSaiigam
proximus sedlongointcrvallo (nextbutat-along
interval).

360. CHAPTERXIV
THEAUGUSTANAGEOFTAMIL
LITEBATUBE
Deearyastheprospectmaywellappeartotheearn-
eststudentofTamilliteraryhistory, asinfactdoes
earlySoathIndianhistoryingeneral,therehas,of
late,beenbrought tolightaconsiderable bodyof
Tamilliteraturewhichthrowsafloodoflightupon
themuch-doubted,thoughoftendebated,periodwhen
literaryactivityinTamilreacheditshighwatermark.
ScholarsaremuchdividedinopinionastotheSaigam
havingeverexistedatall,exceptintheactiveimagi-
nationoflaterpoetsandtheidletongueoftradition.
Thisisnotstrange,consideringhowmuchtruthis
generallyovergrownandinterwovenwithfableand
legend. Whetherwantonlyorotherwise, thetruth
isveryoftenhiddenalmostbeyondrecognition in
laterliterature ;andearlyscholarsinmodernIndian
researchhaveunwittinglycontributed theirownquota
totheverysameend.Muchhas,therefore,even
tobeunlearntbeforemakinganattempt tolearn
somethingaboutthisdistantpastoftheoldestofthe
Dravidianlanguages ofSouthIndia.Eveninthe
traditionshandeddowntous,muchdistortedthough
theyare,therearecertaincardinalfactsandcharac-
tersstandingclearlymarkedoutfromtherubbish
outgrowths. Itwillnot,therefore,bewithoutinterest
toattempttoplacethesefactsinthelightinwhich
theyappearonanunbiasedandimpartialinquiry.

361. THIKDSANGAMANDUGEA-PANDYAN 337
Anattempt'thereforewillbemadeinthischapterto
setforththeavailableevidence,literaryandhistorical,
whichtendsjtowardsthefollowingconclusions
:
—
(1)Thattherewasanageofgreatliteraryactivity
inTamiltowarranttheexistenceofabodylikethe
traditional^aiigam.
(2)ThattheperiodofthegreatestSangamactivity
wastheagewhenSeiguttuvanSerawasaprominent
characterinpolitics.
(3)Thatthisageof^eiiguttuvanwasthesecond
centuryoftheChristianera.
(4)Thattheseconclusionsareinaccordancewith
whatisknownofthelaterhistoryofSouthIndia.
Thereareanumber ofworksinTamilliterature
ofasemi-historical character ofalaterandofan
earlierage.Thesealonewillberelieduponhere,
withoutaltogethereschewingtradition ofareliable
character. Sofarastradition isconcerned, there
werethreeTamil^angams 'thatflourished ator
aboutMadura,andofthese,thethirdisallthatwe
canpresumetospeakabout.ThisSangamhad,for
itsmembers, forty-nine criticsandpoetswhocon-
stitutedaboardofcensors.Therewereforty-nine
Pandya rulers,amongwhomwereMudattirumaran
andUgra-Peruvaludhi, whoactivelypatronized the
Sangam. Thislastpersonage isthesovereignbefore
whomtheRuralofTiruvalluvarreceivedtheSangam
imprimatur. Itisnotoutofplacetoremarkhere
thattheauthoroftheKuralwasnotamongthe
Sangammembers,andtherewerealargenumberlike
himatdifferentplaces,aswillappearinthesequel.
TakingthisUgra-Pandyan forreference,anumber
ofpoetsandkingscanbegroupedaroundhimfrom
internalevidence ofcontemporaneity withouthaving
recourse toanylegendsconcerning them.But it
IThepoemquotedinthenoteatpage2.Silappadhikdram.
22

362. 338 ANCIENTINDIA
isfirstofallnecessary toshowthatitisprobable
thatTiruvalluvar wasacontenaporary ofUgra-
Pandyan. Apartfromtheverseinpraiseofthe
Kuralascribedtohim,itisawell-known factthat
Tiruvalluvarhadasisterbyname,orrather title,
Avvaiyar. ThispoetesssingsofthissamePandyan
andhistwofriendstheCholaKilli,whoperformed
theBdjasuya,andtheCheramanMavanko,although
thenamesofthesepersonages arenotmentioned as
suchinthepoem367ofthePurandnuru. Butpoem
twenty-oneofthesamecollectionbylyurMulangilar
specifies hisvictory overVengaimarban andthe
taking ofthe
'greatfortressoftheforest(Kanap-
pereyil).' ItalsoreferstothefameofthisPandyan
astranscending the skill ofpoets.ThisUgra-
Pandyan iscreditedwithhavingcausedthecollection
Ahananuru tobemade. Certainmythical achieve-
mentsareascribed tooneUgravarmaPandyan in
theMaduraSthalapurana andtheHdldsyaorTiru-
vilayddal,whichachievements arealludedtointhe
EpicoftheAnklet}
Leaving asideUgra-Pandyan forawhile,the
greatest ofAvvaiyar's patrons—infact,almostthe
patrons—wereAdiyamanNedumanAnjiandhisson,
Pohuttelini. Their territorieswereinthemodern
MysoreprovinceandintheSalemdistrict,withthe
capitalatTagadiir,^ identifiedwithDharmapuri in
thelatterdistrict,thoughtherewasanotherTagadur
ofsomeconsequence inlaterhistoryintheMysore
district,notfarfromNanjanagiJdunearMysoretown.
TherewasanAdiyamanaboutthesameregionwho,
1Silappadhikaram, Cantoxi,11.26-31.
2Mr.Kanakasabhai Pillaiidentifies thisplacewithDharmapuri,
Salemdistrict. VideEpigraphiaIndica,VI,No.34,andante,XXII,
pp.66and148.Mr.P.J.Richards,M.A.,I.G.S.,informsmethata
hilloverhangingthetownAturgoesbythenameAwaimalai,the
hillofAvvai.

363. AVVAI,ANJI,PABANAR 339
astheCholaviceroy,wasdrivenacrosstheKaveri
whenTalakadu was captured by thefamous
GangaEaja,thegeneralofVishriuvardhana Hoysala
beforeA.d.1117.OfthemanypoemsinthePurana-
nuru collection ascribed toAvvaiyar, the great
majority celebrate Anji,oneofthe last
'seven
patronsofletters
',aspatronagewentinthosedays.
Several ofthesementiontheheroandhissonby
name.Poemninety-one givestheliero'snameand
referstothegifttoAvvaiyaroftheblackgooseberry
supposed toconferimmortality ontheluckyeater
thereof.Thesameincident isreferred to,withthe
name ofAvvaiyar putin it,inthepoemSiru-
pandrriippadai
^
ofNalliirNattattanarincludedinthe
TenTamilIdylls,anotherSatigam collection.The
poemhasforitsspecialobjectthecelebration of
Erumanattu Nalliyakkon, apettychiefoverVellore
Amurandotherplacesnearabout, asthemost
liberalamongtheliberalpatrons ofthosedays,
namely,theChera,theChola,andthePandya,and
theseven lastpatrons.Poemninety-nine ofthe
Purandnuru isofimportance, asgivingusanother
cluetoadifferentsynchronism oftheutmost con-
sequence. Thispoem celebrates Anji'sconquest of
Tirukkovilur, andstatesthatthehero'sfametran-
scendedthecapacityofthepoetsofanoldergeneration,
andyetthepoetParanar
'singsto-dayoftheglory
ofyourconquestofTirukkovilur
'.
Thismention ofParanar isofverygreatim-
portance toliteraryhistory.Hewasapoetamong
theSarigammembersand iscreditedwithalarge
number ofthePurandnuru collection. ButParanar's
fameshouldhavebeengreater,hadhereallyen-
joyedthepatronage ofSenguttuvan Sera,whomhe
celebrated inthefifthdivision ofanotherSaugam
111.pp.99-103.

364. 340 ANCIENTINDIA
,
collection,theTenTens(Padirruppattu) .Theparentage
ascribed toSefiguttuvan thereagreeswordforword
almostwiththatgivenbytheauthoroftheEpic
oftheAnklet,abrotheroftheking,andiseven
fullerofparticulars. Thelastverse,^thePadigam,
writteneitherbyafriendly-contemporary ordisciple
orsomeoneelseinasimilarposition, explicitly
givesusthenamesoftheheroandtheauthor,and
thusleavesusinlittledoubtastothecorrectness
oftheconnexion. Itisonthesetwoaccountsthat
thecommentator ofthelatterworkreliesforhis
fulleraccountoftheChera'shistory.Fromtherefer-
encetotheSirupdnmadeabove, itisclearthat
Avvaiyarenjoyedthepatronage ofAdiyamanNedu-
manAnji.Poemninety-nine ofPurandnuru refersto
Paranarashavingcelebratedthesamepatron. The
lastverseofthefifthdivisionoftheTenTensconnects
unmistakably SenguttuvanwithParanar.Thusthen
itisclearthatSenguttuvan Sera,AdiyamanAnji,
AwaiyarandParanarmusthavelived, ifnotac-
tuallyatthesametime,atleastinthesamegenera-
tion.Senguttuvanwasaremarkablygreatruler,and
thankstotheeffortsofourmodern
'Nachchinarkiniyar',
Mahamahopadhyaya PanditSaminatha Iyerofthe
MadrasPresidency College,wehavetwogreatworks
composedathiscourtandinhistime,whichshed
afloodoflightoncontemporary historyandwhich
wouldgoalongwayinsettlingmanyaknottypoint
intheliteraryhistoryofSouthIndia.Thesearethe
EpicoftheAnklet(Silappadhikdram) andtheJewel-
Belt(Manimekhalai). ThefirstistheworkofIlango,
theyounger brother ofSenguttuvan, who, after
renouncing civillife,residedatKunavayilnearKariir
1Videp.10,footnoteonp.11,andcantoxxix.PanditSaminatha
Iyer'seditionrecentlypublished,
pp.78-6.Silappadkikdravt.
^Silafpadhiharam, cantoxi,11.20-31.

365. PAEANARANDKAPILAR 341
(Vanji),theancient capitaloftheChera ;andthe
second,thecompanionandsupplement,thoughthe
earliercomposed,fromthepenof(ratherthestyleof)
MaduraiKulavanigan Sattan, otherwiseknown as
Sitthalaichchattanar, thecornmerchant ofMadura.
<Hisheadwasbelievedtohavebeenexudingmatteron
accountoftheblowsdealtbyhimselfwheneverhe
detectederrorsinother'scomposition, considering it
amisfortunetohavetoreadorlistentosuchblunders
;
souncompromisingwasheasacritic.) Beforepro-
ceedingtoaconsideration ofthesegreatworks, itis
bettertodisposeofafewotherimportantcharacters.
Ofthelastseven patrons celebrated in the
Sirupdnarruppadai ofNallurNattattanar (believedto
beoneoftheSaiigamforty-nine), thereisonePehan
(otherwise Vaiyavikkon Perumbehan) whowasso
liberal(inconsiderately so)astogiveawarmcovering
toapeacock. Thissameincident isreferredtoin
poem 14.5oftheFurananuru ascribed toParanar.
Thispersonagesometime inhislifetransferred his
affectionsfromhiswifeKannahi (tobecarefully
distinguishedfromtheheroineoftheepic)andseveral
poets,amongwhomParanar,madepoeticalappeals
onherbehalf.TheotherswereKapilar,ArisilKilar
andPerumkunrur Kilar(poems43-7bothinclusive
ofthePurandnuru) .There isconsiderable similarity
ofsentimentinthese.Poem343ofthesameworkis
alsoascribedtoParanar,anditreferstoaKuttuvan
veryliberal inthedonation ofwealth
'brought
downhill-countryandfromoversea
'.
PassingontoKapilar,anotherSangam celebrity
reputedbytradition' tobetheyoungerbrotherof
Tiruvalluvar, itisfoundthathehadforhispatron
andfriendachieftain,VelPari,whosedemesneParam-
bunaducomprised 300villagesandwhowasmaster
1Theactualstoryconnectingthese isregardedasafabiioationby
somescholars.

366. 342" ANCIENTINDIA
ofParambu Hill. Kapilariscreditedwithhaving
composed the-kurinjisectionoftheAingnrunuru, the
seventhoftheTenTens,theKurinjippatiu oftheTen
Idylls(all^angamworks)andtheInna(thatwhichis
badandthereforetobeavoided),Forty.WhenParifell
avictimtothetreacheryofthethreePowers,whomade
afutileattackonhimjointly,Kapilarashischief
friendtookhistwogirlswithhimtobegivenaway
inmarriagetosomepersonworthyofthem,andthus-
dohislastdutytohisdepartedfriend.Poems200,201
and202ofthePurandnuru refertotheincident* of
Pari'sgivingacartothecreepermullaiandto
Kapilar'sofferingthegirlstoVichchikkonandPulikadi-
maPIrungovelofMalainadu. Bothofthemrefused
tomarrythegirls,andsomeinsultofferedastothe
socialstandingofhispatron'sfamilythepoetresents
inpoem202.Poem201referstoIrungovel, saidto
havebeenadescendantintheforty-ninthgeneration
fromtherulerof
'Tuvarai
'^
whowasbornfrom^
sacrificial fire.ThetitlePulikadimalhasconsiderable
similarityinitsorigintoastorywhichisgivenas
explainingtheoriginoftheHoysalas ininscriptions
ofalatertime.ThefollowingpoemresentsIrungo-
vel'srefusaltomarrythegirls,andreferstothedestruc-
tionofArayamcity,thehead-quarters ofthisfamily,in
consequence ofaninsultofferedtothepoetKalatha-
laiyar
*byanancestorofIrungovel's. Thepoetfurther
begs,withbitingsarcasm,tobepardoned forhaving
introducedthegirlsasthedaughters ofPari,instead
ofasthedescendants ofEvvi,achiefinthePandya
country.
1VideSirupdn.
^Hethatkilledatiger.
3TuvaraimaybeeitherDwarakaiaGuzeratorDwaravati of
Dwaraaamudra oftheHoysalas.
*Anotherpoetwho celebrates Karikala,andhisCheracon-
temporary,Perumseraladhan. (Poem65,Purandnuru.)

367. kapilab'scontemporaries 343
KapilarhimselfisconnectedwiththeCheraMantha-
ramSeraiIrumporaiandisspokenofwithgreatregard
asapoetbyanotherpoet,PorundhilIlanglranar.Poem
126byMarokkattuNappasalaiyar referstohispraise
ofMalaiyaman Tirumudikkari,whowasinpossession
ofMuUfirHill. Itincidentally referstothenaval
strength oftheSera,likening thefutility ofthe
author'sattemptatcelebratingKari,afterKapilarhad
doneso,totheendeavour tosailashipintheface
oftheChera fleet.Poem174bythesameauthor
refersincidentallytoMuUurHill,celebratedbyKapilar,
anddirectlytoSoliyavenadbiTirukkannan (otherwise
Tirukkilli),whorenderedyeoman'sservicetoPeruvirar-
killiwhileinhidingatMullur.Thepoemfurther
creditstheMalayaman Soliyavenadbi Tirukkannan
withhavingrestoredtheCholatohisposition.Another
personthatKapilarcelebrates isTirumudikkari, ruler
ofMalainadu, withhiscapital atTirukk5vilurand
withthehillMullur.Poems1'22and123refertohis
havingbeensoughtinalliancebythethreepowers.
Beginningwithaconsideration ofwhat little is
known ofthesethreepersonages, Avvaiyar,Paranar
andKapilar,wehavebeenintroduced toanumber
ofpoetsandpotentates livingwithinagenerationof
oneanother. Beforeproceeding toaconsideration
ofthechiefrulersoftheageandtheirgeographical
location, letusturnasidetogleanwhatwecanof
contemporary historyfromthetwoepicsoftheage
ofSenguttuvan,whowasbyfarthemostimpor-
tantcharacter oftheperiodandaboutwhomwe
couldgatheranamountofinformationfromtheabove
works.
TheEpicoftheAnklet isthestoryofKovalan
'
(Gopala,andhiswifeKannahi),bothofthemercantile
community ofPuhar(Kaverippumbattinam), andhas,
foritsmoral,thetriunjph ofthewife'schastityand
thevindication ofthehusband'sinnocence.Thestory

368. 344 ANCIENTINDIA
isasfollowsinbriefoutline :Kovalan,thesonof
Masattuvan ofPuhar,wasearlymarriedtoKannahi,
thebeautifuldaughterofManayganofthesameplace
andcommunity. Themarriagewascelebratedwith
greatpompandbecoming circumstance, asthetwo
partieswereofhighsocialstanding. Afterawhile,the
mother-in-law setherdaughter-in-lawupindependently
inadifferenthouseinthesamecity,providedwithall
thattheyoungcouplemightneedforconductinga
successfulandvirtuous life,ashouseholderandhouse-
wife.Sometime after,Kovalantookafancyfora
highlyaccomplished andexceedingly lovableprofes-
sionaldancing-woman, whose skillinherartwas
unsurpassed,nayevenunsurpassable. Theloverand
mistressledahappy lifeandhadadaughter, the
onlyoffspring oftheiraffection. Disconsolate as
Kannahiwas,sheneverlostheraffection forthe
husbandwhohadthusgivenherup,andwasquite
asfaithfultohimasshewouldhavebeenunder
ordinarycircumstances. Attheconclusion ofthe
annual festivaltothegodIndra,theusualbathing
intheseabroughtthefestivitiestoaclose.Thiswas
adayofenjoyment forallandthewholeelegant
societyofPuharturnedouttothebeachtospend
thedayinmusic,dancing,andothersuchamuse-
ments.Thehappyloverssingingtotheaccompani-
mentoftheyal,aTamilmusicalinstrumentnow
goneoutofuse,byturns,suspected,fromthetenor
ofthesongs,eachtheotherofhavingchangedhis
or-heraffection. Stungbythisimaginedbadfaith
onthepartofhissweetheartMadhavi,Kovalanwent
hometohishouse,insteadoftohersasusual,and
feltquiteashamed ofhimselfforhistreatment of
thewife,whoredoubledherattentionstohimsince
shehadseenthatsomethingailedherlord.Overcome
withremorse,Kovalanconfessed tohiswifehis
positionwithrespecttoMadhaviandcommunicated to

369. THEEPICOFTHEANKLET 345
herhisresolution tomake arcends forhispast
misconductbyenteringintobusinessinMaduraonhis
ownaccount,askingherifshewouldfollowhim,should
heactuponhisresolution. Kannahisignifiedaready
assentandgaveherhusband thepairofanklets
(Silambu),theonlythingvaluablehehadnotasyet
givenawaytoMadhavT,forprovidingthecapitalneces-
saryforhimtobecomeamerchantinMadura.That
verynighttherepentantandadmiringhusbandwithhis
faithfulspouseunknown toanyone, startedaway
beforedawnandtookhiswayalongthenorthern
bankoftheKaveri. PickingupthenunDevandhi,
afewmilesabovePuhar,theycontinued their
journey toSrirangamandUraiyur.Thencetaking
oneofthethreeroadsindicatedbytheMalainadu
BrahmanfromMangadu (Alavay inTravancore),
whowasreturningfromMaduraonapilgrimageto
theshrines ofVishnu,theyreachedtheoutskirtof
thecapitalcityofthePandyans. Leavinghistender
wifeinchargeofahospitableshepherdess andher
daughter,heenteredMadura citythenextdayto
selloneofthepairofanklets.Notfindingaready
sale, asthejewelwas ofveryhighvalue,he
wanderedlongbeforehewasaccostedbyagoldsmith,
whowasgoingtowardsthepalace attheheadof
anumberofhisapprentices.OnKovalan's offering
thejewelforsale,thewilysmithpromisedtogetit
sold,witharequestthathewouldkeepthejewel
withhimandwaittheretillheshouldsendforhim
fromthepalacewhitherhewasthengoing.Proceed-
inggleefully totheroyalresidence,hereportedto
theking that thethiefwhohadstolenthe
queen'sanklethadbeencaughtwiththejewelin
hispossessionandhadbeenkeptwaitingunder
promise ofpurchase.Thekingwhowasmuch
distressed atthelossofthejewelandthepainit
causedthequeen,saidthatthejewelshouldbe

370. 346 ANCIENTINDIA
brought,havingkiUedthethief.Heactuallymeant
thatherequiredthemanandthejeweltobebrought,
inordertokilltheman, ifguilty.Theplotofthe
goldsmith, therealculprit, succeeded sowellthat
thekingwasdeludedandtheinnocentherowas
murdered, aftertransacting apathetic scenemuch
liketheoneinShakespeare'sEichard III.Newsof
thiscalamityreachedKannahiwho,ingreatanger,
forgotherusualmodesty,andbentuponestablish-
ingherhusband's innocenceandthepowerofher
chastity, walked boldly forth, quite,unHkeher
ordinary self,withtheotherankletinherhand
andrangthebellofjusticeinthegreatgateofthe
palace.Thisalarm,quiteunheard ofinthereignof
thethenPandyanruler,madethehall-portersuspect
thatsomething seriouslywronghadtaken place.
Theunusual apparition ofayounginjuredwoman
withanankletinoneofherhands,withangerand
griefonhercountenance,wasimmediatelyannounced
totheking.Admittedwithoutdelayintotheroyal
presence,Kannahiprovedthattheankletforwhich
herhusband suffereddeathwashersandnotthe
queen's,demonstrating thatthejewelindisputewas
filledwithrubies.Thequeenaf&rmedherswasfilled
withpearls.KannahiinvokedacursethatMadura
shouldbeconsumedbyfireforthisremissness of
herking,who,ratherthansurvivethedisgracehe
hadbroughtuponalineofillustrious rulers,died
immediately. Thequeenfollowedherconsort,and
Kannahi leftthecitybythewesterngatetowards
thehill-country,whereshewastojoinherhusband
inafortnight, aspromised bythegoddess of
Madura. Thisunionofthewifeandthehusband
wasseenbythehill-tribes,whodulyreportedthe
mattertotheirking,thenincamponthehillswith
hisqueenandretinue.Attherequestofthegood
queeb,thekingbuiltatempleandconsecrated itto

371. MANIMBKHALAI 347
thechastelady(PattiniDevi)whohadundergoneso
recentanapotheosis.
Thisis,inthemerestoutline,thestoryofthefirst
epic,andthesecondisasequeltothis.Information
ofalltheproceedings atMadurawasgivenatPuhar
byaBrahman friendofKovalan,who,havingbathed
atKumari(CapeComorin,nearwhichwasoncea
river),wasbaiting atMadura onhishomeward
journey.Themotherandmother-in-law ofKannahi
diedofgrief.Thefatherandfather-in-lawrenounced
lifeandbecameBuddhisticmonks.Madhavl,disconso-
lateatKovalan'ssuddendisappearance, senthiman
importunate appealtoreturn,whilehewasyeton
hisoutwardjourneytoMadura. Finding itofno
avail,shehadbeenovercomewithgrief,andwhen
newsofKovalan'sdeathreachedher,shegaveuplife
andallitspleasures tobecomealaydisciple ofa
Buddhisticmonk ;whileherdaughterjustblooming
intoawomanofrarebeautyandwomanly grace,
enteredtheBuddhistic cloister. Jeioel-Belt[Manivie-
khalai)washername.Herrenunciation formsthe
subjectoftheepiccalledbyhername.Theheir-
apparent ofPuhar isverydeeplyinlovewithher,
butsheistakencareofbyagoddess,whoplays
theguardianangel,muchliketheArielofShakes-
peare.Tosaveherfromthelovingprince'sardour,
sheisremoved toanislandbythegoddesswhile
asleep ;andtheresheisinitiatedintotheBuddhist
mysteries.Having understood herpast life,she
returnstoPuharwithabegging-bowl ofextraordinary
virtue.Theprincestillprosecuting hishopelesslove,
fallsavictimtothejealousy ofanangel,whose
wife'sdisguisetheheroineassumed tokeepouther
importunate lover,herownhusbandinaprevious
life. Consoling thequeenandthekingintheir
sorrowforthelossoftheirson,sheleavesPuhar(at
themouthoftheKaveri)andproceedstoVanji(not

372. 348 ANCIENTINDIA
farfromKranganur atthemouthofthePeriyar),
whereshelearns allthattheteachers ofdifferent
religious sj'stemshavetoteachher.Notsatisfied
withtheirphilosophy ofreligion,sheisdirectedto
KanchIbyhergrandfather,whohadbetakenhimself
toVanjiinanticipation ofPuharbeingoverwhelmed
bythesea.Manimekhalai proceedstoKancbiand
relievestheplacefromfaminebytheuseofher
begging-bowl. Learningthetruephilosophy ofthe
Buddhafromasaintlymonk,shestopped there.
Thisisthemerestoutlineofthetwopoems,forminga
single epic,which isofadramatic-epic character
withsomething ofthenarrativeinit.Containing,
astheydo,agreatdealofthesupernatural, there
isyetmuchthatmustberegarded ashistorical.
Inoneword,thesetting ispoetical,buttheback-
ground ishistorical.
TheEpicoftheAnklethasmuchtosayabout
the
'threegreatkingsofthesouth
'anditscom-
panionconcerns itselfwiththreelikewise ;butthe
placeofthePandyan istakenbytherulerof
Kanchi.TobeginwiththeCholakingscelebrated
bythepoets,twonamesstandout ;thoseofKari-
kalaand Killi, calledindifferently Nedumudikkilli,
Velverkilli, Mavankilli, etc. Ofthesetwo. Dr.
Hultzsch hasthefollowing inhisSouthIndian
Inscriptions
^
:'Itwillbeobservedthateachofthe
fourdocuments, which record thenames and
achievements oftheseancientCholakings,enumerates
theminadifferentorder.Oneofthefourkings,
Kokkillicanhardlybeconsidered ahistoricalperson,
SiBlieiscreditedwithhavingenteredasubterraneous
caveandtheretohavecontracted amarriagewitha
serpentprincess,andastheVihkirama SolanUlS,
placeshimbeforethetwomythicalkings,Sibiand
1Vol.ii,partiii,pp.377-8,

373. KAEIKALA 349
Kavera.'...OfKarikalaandKo-chchengan here
followswhatthesameauthorityhastosay :
'A
comparison oftheseconflictingstatementsshowsthat
atthetimeofthecomposition ofthethreedocuments
referred to,notradition remained regarding the
orderinwhichK5-chchengan andKarikalasucceeded
eachother.Probably theirnameswereonlyknown
fromancientTamilpanegyrics ofthesametypeas
KalavaliandPattinappalai. Itwouldbeamistake
totreatthemasactualancestorsofthatCholadynasty,
whoseepigraphical recordshavecomedowntous.
Theymiistratherbeconsidered asrepresentatives of
extinctdynastiesoftheCholacountry,whosenames
hadsurvivedinTamilliterature eitherbychanceor
byspecially-marked achievements.
'ToKarikala theLeydengrantattributesthe
building ofembankments alongtheKaveri river.
ThesameactisalludedtointheEalingatttcpparani
andVHihiramaSolan Uld.TheKalingattupparani
addsthathepaid1,600,000goldpiecestotheauthor
ofthePattinappalai. AccordingtoPorunardrnippafjai
ofMudathamaKanniyarthenameoftheking'sfather
wasIlanjetchenni. Thekinghimself istherecalled
Karigalorblacklegortheelephant-leg ;whilethe
SanskritizedformofhisnameKarikalawouldmean
"deathtoelephants".Heissaidtohavedefeated
theCheraandPandyakingsinbattlefoughtat
Vennil.AccordingtotheSilappadhihdram hiscapital
wasKaverippumbattinam. Inoneofhisinteresting
contributionsto[thehistoryofancientTamilliterature,
theHon'bleP.Coomarasami allotsKarikalatothe
firstcentury A.D.Thisopinion isbasedonthefact
thatthecommentaries ontheSilappadhikdram rep-
resentKarikala asthematernalgrandfather ofthe
Cheraking,Seiiguttuvan, acontemporary ofGajabahu
ofCeylon.Mr.Coomarasami identifiesthelatterwith
Gajabahu I,who,accordingtotheMaliavamsa,reigned

374. 350 ANCIENTINDIA
fromA.D.135,WithduerespecttoMr.Coomarasami's
sagacity, Iamnotprepared toaccept thisview,
unlesstheidentity ofthetwoGajabahus isnot
onlysupportedbythemereidentity ofnamebut
provedbyinternalreasons,anduntilthechronology
oftheearlyhistoryofCeylonhasbeensubjected
toacriticalexamination.'
Acarefulexamination ofthefirstbookoftheEpic
oftheAnkletshowsthatduringtheearlypartofthe
lifeofthehero,thekingofPuharwasKarikala
Ghola. Apartfromthefactthatthecommentator
invariably interprets allreferencestotherulingking
asapplying toKarikala(andthisinitselfismuch,
asthecommentator wasonewhowasthoroughly
qualifiedforthetaskandcan,assuch,beexpected
toembodynothingbutcorrecttraditioninhiscom-
mentaries), thereareanumberofdirectreferences
tohim,eitherbynameorbythefactthatthe
erectionoEthetiger-emblem ontheHimalayaswas
attributedtohim.Thelastfourlinesofcantoiblesses
theruler
'whoerectedthetiger-emblemonthecrest
oftheHimalayas.' ThereisdirectmentionofKari-
kala'snameandofhisrewardingthepoetofthePdlai
[Patf/inappalaiy inoneofthemanuscriptsconsulted
bytheeditor ;furtherdown,lines158-60ofcanto
vi,mentionasclearlyasonecouldwishKarikalaas
rulingatthetime,andthecommentator explains it
assuchbygivingthepassagethenecessaryexpansion,
nottomentiontheallusivebutundoubted reference
tothesamepersonageinlines95-8ofcanto v.Of
thethreekingspraisedincantoxvii,thereisreference
toKarikala'sHimalayan exploit inthelaststanza
inpage400,andthis isthelastChola ruler
referred to.Cantoxxi,lines11etseq.,clearlystate
'Pages44-5^PanditSaminatha Iyer'seditionofSilappadhilcdram.
Thereisnothinginthelinestoleadonetoregardthornaslater
interpolations.

375. karikala'searlyhistory 351
thatKarikala'sdaughterhadmarriedthethenChera
king,whomshejoinedwhenhelost'hislifeinthe
sea.Thesewouldundoubtedly pointtoKarikalaas
havingruledatKaverippumbattinam tillKovalan's
departureforMadura.Thehupernatualachievements
areclearlynothingmorethanthefancifulwayin
whichtheseBuddhistic authorsattempt toexplain
eventhemostordinaryoccurrences. Themostcursory
examination willdiscoverthatitisso,andthefaith
oftheseauthorsinthedoctrineofharmacomesin
formuchthatwouldotherwisebeinexplicable inthe
story.
ToreturntoKarikala.HewasthesonofUruvap-
paharer-Ilanjetchenni andhadmarriedamongthe
NangurVelclass. Itissaidthatheassumedthe
formofanoldjudgeinordertosatisfythescruples
oftheparties,whowereafraidthat,beingayouth,
hecouldnotbringmatureexperience tobearupon
thequestioncomingupfordecision. Hisname is
actuallyaccounte'lforashavingbeenduetoanaccident
byfire^whileyetababy.Heistheheroofthe
twopoemsintheTenTamilIdylls,'ForunarSrrup-
padaiofMudathamaKanniyarandthePattinappalai
ofEudirangannanar, forwhich lattertheauthor
receivedthesixteenlakhsofgoldpiecesmentioned
above.HedefeatedtheCherabynamePerumseral-
adhanandaPandyanwhosename isnotmen-
tioned,inthebattleofVennil.^ThisCherawounded
intheback inbattlediedofdisgrace.^ Eudiran-
gannanar celebrates another hero, theTondaman
1Thetexthasitthatwhenhewasdrownedshecalledoutfor
him.Thewavesshowedhimtohecwhenshejoinedhimandboth
disappeared,muchlikeKannahi'sunionwithherhusband.
2The3rdstanzafromthePalavwliquotedattheendofthe
Porunardrruppadai.
3Lines.143-8.Porunararruppadai. VennilisKovilVenniinthe
Tanjoredistrict.
^Purandnuru,poemsC5-6,

376. 352 ANCIENTINDIA
Ilandirayan ofKanchiwhomtraditiontracestothe
CholaKillibyaNagaprincess, asstatedbyDr,
Hultzsch,inthequotationabove.ThisKilli,other-
wiseNedumudi Killi, istheill-fated successor of
Karikala, inwhosereignacatastrophe befellPuhar
andbroughttheChola fortunesverylowindeed.
WhileluckilytherearebutafewKarikalasamong
SouthIndianrulers,thereareanumberofKillis,'
amongwhomitisamatterofgreatdifficultyindeed
tofastenupontheindividualherementioned. Fortu-
natelyforus,therearecertaindistinguishing features
whichgiveustheclue.Oneoftheexploits of
SeiiguttuvanSeraisthevictoryatNerivayil,avillage
nearUraiyur (Trichinopoly),wherehedefeatedthe
nine KillisoftheCholafamilyandthusrestored
hiscousin(brother-in-law) topower.Fromthe
EpicoftheAnkletandtheJewel-Beltwelearnhe
wasthelastrulerinPuharanditwasinhisreign
thattheancientCholacapitalwasoverwhelmedby
thesea.ItisthisKilli,whateverhisdistinguishing
epithet,thatisthefatheroftheTondamanreferred
tobyDr.Hultzsch.WhileinthePerumbdndrruppadai,
thecommentator Nachchinarkiniyar (whomusthave
livedinthethirteenthcentury a.d.orthereabouts)^
makestheTondamanthesonofaNagaprincess
withwhomtheCholalivedinacave,whichisgenerally,
taken tomea.nthenether-world. TheJewel-Belt
givesthefollowingmuchlessromantic version of
thestory,whichagrees in alldetailsexceptthe
cave,sofarasitgoes,whileaccounting forthe
destruction ofPuhar. Without relegating them
actuallytoHades,wefindreferencetoNagarulersin
IndiaandCeylon,betweenwhomawaroncetook
placeforthepossessionofsomeBudha-relic,according,
1TwelveinPurananuru,andnineinSilappadhikdram,
2Mr.Anavaradha Vinayagam Pillai allotshimtotheninth
centurya.d.{ChristianCollegeMagazine xvii),1900.

377. KILLI,SUCCESSOROFKARIKALA 353'
totheJeicel-BsU} Thesamealsoreferstoanother
raceoftheNagasasnakedcannibals.Thestorygoes
ontostatethatKillifellinlovewithaNagaprincess,
whoappearedbeforehimallalonelikeadamselfrom
thefairy-land, inwhat iscalledthe
'
KaliKanal
'
'
(thegrovebytheback-water) atPuhar. Aftera
month ofhappy life,shelefthim(and this is
explainedawaybypreordination), whenshehad
takenherresidenceinanislandnearthecoast,'300
milesawayfromPuhar.Sometime aftershehad
becomethemotherofabeautiful son,shesentthe
childtothefatherthroughamerchant,whoseship
calledattheislandonitshomeward journey.While
nearingPuhar,theshipgotwreckedoffthecoastand
thebaby's fatewasnotknown forcertain.On
hearing ofthisdisaster,thekingorderedathorough
searchtobemade,andinhispaternalanxietyforgot
hisdutytothegodIndra,whoseannualfestivalhad
beenforgotten.Thewrathofthegodshowed itself,
verylikely,inastorm-wavewhichdestroyedPuhar
completely.^ ThisaccounttakenfromtheJciuel-Belt
ofthebirthoftheTondamanmakesDr.Hultzsch's
objectionastothemyth,loseedge,andtherefore it
isquitepossible—nayevenhistorical—thattherewas
ahumanrulerbynameKilli,whoruledatPuhar
afterKarikala.* Thedestruction ofPuharaccounts
1Wefindreference]tosuchwarsintheMahdvamia,intheearlier
chaptersofthework.
2ThisKaliKanalisreferredtoincantoviiastheplaceofresortof
pleasure-seekers—nay,averitable
'lover'sarbour'inPuhar.
3VideUlanimekhalai note,pp.97-8.TheislandofCeylon,inwhich
isAdam'sPeak,issacredtotheBuddhists. Thishillisnowknown
asSamantakfitam andSamanelai,butreferredtointheworkas
SamantamandSamanoli.
ThereisastoryofsimilarimportwithrespecttoaCeyloncscking,
whosewifewasabductedbyaCholakingundersimilarcircumstances.
Therearenogroundstoconnectthetwoatpresent,atanyrate.
5ThedescentintoHades,therefore,willhavetoberegardedasan
easternfigureofspeechandnothingmore.Thereareotherincidents.
23

378. 354 ANCIENTINDIA
fortheassociation ofKilliwithUraiyurattheend
oftheEpicoftheAnklet,inthecourseofwhich
thecatastrophe toPuharmusthavehappened.The
ruleratKanchIduringtheperiod,accordingtothe
Jewel-Belt,wasanIlamKilli,thebrotherofKalar
Killi.
ThislastrulerofPuharisreferredtointheJewel-
Beltwiththefollowingadjunctsindifferently,namely,
Vadiverkilli, Velverkilli,Mavankilli,andNedumudikilli.
Withthehelpofhisyoungerbrother,Ilango(perhaps
IlamkilliofKanchi),whowasprobablytheheir-ap-
parentasthetermwould indicate,hedefeatedthe
CherasandthePandyasonthebanksoftheriver
Kari.*Thethreepoemsconcerning thispersonagein
thePurandnuru refertohishavingbeenbesiegedat
UraiyurandAmiirbyNalamkilli. Afterthedestruc-
tionofPuharhemusthavebeenreducedtothewoeful
plightfromwhichSeriguttuvan Sera,itisclear,re-
lievedhimbyhisvictoryatNerivayil
^overthenine
CholaprinceswhoforgottheirallegiancetotheKilli.
ThisisborneoutbytheenmitybetweenNedumudi-
killiandNalamkilliindicatedinpoems44,45,and47
ofPurandnuru. Therearebesidesanumbermoreof
throughout theseepics,whichinterpreted literallywouldbequite
asabsurd
;andtheseareeasilyaccountedforbytheauthor's'belief
inthedoctrines ofKarmaandre-births,themainpillarsofthe
Buddhistic faith,asalsotoamodifiedextentoftheBrahmanic. It
isthisthatmakesthemattempttoaccountforactualphenomena
bycausessupernatural. This,modernEuropean criticsfailtobear
inmind,andhenceallappearsgrotesquelylegendaryandabsurdly
fabulous. TheseremarksfindtheirfullapplicationintheJewel-Belt,
thoughthereishardlyanyIndianworkofaquasi-religious orethical
characterincriticisingwhichonecouldaffordtoforgetthem.
1PanditSaminathaIyer'seditionofManimeklialai, page741,canto
xix,lines124,130.
3NerivayilinlaterhistorybelongedtotheKshatriyaSikhamani
Valanildu, i.e.,theregionroundUraiyar,andtheroyalsecretaryof
Virarajendra astheownerofthisvillageasalsoofTaliTiruppan-
angadu.SouthIndianInscriptions,voliii.

379. SENGUTTUVANSERA 355
Killis,eachwithadistinguishing epithetwhichwould
supporttheexistenceofthenineKilHs(Killibeinga
genericnameoftheCholaslikeSenni,etc.)Theauthor
ofthesepoems,KovilKilar,celebratesanotherKilli
whodiedatKulamurram. NoneoftheseKillisis
associatedwithPuhar^InfactneitherinthePura-
ndniirunorintheSinipdndrruppadai dowefindthe
cityofPuharassociatedwiththeseCholas.
LeavingasidetheCholas,wefindthewholetime,
duringwhichtheincidentsnarratedinthetwoepics,
tookplace,takenupbySefiguttuvan Sera,whosecapi-
talwasatVanji(Karur)atthemouthofthePeriyar
onthewestcoast.Hisexploitsarerecordedinsome
detailintheseworksandtheothersreferredtoalreadyi
Hisfatherandunclearecelebratedinthetwopreced-
ingsectionsoftheTenTens.Hischiefachievements
wereanavalvictoryoverthe
'Kadambu,'twoinva-
sionsofthenorthwithvictoriesonthebanksofthe
GangesoverKanakaandVijaya,sonsofBalakumara
andthevictories atNerivayilandViyalilr(there is
aViyalurconnectedwithNannan,anancestor of
Yichchikkon,whomKapilar celebrates inpoem200
ofthePurandnuru). Likehisfather,Sefiguttuvan
alsoclaimstohavecutoutthebow-emblemonthe
Himalayas.
Coming tothePandyasofMadura,wehavetwo
namesintheEpicoftheAnklet,namely,NedumChe-
liyan,victorovertheAryanarmy
;andIlamCheliyan,
whowasviceroy atKorkaiwhenNedumCheliyan
diedatMadura.Beforediscussingthesenameswehave
todisposeofoneotherPandyanofimportanceinliter-
aryhistory.AYhenTiruvalluvar submittedtheRural
totheSaiigam critics,thekingwasUgra-Pandyan,
victoroverthe
'bigforestfort(Kanappereyil) under
thechiefVengaimarban.' TheTiruvilaiijddalPurdnam
ascribestohimsomeachievements whichareofa
legendary chaiTacter,thoughsomemighthavebeen

380. 356 ANCIENTINDIA
possible. Thesearetheveryachievements
^ascribedi
toaPandyarulerbytheMalainadu(hill-country)Brah-
manfromMangadu(Alangadu orAlavay),thenaf
Uraiyiirinthecourseofapilgrimagetotheshrinesof
Vishnu,whodirectedKovalantoMadurafromUraiyiir.
Thispraisewouldloseallpointunlessitreferredtothe
rulingPandyanwhentheBrahmanpilgrimsojournedat
Madura,onhisvisittoTirumalirunjolai. Theauthor
oftheepicclearlydesignateshimthePandyanNedum
Cheliyan
'
victorovertheAryanforces
',whateverthese
forcesmighthavebeen.Thereareanumberofrefer-
encesthroughouttheworktotheerectingofthefish-
emblemontheHimalayas. ItistheboastofKarikala
Chola,Ugra-Pandyan,andNedumseraladhan (fatherof
Seiiguttuvan)thattheycutouttheirrespectiveemblems.
ontheHimalayas. Theseachievements areclearly
ascribedtothereigningPandyaninthecommencing
andtheconcluding linesofcantoxvii.Thusthenthe
Ugra-Pandyan
'ofthePuranasandtraditioncouldnot
havebeenanyotherthantheill-starredPandyanNe-
dumCheliyanoftheEpicoftheAnMet. Avvaiyar's
reference toParanarreferredtoabovewouldagree
quitewellwiththisidentification, asinaccordance
withthatreference,Paranarshouldhavebeenthe
earlierofthetwo.
ThesuccessorofthePandyan,apparently hisson,
PandyanIlamCheliyan,otherwiseVerriver-Cheliyan^
wasinKorkaiwhenhisfatherdied,andsucceededto
hisfather'sestateinthecourseofthestory.Weare
1Cantoxi,lines23-31.Therearebesidesreferencestohisachieve-
mentsinconnexionwiththerulingPandyaninmanyplacesthrough-
outthework.
sStanza 4,bottomofpage400.Mr.Kanakasabhai Pillaiinhia-
interestingpapersonTheTamils1800YearsAgo,makesUgra-Pandyan
thecontemporary ofthesuccessoroftheKilli,thegrandsonofKarikila.
ThiswouldbringTiruvallnvar'sKuraltoolateforquotationbythe
friendlyauthorsofthetwoepics,astheKuralreceivedtheSangant,
approvalunderUgra-Pandyan. [MadrasBeview,vol,ii,No,6,]

381. PANDYANNEDUMCHBLIYAN II 357
vouchsafednoothermformation, exceptthathepro-
pitiatedthemanesoftheinjuredlady,Kannahi,bythe
sacrificeofone-hundred goldsmiths. Thismayhave
beenamassacre ofthatclassofartisans. Probably,
hisreignwasshortanduneventful.Hemusthave
beensucceededbyPandyanNedumCheliyan, victor
atTalayalaiiganam^ overthetwootherkingsandseven
chiefs. Kapilar isconnectedwithprinceMantharam
-Seralirumporai ofthe
'
Elephant-look 'byPorundhil
IlamKiranarinpoemfifty-threeofPurandnuru. This
CherawasrulingoverTondi(Quilandy,andnotthe
SolanTondi,ontheeastcoastnowintheEamanad
zamlndari), andwasthemaster ofKolliMalai,^
which isahillintheSalemdistrictquiteonthe
borderofTrichinopoly. Hisposition inthisregion
TvouldhavebeenpossibleonlyinthelightofSefi-
guttuvan's victories overtheKongus atSeiigalam
(red-field),atViyalur,aboutthesameregion,andover
"thenineCholasatNerivayil,nearTrichinopoly. This
personagewastakenprisonerbythePandyanNedum
"Cheliyan
^ofTalayalariganamfame.Atthislatterplace,
theyoungPandyanoverthrewthe
'Tamilarmy
'
under
thetwokingsand
'sevenchiefs '.ThisPandyanwas
agreatcelebrityinliteratureandinhisreignflourished
anumberofpoetsoftheSafigamfame.Heisthehero
ofMangudiMarudanar'sMaduraikkdnjiandNarkirar's
NedunalvddaiamongtheTenTamilIdylls.Hewas
himself,likeseveralotherrulersofthosedaysinclud-
inghisgrandfather, apoet. Thereareanumber
•ofpoemsrelatingtohiminthePurandntlrucollection.
1Hemusthavebeenparticularlyyoungwhenhecametothe
throne,Puram,7.
iThelastlinesofcantoxiv,theEpicoftheAnklet,refertothe
reigningCheraastheruleroverthecountrybetweentheHimalayas
withthebow-emblemandKolliINIalai.
3S.A.,cantoxxvlii,lines115-25. Seliyauisagainagenericname
ililjePandyan,andthefatherorthesonhavetheadjunct
'big',
'young',
muchas
'Smith,seniororjunior.'

382. 358 ANCIENTINDIA
Thusweseethatduringthecourseofthestory,
therulersofPuharwereKarikalaandhisgrandson
Kokkilli^ ofMaduraNedum Cheliyan, identified
withUgra-Pandyan, andIlamCheliyanfollowedlater
byNedumCheliyan,victorovertheTamilarmyat
Talayalanganam
;theCherarulerallthetimeatKarur
(Vanji)was^enguttuvan Sera,thebrotheroftheauthor
oftheepicandthepatronoftheauthoroftheJewel-
Belt,thefatherandtheuncleofthispersonagehaving
beentheheroesofthesecondandthirdsectionsofthe
TenTens.Chera(prince)ofthe
'elephant-look 'must
havebeenhissonandviceroyofthenewly-conquered
territories.
Thesewerethesovereigns ofthethreekingdoms
whoflourishedinthegeneration oftheliterary cele-
britiesheadedbythenameschosenatthecommence-
ment,namely,Avvaiyar,ParanarandKapilar.These
werethethreestarsofthefirstmagnitude inthe
literaryfirmament, asthoseinthepohtical,ofSouth
India. Otherpoetstherewereandpatronslikewise.
Ofthelatter,mentionhasalreadybeenmadeofPari
ofParambunaduandParambu Hill ;KariofTiruk-
kovilSrinMalainaduandMullurHill ;Irungovel of
Arayaminthewesternhill-country oftheTuvarai^
familywiththespecialdistinction ofhavingkilleda
tigertosaveasaintabsorbed incontemplation
;
PehanofNallurinMalainadu (hill-country) ;andAdi-
yamanAnjiofTagadurandHorse-hill, overthrown
according totheeighthsectionoftheTenTensby
thePerumSeraiwhooverthrewTagadur. Theseare
allmentionedbynameaswellasbydistinguishing
achievements,mostoftheminasomewhatfabulous
1Mr.Kanakasabhai PillaiplacesaNalamkillibetweenthesetwo.
[MadrasReview,vol.ii,No.7.]
TuvaraimighthavebeeneitherDvarakainGuzeratorDvaravati
orHalebidinMysore;butthelatterdoesnotappeartillmuchlater,
andthenameTuvaraiinclassicalworks isalwaystakentomean
Dvaraka.

383. THEAGEOFTHESANGAM 359
garbintheSirupdndrruppadai ofNallurNattattanar.
Besidesthese,wehavealreadymentionedtheprince
Cheraofthe
'elephantlook',rulerofTondiandmaster
ofKolliHill.Tocometothepoets,inaddition,to
thethreealreadyreferred to,wemustmentionhere
onlyafewofthemoreimportant,suchasTiruvalluvar,
Ilangovadigal, Siththalai Sattanar,Eudirangannanar
Mudathamakkanniyar, MangudiMarudanar, Narklrar
andothers,whoseworksareheldevento-dayinhigh
esteembytheTamilworldasmasterpieces intheir
respective departments. Someoftherulerswere
themselvespoetsofsomemerit,andAvvaiyarwasnot
theonlypoetess.Thetwoyoungdaughters ofPari
couldcompose versesandtheelegiacsascribed to
themisproofoftheirabilityinthisdirection. There
isbesidesapoeminPurananiiritascribedtothewife
ofBhiltaPandyan,whoperformed sationthefaneral
pyreofherhusband. Thesenamesraiseastrongpre-
sumptioninfavouroftheviewthat,astheageof
Seiiguttuvan,includinginitagenerationeitherway,
wasoneofgreatliteraryactivity, itmighthavebeen
thetimewhentheSarigamactivitywasatitsheight.*
ThiswastheagewhenthecreedoftheBuddhawas-
intheascendant,which,likeallotherreformmove-
mentsofalatertime,gaveapowerfulimpetusto
thedevelopment ofthevernaculars ofthecountry.
AlthoughtheSaiigam isnotmentioned assuchin
theseearlyworks,wefindthecultivation ofTamil
speciallyassociatedwithMadura,whichisoftenre-
ferredtoas
'TamilKudal
','despitethefactthata
1ItwillbeoleirfromtheabovethatthoauthoroftheKural
couldnothavebeenmuchearlierthanthefriendlyauthorsofthe
epics. StilltheyquotewithgreatrespectfromtheKural.This
couldonlybeiftheKuralwereauthoritatively approved ofafter
beingreadoutbeforetheSangam,SiththalaiSattanbeingoneofthe^
augustbody.Ilango,however, \v?.snotamongthisbody,although
hequotesfromtheKurallikewise.
2SiriipinandPiirandiiUru,andKalingattupparani, ofalaterage.

384. 360 ANCIENTINDIA
largenumberofpoetsmentionedaboveflourished in
othercourts.Inthetraditional listsofSaiigamcele-
britieswefindmentionofthenamesofmostofthe
authors referred toabove. It isnotimprobable,
therefore,thataboardofcensors liketheSaugam
existedaboutthisageatMadura.
Withoutpausingtoexaminewhatotherliterarymen
canbegroupedalongwiththosespokenofalready,
wemaypassontotheconsideration ofthemore
importantquestionoftheprobableageofthisgreat
literaryactivityinSouthIndia.Thetwochiefepics,
theEpicoftheAnkletandtheJewel-Belt,were
Buddhistic,thelattermoresothantheformer ;and
theotherworksoftheageshowconsiderableBuddhis-
ticinfluenceandfollowinthisorderwithregardto
•datesofcomposition. TheRural istheearliestof
themajorworks, astherearequotationsfromthis
workinthecompanion epics,whichevenacknowledge
thequotations. Thetwoepicsmusthavebeencom-
posedaboutthesameperiod.TheJewel-Beltprecedes
theEpic.TheAhandnuru miscellany isascribedto
Ugra-Pandyan, beforewhomtheKuralreceivedthe
Saiigam imprimatur. TheKundalakesi isanother
Buddhisticworkand,sofarasweknowitatpresent
ofacontroversial character,muchliketheJewel-Belt
inplan. ThiswasfollowedbytheNllakesitteruttu,
whichattemptsarefutationoftheKundalakesiand
naust,therefore,beofalaterage. Ifthisgeneral
course ofliterary activity iscorrectlyindicatedby
theeditoroftheSenTamil,whoseaccount isrelied
-onhere,andifwecanfixtheprobableperiodofthis
literary activity,thiswillprovethesheetanchorin
theliterarychronologyofSouthIndia.
lathemidstoftheconfusedtangleofmerenamesand
namesofsimilarsoundandmeaning,wehave,fortu-
natelyjustafewdistinctcharactersandcharacteristics
thatmaketheattemptnotaltogetherhopeless,provided

385. THEAGEOFKABIKALA 361
thequestionbeapproached inthespiritofunbiassed
inquiry.Although Killi isquiteacommonname
amongtheCholarulers,Karikala issomewhat un-
common. Seiiguttuvan isdefiniteenoughandhis
CeyloncontemporaryGajabahu'snameoccurs,luckily
forstudents ofTamilhistory,buttwiceamong174
namesunlikeVikramabahu forinstance.TheKalin-
gattupparani, aworkcomposedbetweenA.d.1111^
35referstoKarikalaandKo-killi inthereverse
order,KillibeingfollowedbyKochengaii,Karikalafol-
lowingboth. Thereappears,fromthePurandnuru,
tohavebeenaKilliinthethirdgeneration before
Karikala ;buttheCholasuccession isfixedasfollows
:
withrespecttothis—takingonlysuchnamesasare
specificallj'mentioned inthefollowing order—Ilan-
jetchenni, hissonKarikala, hisgrandsonNedumudi-
kijli.TheKallngattupparani, likethegreatcommen-
tatorwhomusthavelivedafterJayamkondan, the
authorofthiswork,ascribestoKillithedescentinto
Hades. Itisjustpossiblethattherewasamistake
made,astotheparticular Killiwhoseunionwiththe
Nagaprincesswasthusdescribedbylaterwriters.
Ifthiswereso,theKarikalaoftheHimalayanfame
couldnothavebeenKullottunga IA.D.1070to1118
certainly,northeviceroyofKoli(Uraiyur) inthe
reign ofhisfather-in-law Eajendra A.D.1053-60.
There isoneotherKarikala ofthelaterdynasty^
whoseepigraphicalrecordsareavailabletous—Aditya
Karikala, circaA.D.950-85whokilledViraPan-
dyaninbattle,asifinsport.Buttheauthorofthe
Kalingattupparani placesKarikalathreenamesbefore
Viranarayana orParantaka I,whileAdityawasthe
eldestsonofParantaka, agrandson ofthefirstof
1Foralistofthisdynastyofkings,seethetableprefixedto
my article,
'TheCholaAscendency inSouth India'(Madras
Review)forNovember, 1902,ortheSouthIndianInseriplion, vol.
iii,partII,recentlypublished. Chap.vi.Pt.I,supra.

386. 362 ANCIENTINDIA
thatname.Sothen,wearedriventothenecessity
oflookingforthisKarikalafarearlierthanA.D.900.
Ithasbeenshownabovethattheworksthemselves
pointtoanagewhenthereligionoftheBuddhawas
intheascendant astheprobable periodwhenthe
worksunderconsideration atleastthegreatest of
themwerecomposed. Buddhismwasoverthrown
abouttheseventhcentury A.d.whenHiuenThsang
wastravellingthroughIndia,andwhenTirujnanasam-
bhandaflourished. Abouta.d.862,abattlewasfought
betweenVaragunaPandyan
^andthewesternGanga
kingSivamara, atSriParambi(Tirupparambiyam
nearKumbhakonam) .Thiswouldnothavebeen
possiblehadtheCholasbeenatallpowerful.Nor
dotheworksoftheageunderreviewmentionthe
Gangasassopowerful.Weareatthisperiod(a.d.
750to850)passingoutofthePallavaascendencyin
SouthIndiawhichmusthavebegunaboutA.D.500,if
notearlierwithVishnugopa ofKanchI,thecontem-
poraryofSamudragupta. Thereisnoreferenceinthe
worksundernoticetosuchpremierpositionofthePalla-
vasoreventheTondamanrajas—theonlyTondamanof
theperiodfiguringasaminorchief,andKanchTwas
aCholaviceroyalty. IntheEayakotta* plates,a
Pallavaking,bynameSkandasishya,whomusthave
beenearlierthanVishnugopa claimsdescentfrom
AsvattamanthroughaNagaprincess. Perhapsbythis
timetheoriginofIlandirayanhadbeensofarforgotten
astomake this credible. Theseconsiderations
leadustoassumeanearlierperiodforKarikala.
Thispersonage isassociated withPuharevenin
tradition,andtheJeioel-Belt tellsusinunmistakable
languagethatPuharwassubmerged inKilli'sreign.
AllthepoemsinthePurandnuniaboutKilli,anumber
1Annual BeportforEpigraphy, 1905-06, partII,p.25,ani
JEpigraphiaIndica, vol.viii,pp.295and319.
9No.8,EpigraphiaIndica, vol.v.

387. THEGAJABAHUUNDERBEPEEENCE 363
ofthemwithdistinguishing epithets,connectthem
withUraiyiir,andnoneofthem isconnectedwith
Puhar. Uraiyurfiguresasaconsiderabletowninthe
EpicoftheAnhlet. Eventhe^irupanarruppadai
doesnotmentionPuhar.Thisisaveryimportant
circumstance aswillappearpresently.
AVhenSeiiguttuvanperformedanelaboratesacrifice
ontheoccasion oftheconsecration ofthetemple
toPattini Devi,theheroine oftheAn.Jclet, there
waspresent,among others,Gajabahu ofLanka
surrounded bysea[asopposed toMavilangai of
ErumanattuNalliyakkon.j ThisGajabahuofCeylon,
IlamCheliyanofMadura,andKilliofUraiyur, built
templestothesamedeity,followingtheleadofthe
Chera.ThequestionnowiswhetherthisGajabahu is
thefirstorthesecondofthename.ThefirstGajabahu
ruledasmonarch ofallCeylonfrom a.d.113-35
;
thesecondasoneofthreefroma.d.1142-64asin
thelistappendedtoMissDuff'sChronology ofIndia.
Dr.Hultzsch'schallengetotheHon'bleMr.Coomara-
samyistoestablishbyinternal evidencethatthe
Gajabahumentionedwasthefirstandnotthesecond
ofthename.Astotheotherpartofhisobjection,
itmusthavebecomeclearfromtheabovethatforthe
mythaboutKilli,laterwritersaloneareresponsible
;
andenoughdirectevidencehasbeenadducedtoshow
thatKarikalawasrulingatPuharwhenKovalanbegan
lifeasamarriedman,andthathisdaughterwasthe
wifeoftheCherakingthenreigning.Toreturnto
Gajabahu ;letusforthesakeofargumenttakehim
tobethesecondofthename.Weknowsomething
ofthehistoryofSouthIndiainthemiddleofthe
twelfthcenturyandthegeographicaldistributionofthe
Powers.TheCholarulersoughttohavebeeneither
VikramaorKulottunga ;therulersofMaduraeither
ViraPandyanorVikramaPandyan ;thesovereigns
oftheCheracountrywereViraKeralaVarmanand

388. 364 ANCIENTINDIA
ViraEaviVarman ;oftheMysorecountry,Vishnu-
vardhanaandhisson,Narasimha. Therewereno
separaterulersatKanchi,exceptinthesensethatit
wasanalternative capitaloftheCholas.Therewas
anAdiyaman,nodoubt,aboutthisperiod(somewhat
earlier),buthewastheCholaviceroyatTalakad(not
connectedwithTagadur),whowasdrivenacrossthe
KaveribyGangaEaja,thefamousgeneralofVishnu-
'vardhana. TherewerenoKongurulerssuchasare
mentioned intheEpicoftheAnklet.Gajabahu
himselfwasinnoplighttocometoVanji '(Karur)
atthemouthofthePerar,notfarfromthemodern
Kranganur(KodungalSr). Gajabahuwasfightinghis
ownbattlesnearerhomewithhistwoneighbours,
Manabharana andParakramabahu, anditwasallhe
coulddotokeephimselffrombeingpermanently
overwhelmed.
ThefirstGajabahuinvadedtheCholacountryto
bringbacktheinhabitants ofCeylon,carriedoffby
theCholaarmyonapreviousinvasionoftheisland
duringhisfather'sreign
;theyweretheninbondage
at
'
thecityofKaveriinthecountryofSoli'.He
broughtbackbesidestherelicsandthebegging-bowl
oftheBuddha,
'whichaforetimehadbeencarried
awaybytheDhamilas '.TheBdjaratndhari while
ascribingthesameachievements tohim,statesthat
theCeylonesewentoftheirownaccord
'
toserveat
theriverKaveri.'
^Heistheresaidtohavebrought
anumberoftheTamilsandsettledtheminCeylon.
IntheBajdvaU, however,thereisanevenmore
elaborateversion.TheruleristherecalledEajabahu,
1Vanji itselfwasnotthecapitaloftheCheraatthetime.
ThecapitalofKeralawasthenQuilon,andduringtheperiodof
theCholaascendency (a.d.900-1300).
sVol.II,pages57-8. Thismention oftheriverinsteadof
thetownwouldshowthatwhentheBajaratndkariwascompiledthe
•existenceofthetownwaspassingintooblivion.

389. GAJABAHU I 365
whichmaybeduetoamiselection.Hewasac-
customed tomakesoHtarynight-rounds ;whenhe
heardthewailings ofawidow inherhouse,for
hertwosonshadbeentakencaptivebytheking
of
'SoliKatta'.TheAdigars (officers) failing to
discover anything wrong,thekingsentforthe
womanandlearntfromherthat12,000families
hadbeencarriedaway,
'whenthekingofSoli
Eattamadehisdescentupontheisland
'.Thesame
achievements asinthepreviousaccountarerecorded,
withtheaddition
'thatthekingofCeylon also,
uponthatoccasion,broughtawaythefootornaments
ofPattiniDevI^andalsothefourarmsofthegods.'
ThisPattiniDevicouldhavebeennootherthanthe
heroineoftheepic,whowasknownasPattiniDevi
orPattiniKadavul. Thismusthavebeenregarded
asavaluablerelicinthosedays,whenrelicsplayed
suchaprominentpartinreligion.Astothebegging-
bowloftheBuddha,abowlofextraordinary virtue
hadbeenbroughtbyManimekhalafromanisland
southofPuhar,wheretherewasaBuddha-seat as
well,whichhadthedivinequalityoflettingpeople
intothesecrets oftheirformer existence,abelief
inwhichwasoneofthecardinal doctrines of
Buddhism.TheJewel-Belt alsostates thattwo
NagakingsfoughtforthepossessionofthisBuddha-
seat.Thesethenarethenativeaccounts ofthe
CeylonesechronicleswithrespecttoGajabahuI;but,
unfortunately, thereferencetoPattiniDevidoesnot
occurintheearliercompilations. Thisismatterfor
greatregret. Itmust,however,benoticedthat all
theseworkswerecompiled from earlierwritings
andlivingtradition. Herefollowswhatthelearned
1ThedistinctionbetweentheCholacountryandotherpartso{
SouthIndia isnotcarefullymadeintheMahdvamia. Sometimes
theyspecially talko£SoliRatta,atothersofBlalabar generally,
meaningnottheMalabarCoastnecessarily, butIndiagenerally.

390. 366 ANCIENTINDIA
translatoroftheworkshastosayaboutthem :
'
socare-
fullyhasthetextbeenhandeddownthatthediscre-
panciesfoundtoexistbetweenthemoreancientand
moderncopiesareveryslightindeed.TheBdjdvali
isaworkofdifferenthandsandcompiledfromlocal
histories; itisusedasacorollaryoradditiontothe
twoprecedingworks,continuingthenarrativethrough
thestrugglesbetweenthePortugueseandtheirrivals,
theDutch.
'
Alltradition, therefore,andthehistoricalcircum-
stancesattendingthestoriesoftheseepicspointto
thefirstGajabahu, astheCeylonrulerwhowas
presentatthecelebration ofthesacrificebySeiigut-
tuvanSeraandiftheBdjdvalicouldbereliedon,
theconclusionwouldbeforceduponus.Asitis,
however,there isbutlittlegroundtoconnectthese
eventswiththesecondG-ajabahu, assomescholars
wouldhave it.
AstothedateofthefirstGajabahu,thechronicle
givesA.D.113-35astheperiodofhisreign.What-
everbetherealworthofthisactualdate,wehave
littlereasontoregardthatofhissuccessornamesake
asinaccurate. Ithasbeenpointedoutthatthe
middleofthetwelfthcenturycouldnotpossiblybe
thetimewhenthepoetsflourished. There isthe
Ealingattupparani, thedateofcomposition ofwhich
couldnothavebeenmuchlaterthanA.d.1111,cer-
tainlynotlaterthana.d,1118.SundaramurtiNayanar,
whomthelateMr.SundaramPillaiplacedintheeighth
centuryA.D.referstoPari,'thepatronofKapilar,
andthegeneraltenoroftheepicpointstoBuddhistic
times,whichthetwelfthcenturywasnot.Taking
1Thereference istothecomplaintwhichthedevoteemakes
inrespecttothelackofliberality inpeopleinhisdays,although
oneshouldchoosetodescribeamiserasapatron liberalas
'
Pari',
muchasBaconcomplains oflearnedmenturningFaustina into
Lucretia,

391. AUGUSTAKAGE,SECONDANDTHIBDCENTURYA.D.367
liheBuddhaNirvana,at487b.c,insteadof543B.c,
asacceptedbymostauthoritiesnow,thedatesfor
Gajabahu Igouptoa.d.162-91. Untilitisproved
thattheearherdatesoftheMahdvamsa areunreli-
able^(exceptforthiserror),thesedateswillhaveto
stand,andtheperiodofthegreatestliteraryactivity
inTamilmustthusbeputdownasthesecondand
thirdcenturiesoftheChristianeraatthelatest.This
wouldbequiteconsistentwiththepoweroftheTamils
inthecenturiesprecedingtheChristian era,whenthey
severaltimesinvadedCeylonandimposedthemselveson
theCeylonese asusurpers,aboutthemiddleofthefirst
century B.c.Thesefactscoupledwiththeemperor
Asoka'sreference totheseTamilpowers,alongwith
thefiveHellenistic potentates,warrants greatpro-
babilitywithrespecttothehighstateofcivilization
oftheTamils.
BesidesthementionofGajabahu,wefindmention
ofanumberofotherrulersinthecourseofthe
EpicoftheAnklet,whoweresomeofthemfriendly
andothers hostile. Thefriendlykingswerethe
'hundredkarnas ',whoprovided Seiiguttuvan with
afleetofshipswithwhichtocrosstheGanges,when
heinvadedthenortherncountrytopunishKanaka
andVijaya,sonsofBalakumarawhospokedispara-
ginglyoftheTamil rulers. Thesebrotherswere
helped by Uttara, Vichitra, Rudra, Bhairava,
Chitra,Singa,DhanuttaraandSveta.^ Mr.Kana-
kasabhaitakesthe
'hundredkarnas 'asequaltoSata-
karninoftheMatsyapurana. Butagainst this,there
istheobjectionthattheTamilpoetmentions
'the
hundredpersons,thekarnas '
;
'andinoneplacethe
1Prof.RhysDavidsfindsthechronicleborneoutinimportant
detailsbytheinscriptionsamongthefindsoftheSanchiTope,etc.
(BuddhistIndia,pp.299-300)
;page1etseq.,J.R.A.S.,1908
;India7i
JReview,May,1908 :theDateoftlieBuddhabyJlr.GopalaIyer.
2S.A.,cantoxxvi, 11.180-5.
3S.A.,cantoxxvi, 1.149.

392. 368 ANCIENTINDIA
authorevenspeaks of
'thekaraas 'withoutthe
hundred.'
Besides,aswouldappearfromDr.Bhandarkar's
DeJchan,thenameSatakarninwasthatofadynasty
andnotofonlyoneruler.ThenameSatakarnialone
appearsintheearlypartofthelistandthedateis
40B.C.toA.D.16(see166,BombayGazetteer, vol.
i,partII).Theworditselfcouldbetakentomean
'keen-eared' (ratherthanhundred-eared), figuratively.
Itishardtounderstandhowacontemporary could
haverendered itwiththenumberattachednottothe
earsbuttomen. Besides, thesewererulingin
southern India,althoughMagadhawasincluded in-
theirdominions. Sothen,evenifthe
'hundredkarnas
'
meantSatakarnin,theparticularsovereignmighthave
beenYajnaSriwhoruledfromA.d.154-74inthe
Maharashtra,andA.d.172to202inTelingana. Ifthis
beso,wehavealsoaVijaya,mentioned inallthe
puranas,whowasinTelinganafrom A.D.202-8
butasagainst this,there istheobjectionthat^efi-
guttuvancrossedtheGangesandfoughtwithVijaya
andhisbrotheronthenorthernbankoftheGanges.
This,notwithstanding, that^eiiguttuvanmusthave
flourishedaboutthistime,couldbeinferredfromthe
factthatSeiiguttuvan's father,PandyanNedumChel-
iyanandKarikala allclaimvictoryovertheAryan
forces. ItisverylikelythattheTamilforceshelped
intheoverthrow oftheforeignersbyGotamiputra
Satakarni^andthedirectmentionofgiftstoKarikala
1S.A..,cantoxxvii,p.177.
2Thisisthemorelikely,astheSakaNahapanaandhissuccessor,
Rishabadata,ruledovertheMaharashtra, withJunnarfortheircapital,
andtheirterritoryextendeduptoMalabar. Thisdynasty,togetherwith
thatofChashtanainMilva,wasoverthrownbyGBtamiputraSatakarni
andhisson,Pulimayi,amongwhosepossessionswefind
'theregions
oftheMalayaandtheSahya.'TheseAndhrabhrityas camefromDha-
nakatakanearGuntur,anddrivingbacktheusurpers,recoveredtheir
ancestraldominions. (Introduction toLiteraryRemainsofDr.Bhau
Dhaji,page25,andDr.Bhandarkar'aDekhan,sees,iv,v,vi.)

397. POLITICALDIVISIONS 369
bytheEajasofBundelkhand (Vajranadu),Magadha
andMalava(Avanti)couldnotbealtogetherafigment
oftheimagination, since itissoverydefinite. All
circumstances attendingpointtothesecondcentury
A.D.astheeraofSeiiguttuvan
;andtheeraofthe
greatestliteraryactivitymaybetakentobethesecond
andthirdcenturiesafterChrist.
Buddhismwasintroduced intoSouthIndiaduring
thelastquarterofthethirdcentury B.c.Itmust
havetakensometimetostrikeroot,andinthosedays
musthavebeensomewhatslowinspreading.Judging
fromtheexpositionofit,asshownintheJeioel-Belt,
wemighttakeitthatitwasasyetsofreefromany
element ofcorruption astoevoketheadmiration of
evenChristian scholars, likethelearned translator
oftheCeylonesechronicles.Theearlycenturiesafter
Christmay, therefore, beregarded astheageof
Buddhistic ascendency inSouthIndia.WhenFa
HianwastravellinginIndia,therewerealreadythe
earlysignsofrevulsion,andBrahmanism returned
tothefray.InthenexttwoorthreecenturiesBud-
dhismwassweptoffthecountryandtherestoration
ofBrahmanismwascompletedwhenHiuenThsang
cametoIndia,chieflythroughtheagencyintheTamil
countryoftheearlierSaivadevoteesandsomeamong
theVaishnava.Fromthistimethestruggle isnot
somuchbetweenBuddhismandBrahmanism, as
betweenthelatterandJainism.
InthefirstcenturiesoftheChristian era,then,we
findIndiasouthoftheTungabhadra thuspolitically
divided. IfwestartatthesourceoftheKaveriand
followitscourse tillitmeetstheAmaravati near
Karur,andthengoupthelatterrivercontinuing
ourjourney tillwereachthePalnisandtheWestern
Ghauts,weshallhavemarkedtheland-boundary of
theCherasphereofinfluence. Ifwetakeastraight
south-easterly linefromEarur tillwereachthesea,
24

398. 370 ANCIENTINDIA
eastoftheZamindariofSivagangaandsouthofthe
oldCholatownofTondi,thesouthofthislinewould
bethePandya,andnorthofittheCholasphereof
influence. Itmustnotbeunderstood thattheterri-
toryallottedtoeachpowerwasalwaysdirectlyunder
it.Thefrontierregionswerealwaysofdoubtful alle-
giance,ascouldbeseenfromthecarewithwhich
rulersinthosedaysfortifiedandstrengthened frontier
towns.SofarastheCholaswereconcerned,they
hadalwaysprominently beforethemthestrategical
advantages ofUraiyuronthewestandKanchIonthe
north,althoughtheirchiefcitywasPuharonthesea-
coast.Karurwasthemeetingplaceofthethree
powersanditsneighbourhoodwasthesceneofmany
ahard-fought battle.Thiscentralregion,particularly
thehillyportion,wastherefore filledwithpettychief-
tainciesowningallegiance,solongasitcouldbeen-
forced,tooneorotherofthesepowers,andconstituting
agroupoffrontier 'buffer-states'. Thustherewas
IrungovelnorthoftheMysore districtandonthe
frontiers ofCoorg.NexttohimwastheAdiyaman
inthesouthern-half oftheMysoredistrictandpart
ofSalemwithhishead-quarters atTagadur.Hebe-
longedtotheCherafamily.Southofthismusthave
beentheterritoryofPehanwithNallarforhishead-
quarters,thecountryroundthePalnis ;betweenthe
twolastwasprobablyParambunadu ofPari.Next
followstheKongucountry,whichwemightputdown
asincludingapartoftheCoimbatoreandSalemdis-
tricts.Inalineeastofthisisthehill-country of
Kariwithitshead-quraters, Tirukkovilur. Southof
thisistheCholacountryproper,andnorththepro-
vinceorkingdom, according tocircumstances, of
Kanchi.SouthofthePalghatgapandinthePandya
countrywasthechieftaincy ofA'ayroundPodiyil
HillintheWesternGhauts.Ontheopposite side
roundKorkaiweretheterritories ofEvvi.During

399. SOUTHINDIAAGAINSTTHEDEKHAN 371
thelatterpartofthereignofSenguttuvan there
wasaChera,probablyonlyaviceroyholdingatract
ofcountryextendingfromtheKoUiMaFais^toTondi
onthecoast,withtheCholaandthePandyacountries
oneitherside.ThiswastheprinceCheraofthe'ele-
phant-look
'
(probablyhehadsmalldeep-set eyes).
Theaboveappearstohavebeenthegeographical
divisionofthecountry. Thiskaleidoscopic arrange-
mentvanishedandanotherpatternpresented itself
witheveryturnthataffairstook.
Ifwecalltheageunderconsideration theageof
iheCheraascendency, asSenguttuvan Seraappears
tohavebeenatonetimeinhislifethearbiterof
thedestinies ofthispartofthecountry,wepasson
graduallyfromthisintoastruggle,theCherasupre-
macybeingshakenbythePandyan.Herewelose
thethread tillwecometoabouta.d.400,whenthe
Pallavasriseintoimportance. ThePallavaascendency
beginswithVishnugopa ofKanchl,thecontemporary
•ofSamudragupta,andreachesitsgrandclimactericunder
Narasimhavarman, thedestroyerofBadami(Vatapi),
theChalukyacapitalabouta.d.640.Overacentury
hencewefindtheGangasandPandyasfightingnear
Kumbhakonam. ThisrolethePandyasplayseveral
timesinhistory. Theirposition atthefarthestend
ofthepeninsulagivesthemsafety. Itisonlywhenthe
frontierpowersfall,thatweseethePandyasasserting
themselves. Throughout historytheSouthIndian
powershadtoopposetheincursion oftheDekhan
powers,andfromtheperiodoftheriseofthePallavas
wecanhaveaclearideaofthegeneralpositionofthe
SouthIndianpowers. Vargui:aPandyansucceededin
chasingtheGangasbackintotheirterritory. In
anothercenturyanewdynastyoftheCholasriseinto
1ThiswasthetracttakenfromO'ribyhisenemyKariandgiven
totheChera.

400. 372 ANCIENTINDIA
eminenceandachieveanascendency,matchedonlyby^
thatofthelaterempireofVijayanagar initsbestdays.
ThedeclineoftheCholasagainbringsintopro-
minence,thePandyainthesouthandtheHoysalasin
thenorth.Bothalikeofthesepowersareoverwhelmed
inthatgreatwaveofMusliminvasionunderMalik
KafHr.TheMuhammadan isbeatenbackbytheheroic
effortsofanumberofchiefsandthismovement cul-
minatesintheestablishment oftheVijayanagarempire
inthemiddleofthefourteenthcentury.Thefallof
thisempirebringsthehistoryofHinduruleinSouth
Indiapractically toaclose,andtheMahrattaEmpire
belongstoadifferentchapterofIndianhistory.

401. CHAPTEEXV
SOMEPOINTSINTAMILLITEBARYHISTORY
IntheMalabarQuarterly forMarch1904,Mr.K.B.
EamanathaIyerdrawsattention toaworkofthe
Frenchsavant,ProfessorJulienVinson,whooffers
someremarksonthehistoryofTamil literature.
Mr.Iyerhasthusrenderedvaluable servicetothe
Tamilpublic,themajority ofwhomcannothave
readtheFrenchoriginal.TheProfessordividesTamil
literaryhistoryintothreeperiods :TheJainperiod
theBuddhistic periodandtheBrahmanic revivalin,
chronological order.Thefirstperiod fallsbetween
theninthandthetwelfthorthethirteenthcenturies;
"thesecondbetweenthetwelfthandthesixteenth
<;enturies ;thethird,theperiodcontemporaneous with
VallabhaDeva, aliasAtiViraRamaPandyan of
Madura,andhisfollowers.HeascribestheKamba
Ramayanam, Villiputiirar'sBhdratamandtheSthala
Purdnas tothethirdperiod,namely, thatofthe
6aivaascendency. ThegrammarianPavanandiand
thelexicographers, SendenandMandalapurusha, are
givenalaterdate.Themostimportant ofallhis
conclusions inthislineistheperiodascribedtothe
MahdkdvyasofTamil,namely,Ghintdmani,Silappadhi-
MramandManimekhalai. Heisofopinionthatthe
secondoftheseistheearliestinpointoftime.The
firstcomesnextinorder ;nodatesorperiodsare
ascribedtothese,andthethirdisplacedlaterthan
Virasoliyam ofBuddhamitra (endoftheeleventhand

402. 374 ANCIENTINDIA
beginning ofthetwelfth centuries) because
'Mani-
7nekJialai isnotreferredtointhework
'.
Beforeproceeding toexaminetheseconclusions in
thelightofrecentresearch,wemightdrawattention
toanotherauthority inthesamelinewhosecon-
clusionsarenolessimportant. Dr.EeinholdEost's
articleintheEncyclopmdiaBritannica
^thoughseven-
teenyearsoldnow,wasnotdeemedworthy of
revisioninissuingthesupplementaryvolumestothe
samemonumental work. Itis,therefore,tobepre-
sumedthatthoseconcerned areofopinionthatthe
conclusions arrivedatinthearticle stillholdgood.
Theseareitsmainconclusions inthedepartment of
literaryhistory
:
—
'Butpracticallytheearliestextantrecordsofthe
Tamillanguage donotascendhigherthanthe
middleoftheeighthcenturyoftheChristian era,
thegrantsinpossession oftheIsraelites atCochin
beingassignedbythelateDr.Burnell toabout
A.D.750,aperiodwhenMalayalam didnotexistyet
asaseparatelanguage. There iseveryprobability
thataboutthesametimeanumberofTamilworks
sprangup,whicharementionedbyawriterofthe
eleventhcenturyasrepresenting oldliterature.'The
articlefurthermentions thattheearlierofthese
mighthavebeenSaivabooks,themoreimportantof
theothersbeing
'decidedlyJain'.Admittingtraces
ofnorthern influence,Tamilworksarebelievedta
showaspiritofindependence ofSanskritinfluence.
TheTolMppiyam, theoldestTamilgrammar, is
ascribedontheauthority ofDr.Burnell tothe
eighthcentary,theVlrasoUyam totheeleventh,and
theNannulwhichsupersededboth,tothefifteenth
century.
'Theperiodofprevalence oftheJainasin
thePandyakingdom,fromtheninthortenthtothe-
1Vol.XXV.

403. CUEEBNTNOTIONSONTAMILLITEEATITRE 375
thirteenthcentury, isjustlytermedtheAugustanAge
ofTamilliterature.Toitsearlydoings isascribed
theNaladiydr,which issupposed tohavepreceded
theKural.' . .ChintdmaniandtheDivdharamarealso
bothascribed tothisearlyJainperiod.Kamban's
Bdmdyanam (aboutA.d.1100)istheonlyotherTamil
epicwhichcomesuptotheChinfdviani inpoetical
beauty.Themostbrilliantofthepoeticalproductions
whichappeared intheperiodoftheSaivarevival
(thirteenthandfourteenth centuries)aretwocollec-
tionsofhymnsaddressed toSiva,theonecalled
Tiruvdsakam byManikkavasagar, andalaterand
largerworkcalledTevdrambySambandar,andtwo
otherdevoteesSundararandAppar.
'TheNdldijira-
prabandham isacollection ofVaishnavahymns
contemporaneous withtheformer. Afteraperiodof
literary torpor,w"hichlastednearlytwocenturies,
kingVallabhaDeva,betterknownbyhisassumed
nameofAt!ViraEamaPandyan (secondhalfof
thesixteenthcentury) ,endeavoured torevivethelove
ofpoetry,bycompositions ofhisown,themost
celebrated ofwhichisNaidadam. AtiViraEaman
wasfollowedbyanumberofimitators, etc. .
.'
This,inbrief,isthesubstanceofthepartofDr.
Eeinhold Eost'sarticledealingwiththehistoryof
Tamilliterature. AVeshallnowproceedtoexaminethe
conclusions ofthesesavants,withduedeferencetothe
highpositions oftheauthorsandwithallgratitude
fortheirhavingledthewayinthislineofinquiry.
Theresearches andastronomical calculations of
Professor Kielhorn'haveassigned a.D.16G2-3 as
thedateoftheaccession ofAtiViraEamaPan-
dyan. IfthenhemarksanerainTamilliterature
(hedoesmaiktheendoftheperiodofdecadence,
andtherevivalunderhimandhisfollowersmay
1EingrapMa Indica,vol.vii,p.17.

404. 376 ANCIENTINDIA
becalledtheclassicalperiod—aperiodwhenpoetical
compositionsweremadebyruleofthumb), itmust
havebegunattheearliestaboutA.D.1600.Inthis
thereisnocausefordissent.Goingbackfromthis
datethroughthetwocenturies ofdecadenceorliter-
arytorpor,wearriveatA.D.1300.Thistorpor is
tobeaccounted forbythedisturbed stateofthe
countryowingtotheoverthrow ofHindukingdoms
bytwowavesofMussalman invasion. According to
Dr.Eostthen,A.d.1300wouldmarkthelatterend
oftheSaivarevival.Andtothisperiod,extending
overperhapsacenturyormore,areascribedthe
worksoftheTevaramhymners,theAlvarsandeven
Manikkavasagar. ProfessorVinsonwouldplacethe
Manimehlialai alsointhisperiod. Manimekhalai, as
admittedbytheProfessor himself, isaBuddhistic
work,andweshouldratherfeelinclinednottoinclude
itintheSaivarevival, iftherehadbeensuchatthe
period.ButofManimekhalai lateron.Withrespect
totheothers,Manikkavasagar hasnotyetlenthimself
toanydefiniteperiod.Mr.L.C.Innes^placedhim
intheninthcentury.PunditVedanayagam Pillai
^
in
thethirdcentury,andMr.Tirumalaikkolundu toa
perioddifferentfromeither. ButoftheTevaram
hymners,SambandarandApparwerecontemporaries;
andSambandar paidavisittoSiruttondar, another
ofthesixty-threeSaivasaints.Thislatterplayedan
importantpartintheburningofVatapibythePallavas,
whicheventhasbeenascribedtoNarasimhavarman
Pallavainthemiddleoftheseventhcentury a.d.
'
Therefore itisasgoodascertainnowthatSambandar
andApparlivedintheseventhcenturya.d.Asto
Sundarar,hewasacontemporary ofCheraman,the
1ImperialandAsiaticQuarterlyReview,April,1902.
'ChristianCollegeMagazine,1904.
3BpigraphiaIndica,voliii,pp.277etseq.,atidotherreferencesin
page52,ofHissDuff'sChronologyofIndia.

405. THEORYOFSAIVAREVIVAL ,^77
lastPeruroal,theendofwhosereignmarks,according
tosome,atleast,thebeginning oftheKollamEra,
A.D.825.Whetherthisdatebecorrectornot,he
wascertainlypriortoNambiAndarNambi,acontem-
poraryofEajarajaAbhayaKulasekhara, aliasEaja
Kesarivarman EajaEajaA.D.985-1013.'Astothe
Alvar's, allofthemwereanterior toEamanuja, in
spiteofDr.Caldwell'sstatement tothecontrary.A
glancedownthefirsttwentystanzasoftheBdmanuja
Nurrandddi (included inthe4000Prahandhams) will
showtherelationbetweenEamanujaandtheAlvars.
Eamanuja'sdateisA.d.1017-1137andnogroundshave
beenasyetshownanywherethatIknowof,toregard
thisperiodasatallimprobable, whiletheevidence
initsfavour isaccumulating. Notonlywerethey
merelyanterior,butsomeofthemhadalsobeendeified
generations beforehim.Nathamuni, inthefifth
generationbeforehim,revivedthechantingofNammal-
var'sTiruv'ymolialreadypractisedandforgotten.^ In
additiontotheseconsiderations, thereisforthcoming
•epigraphical evidenceofanunimpeachable character
toplacetheVaishnavaAlvarsandtheSaivaAdiyars
muchanteriortoA.d.1000.Eajarajamadeprovision
fortherecitaloftheTevdramintheTanjoretemple.^
Hisgrandson—aviceroy,ofKonga,madeprovision
fortherecitaloftheworksoftwoofthelatestAlvars.*
AboutA.D.1000imagesofgodsintempleswerenamed
afterTiruv~>ymoli,^ theworkofNammalvar. The
theoryofaSaivarevivalfromthetenthtothethir-
teenthcenturies willdefinitelyhavetobegivenup.
1ThelateProfessorSundaramPillai'sarticleintheChristianCollege
Magazinefor1891.
2Srivaishnava Guruparamparai (achronicle ofVaishnavahigh
priests).
3Inscriptions ofRajarija. Dr.Hultzsch'sSouthIndianInscrip-
iions.
iGovernmentEpigrj,phist'sReportfor1900. Sec.21.
5Vol.iii,p.1,SouthIndianInscriptions.

406. 378 ANCIENTINDIA
Thisistheperiodofcommentariesandcommentators
ratherthanofwriters.Therevivalwhichtheseworks
andtheirauthorsmark isaHindu asopposeda
Saivarevival. Anditsperiodistheseventhtothe
tenthcentury. Itisinthefollowingcenturies—under
thegreatCholaascendency—thattheantagonismbe-
tweenthetwosects(SaivasandVaishnavas)wasgetting
pronounced. TherewereeveninthisperiodJains
andBuddhists,theformermorethanthelatter,and
thesewerenotpreventedfromcomposing orwriting
works.Thisliteraryperiod is,therefore,coevalwith
theperiodofthePallavasupremacy inSouthIndia,
andthereisampleinternalevidenceintheworksin
supportofthisconclusion.
AstothedateofKamban'sBdmdyanambeingA.D.
1100,thisconclusionappearstobebasedontheold
beliefthatitwaspublishedwhileaEajendraChola
wasruling.ThisrulerwasidentifiedwithKulottunga
Chola I(A.D.1063-1118). Forthisstatement of
contemporaneity there isnoauthority,andsofar
astheknowncircumstances oftheauthor'shistorygo,
thedate807Saka(ora.d.885)doesnotappearto
befarbesidethemark.Here, itmaybeobservedin
passing,thatinregardtosuchinquiries ithashithertO'
beenthefashiontodiscard alllocalandtraditional
evidenceandacceptnothingthathasnoepigraphical
basis. Itoughttoberemembered inthisconnexion,
thatalltradition isnotnecessarily false. Iftradition
isinterpreted withcareandotherevidenceduly
broughttobearuponit,theresultwillbefarfrom
disappointing,andsoitiswithrespecttoKamban.
Thisisnottobeunderstood tomeanthatalltradi-
tionisofequalvalueandisquitecredible.Kamban,
Ihavepointedoutelsewhere,^couldhavehadnoroyal
1ChristianCollegeMagmine,1902.ThislineofargumentforKamban
isnotwarrantedbylaterresearch. Hisdateisprobablythemiddleof
thetwelfthcenturya.d.

407. AUGUSTANAGEBEFORESEVENTHCENTUKT A.D.37&
patron,forhecelebratesnone,whilehehadapatron
inalessermortalSadaiappa Mudaliar.Hewasa
contemporary ofNathamuniwholivedfivegenerations
beforeEamanujainpointoflineage.Thetimeoccu-
piedbythesefivegenerations, ifweaccepttheyearA.D.
885,wouldbeonehundredandtwentyyearsandthis
isnotimprobable. ThereforeKambanmaysafelybe
referredtotheninthcenturyA.d.Onecharacteristic
featureofthisperioddeservestobenoticedhere. It
isthatthemetreadoptedbypoetsduringthis-period
iswhat iscalledViruttam (Sans-Vritta). Allthe
acceptedSaiigamorearlierworksareeitherinAhaval
orVenbametre.Thiswouldleadustoplacethe
Ghintamani atthecommencement ofthisperiod,
because itisamasterpiece inthislineofcomposition
andwas,bytradition,themodelforKamban'sBdmdya-
nam.Wehavealsoreasontoregardthisasthe
periodofgreatactivityamongtheJains.Onereason
chieflyinsistedonbyPanditVedanayagam forplacing
Manikkavasagar inthethirdcentury isthetransition
wecouldnoticeinhisworksfromtheearliermetre
tothelater,asstatedabove.*
BeforetheseventhcenturyA.c,then,weshallhave
tolookfortheearlyperiodofTamilliterature—tobe
calledappropriately theAugustanAge—theage,that
is,ofgreatpatrons. ThisisalsotheperiodofSaiigam
activity. ThisistheperiodwhichhasgivenusalL
themostimportantworksextantinTamil
—
Silappa-
dhikdram,Manimekhalai, Pattuppnttu, Padirruppattu
andanumberofothers.TheTolhappiijam isgenerally
thegrammaronwhichtheseworksarebased. I
havesetforthinfull(inchapterxiv),theargu-
mentsinfavour ofregarding theearlycenturies
oftheChristianera—ormorepreciselythesecondand
thefirsthalfofthethirdcenturies—astheAugustan
1AnArticleintheChristianCollegeMagazine,1904.

408. 380 ANCIENTINDIA
Age.Thereisinternalandexternalevidenceinsup-
portofthisconclusionintheworksmentionedabove
andothersofthetime.Whetherthisactualconclu-
sion,whichIhavearrivedat(which ismoreorless
inagreementwiththoseofMr.Kanakasabhai Pillai
.andtheHon'bleMr.Kumaraswami ofCeylon),be
thecorrectoneornot,thedayislongpastwhenthe
works—theSilappadhiharam, Manimehhalaiandthe
Rural,canbeascribed totheperiodbetweenthe
ninthandtwelfthcenturiesA.d.Silappadhil'dram was
composedbyIlango,theChera asceticprincethe
youngerbrotherofSenguttuvan, thereigningking
;
Manimekhoblaibyhisfriendthecorn-merchant Sattan
ofMaduraheldinhighesteematthecourtofSeri-
guttuvanatVanjiorKarur(knownatdifferenttimes
andcircumstances, Kodungalur,Mahaudiyarpattanam,
Vanjikulam, etc.) ;theKural ofTiruvalluvar is
quotedbythetwoauthors,andassuch,itmusthave
beetiwellknownatthetime.Thisking^enguttuvan
hadacontemporary ruler,bynameGajabahu, of
Ceylon,whowasanhonouredguest athiscourt.
WhichoftheGajabahus oftheCeyloneseChronicle
isthispersonage tobeidentifiedwith?Thatthe
Chronicle isnotahistoryinthemodernsenseofthe
termdoesnotadmitofdoubt.Dr.Fleet
^
isofopinion
thattheverynamesintheChroniclearenotcorrect
a-ndmuchless,therefore,thedates.ProfessorRhys
Davids,onthecontrary,findstheChronicleborneout
inimportant detailsbyinscriptions intheSanchi
Tope.'Forourpresentpurpose,wefind,inthewhole
listofkingsintheMahavamsa, onlytworulersof
thenameofGajabahu,oneintheeleventhcentury
A.D.,andtheearlierinthesecondcentury a.d.The
reasonsforidentifying thisGajabahu, thefriendof
1Footnote, p.16,JournaloftheRoyalAsiaticSociety,1904.
2BicddhisticIndia,pp.299,300etseq.

409. STATEMENTOPARGUMENTS 381
Seiguttuvan,withthefirstofthename,havebeenset
forthinfullinchapterxiv. Itwillbeenoughtostate
thembrieflyhere :(1)Thestateofthingsasgathered
fromtheworksthemselvesshowsthatTamilwasthe
languageofCheraatthetime.Mr.Loganhaspointed
outintheManualofMalabarthatinthelatterhalf
oftheeighthandtheearlierhalfoftheninthcenturies
Malayalamwasinthemakmg.^Thework,therefore,
musthavebeencomposedmuchanteriortotheelev-
enthcenturya.d.,thedateofGajabahuII. (2)These
worksmusthavebeenmuchanteriortotheEalin-
gattuparani celebrating theconquest (ratherthere-
conquest)ofKalingambythePallavaGeneralKaru-
nakaraTondaman ofVandalur fortheCholaKulot-
tunga.ThiseventisplacedbythelateProfessorSun-
daramPillaiatabout a.d.1080.^Inthegenealogy
oftheCholasgivenbytheauthor,theKarikalaofthe
Pattinappalai isplacedmuchanteriortotheninth
centurya.d.,andDr.Hultzschadmitsthathemust
havebelongedtoadynasty anteriortothatwhose
epigraphicalrecordshavecomedowntous.^ (3)Sunda-
ramurtiNayanar referstoPariofParambunadu (one
ofthelastsevenpatronscelebratedintheSirupanarrup-
padai)whosenamehad,bythetimetheNayanarflour-
ished,becomeproverbialforliberality. (4)TheSangam
issaidbytraditiontohavepassedoutofexistencein
thereignofKiinPandya,aliasNinraSirNedumaran,
thecontemporaryandconvertofGuanaSambanda (in
theseventhcentury)whowasoneoftheSaivaleaders
oftheHindurevival.Theworksunderconsideration
areSaiigamworks—inthesensethattheywereeither
acceptedbytheSangamorwerecomposed atthetime
ascouldbeclearlymade out. (5)Mahanaman, the
tBycomparingthelanguageofthethreeSyrianChristianGrants.
*ChristianCollegeMagazine,for1891.ActualdateaboutA.D.1111^
3SouthIndianInscriptions, vol.ii.

410. 382 ANCIENTINDIA
authoroftheMahdvamsa,beheSthaviraMahanaman
thefirstofthename(a.d.538),orthesecond(A.d.
588),^mentionsaGajabahuanteriortohim.Whatever
maybetheactualdateofGajabahuhemusthave
flourishedbeforethesixthcenturyandperhapsmuch
•earlier.ThisisborneoutbythefactthatthePallavas
weregainingtheascendencyinSouthernIndiaabout
thistimeandtheSangamworksdonotshowanytrace
ofthisascendency. (6)TheCholacapitalwasKaveri-
pambattinam,withthealternativeUraiyur,andthere
isnothingofTanjoreorGangaikondaSolapuram,the
capitalsduringtheCholaAscendencyPeriod(A.D.900-
1300nearly). (7)Thereareabundantallusionsand
references,whichcanbeexplainedonlyontheassump-
tionoftheSatavahana rulersoftheDekhanandtheir
warswiththeKshetrapas. TheSatavahanapower
cametoanendaboutthemiddle ofthethirdcen-
turyA.D.'Thesewouldwarrantourregardingthe
AugustanAge—anageofgreatBuddhisticinfluence
—
tobecoevalwiththeearlycenturiesoftheChristian
Era,thatis,a.d.100-300atthelatest.
OnewordmoreaboutMaiiimekhalai. ProfessorVin-
sonopinesthatthisworkmusthavebeenofalater
periodthanVirasoliyam,becausethelatterworkmakes
nomentionofit.Itwouldbeequallysoundtosay
thattheBilappadhikdram musthavebeencomposed
afterthedaysofNachchinarkiniyar, asthegreatcom-
mentatorhasnotcommented onthework. This
•opinion ofthelearnedProfessorwouldhavebeen
receivedwithrespecthaditnotbeenthatthereis
ampleevidence ofthetwo
—
8ilappadhikaram and
Manimekhalai—beingcompanionworks.Thecommen-
tatoroftheformerexplains theconnexionbetween
thetwoandgivesallthereferences inpagetenof
1Footnote, p.16,JournaloftheRoyalAsiaticSociety,1904
2Dr.Bhandarkar'sEarlyHistoryoftheDeJihan.

411. SILAPPADHIKARAM ANDMANIMEKHaLAI 383
PunditSwaminatha Ij'er'sedition. Further,theintro-
ductorypassagetotheworkstatesclearlythatthe
cornmerchantSattan itwas,thatinducedtheascetic
totakeupthework,andtheclosingpassagerefers
toitshavingbeenreadouttohim. Allthisapart,
Silappadhiharam alonewouldbeadefectivecomposi-
tionaccording totherulesofepiccomposition but
forthesupplementary Maiiimekhalai. Thefirsthas
referenceonlytothefirstthreeofthefourobjects
oflife,andtheseconddealswiththefourth. Ifthese
werenotenough,thesameCheraandtheChola
rulersfigureinboththeworks,andalltraditional
andotheraccountsagreeinascribingthelatterto
Sattan,thecorn-merchant ofMadura,who,asthe
criticparexcellenceoftheSaiigamusedtoplanthis
stileintohisheadeverytimehehad
'themisfortune
'
todetectanerrorinworkssubmittedtotheSaiigam.
Thefactthatoneauthoroftheeleventhortwelfth
centurydoesnotmention aworkofanumberof
centuries earlier is,atthebest,veryunreliable as
evidenceofrelativechronology. Thereisaversein
praiseofManimekhalai, ascribedtoAmbikhapathi the
sonofpoetKamban ;andSivaprakasaSwami,aSaiva
ofmuchlatertimes,referstothesameworkinglowing
terms.Buddhamitramightnothaveknownthework,
ormuchrather,mightnothaveseenoccasion to
mention itorrefertoit.
Itishightimethatthesetime-honoured theories
weregivenupandthequestionbeapproachedwiththe
disengagementdemandedbyhistoricalresearch.The
factthatwehavenotasyetcomeacrossinscriptions
ofaperiodearlierthanthefifthcentury ofthe
Christian era, leads totheinference incertain
quarters,thatthealphabetswerenotknowninSouth
IndiabeforethethirdcenturyA.D.Mostofthein-
scriptionsweknowof,areinscriptionsfoundintemples,
andthegreatmajorityoftempleswerebuiltandold

412. 384 ANCIENTINDIA
I
oneswereendowedaftertheoverthrow oftheBud-
IdhisticascendencyintheSouth.Literature tillrecentlj',
'
washandeddownmostlybywordofmouth,though
thestileandthepalmyraleafwereoftencalledinto
requisition asavaluableauxiliary. Itwillbesome
timebeforetheliteraryhistoryoftheTamillanguage
attainsdefinitenessbutthere isgoodreasontohope-
thatthetrendofitwillbealongthelinesindicated
above.

413. CHAPTERXYI
SELF-IMMOLATIONWHICHISNOTSATI
ItisanundoubtedfactinIndia,thatself-immolation
waspractisedfromtimeimmemorial, inoneshapeor
another,themotivehavingbeensometimes spiritual,
butoftenentirelypersonal. Theuniversallyknown
practicecalledsati,whereawomanburntherselfon
thepyreofherhusband,wasonlyoneformofit.
AYhetherthepracticewasDravidianorAryaninorigin,
wehaveinstances ofitoccurring prettyfrequently
inSouthIndia.Theearliestknown,ofanhistorical
character, isthedeathofthewifeofBhiitaPandya,
anearlycelebrity inTamilLiterature. Onepoem
ascribedtoheristobefoundinthecollectionknown
asthePuraiidnuru. Thatself-immolation wasnot
confinedtowomenwhohadbecomewidowed,but
wascommonevenamongmen,sometimesgreatwarriors
orlearnedBrahmans, isamplyborneoutbythegreat
epicsofIndiaandthelesseronesalike.Arjunawas
abouttoslayhimselfmorethanonce,butthesupreme
example isthatofBharata,theyoungerbrotherof
Eama,whowassavedbythearrivalofHanumanwith
thehappymessageofEama,justatthemomentof
enteringthesacrificial-fire. Itisofself-immolation
withinhistoricaltimesthatIshallconcernmyselfhere.
There isanumerous classofarchseologicalmonu-
mentsinSouthIndia,knownasVirakkalandMas-
tikkal.Thelattertermrepresents Mahdsati-kal, i.e.
astoneerectedinmemoryofonewhoperformeda
mahdsati, oractofself-immolation byawomanon
25

414. 386 ANCIENTINDIA
thepyreofherhusband.Theformerisastoneerected
inmemoryofamanwhodisplayedvalour,eitheron
thefieldofbattleorbysomeotheractofpersonal
courage.Theerectionofmemorialstonesinhonour
ofafallenheroisasoldasthedaysoftheRural, i.e.
atleastasearlyastheinitialcenturiesoftheChristian
era,andthereareinnumerable examples scattered
throughtheMysoreProvince. Thereare,nevertheless,
othersrecordingcasesofself-immolation, whichwere
theresultofavow,andinthevolumes oftheEpi-
graphiaCarnata'kabroughtoutbyMr.Rice,anumber
ofinscriptionsonthesememorial stoneshavebeen
broughttolight.Mostofthemrecordactsperformed
inpursuanceofvowsratherofacivilthanofareligious
nature.
Thatreligiondidindeedsanctionself-immolation
isborneoutbythebeliefthatsuchactsalwaysforced
openthegatesofheaventoreceivetheperformers,
inspiteofthecynicalproverbthat
'nooneought
topullouthistonguetodieonanekadasiday,'
^and
ofthepopularnotionthatthesuicidecannotgoto
heaven,exceptbyspendingtherestofhisallotted
earthlyspanasawandering devil,hoveringabouthis
usualhabitat. Notwithstanding thesebeliefs,wehave
numerousinstances ofJainsperforming theactof
sallekhana, i.e.deathbroughtonbystarvation.The
ChalukyaemperorAhavamallaSomesvara,whenattack-
edwithamalignantfever,
'wenttoSvarga(heaven)
'
by
plungingintotheTungabhadra afteraregularcon-
fessionoffaithinSiva.Inthesallekhanaceremony,
menandwomenaliketookpartanddevotedthemselves
tocontemplation ofthedivinityfordayswithoutfood
orwater,andwehavenumbers ofinstancesinthe
6ravanaBelagolaEecords. Inowgiveanumberof
1Theeleventhdayafterfullornewmoon,regardedasaparticularly
gooddayonwhichtodie.

415. EXAMPLESOFMEN 387
instancesofmenputtinganendtothemselveswithout
anydirectmotiveofreligion,althoughfaith,suchas
itwas,didunderliemostoftheacts.
TwoinscriptionsfoundintheArkalgudTaluqin
theHassandistrictrecordinstancesoffriendshaving
thrownthemselvesintothefireoutofsorrowfortheir
latemasters,theGangakingsNitimarggaandSatya
Vakya,respectively.Athirdcasetothepointisgiven
inaninscriptioninKadur,datedabouta.d.1180.The
governorofAsandinad died,or,astheinscriptionhas
it,
'laidsiegetoIndra'sAmaravatI '.OnthisBam-
mayyaNayaka,theslaveofSankamale,
'showedthe
waytoSvarga'. Thenextinstance,Masanayya's
youngerbrotherBoppanna,
'makinggoodhisword
fortheoccasion
',wenttoheavenonthedeathof
Tailappa,therulerofBanavase, etc.,inA.D.1030.
Whattheoccasionwasandwhyhetookthisvowis
notvouchsafed toustoknow.Perhaps, itwasavow
thattheminister'sbrothertooktoshowhisattachment
tohissovereign. Suchvows,oncemade,wereap-
parentlynotmerelyexpected tobecarriedout ;but
sometimesthevotarywasasked tomakegoodhis
word,asinthefollowinginstance. Inthefifthyear
ofTribhuvanamalla ViraSomesvara, i.e.A.D.1185
hisseniorqueenLachchalaDeviwenttoheaven.
Boka,anofficeroftheking,hadpreviouslytakena
vow:'IwilldiewiththeDevi.''Onhismaster
callinghim,saying,
"youarethebravemanwhowith
resolutionhavespokenoftakingoffyourhead,"with
nolightcourage,Bokagavehishead,whiletheworld
applauded,saying
"Hedidsoattheveryinstant".The
wordspokenwithfullresolve isnottobebroken.'
TheaextinstanceIhavetoexhibit,recordsavow
"takenevenwithout apersonal motive, asinthe
precedingcases.AcertainTuluva,Chandiya,tooka
vow
'
nottolethisfinger-nailsgrow
',iftheBana-
vaseFortshouldbedisposedofinamannerhedid

416. 388 ANCIENTINDIA
notapprove of. Itsohappened thatBallavarasa
andSatyasrayaDevajointlymadeagrantofthefort
andatetnpleendowment inthetwelve-thousand
country. UponthistheTuluva,Chandiya,
'cutting
offthefingerwhichhehadgivenatthePermalu
templeandclimbingtheBherundesvara Pillarleaped
uponthepointofaspearandgainedtheworldof
gods.'
Hereisanothervowmadefromanentirelydifferent
motive. Votiveofferingsofthenatureofthatfollowing
aremadenowadays also,butbythepersonwhois
thedirectrecipientofthefavoursought. Thiscase
is,however,peculiarfromthefactthatthevowwas
taken,notbythepartydirectlyconcerned,butbya
friend. Ina.d.1123whileVikramadityaVIwas
emperor,andhisgovernorofBanavasewasEamayya,
theMahasamanta (greatlord)Bopparasaandhiswife
SiriyaDevi,surroundedbyallthesubjects,werein
thetempleattherice-fields,thecowherd,Marana's
sonDekiNayaka,madeavow,saying :
'
Iftheking
obtainason,Iwillgivemyheadtoswingonthe
polefortheGodofKondasabhavi
'
This is
nothingmore,sofarasthedetailsofthedeedare
concerned,thanthehook-swinging ofmoderntimes,
but,ashasbeenpointedoutabove,thevowistaken
byanattendantandnotbytheprincipalparty.
Alltheseinstancesshowclearlythat,whenthere
wasenoughattachment topersons,oreventoideas,
thepeopleofIndiadidnotdisplaymuchrespectfor
life,butshowedthemselvesreadytooffer
'
eventhe
mostpreciousthingonearth,asthough itwerea
carelesstrifle.'Thesupremeinstanceofsuchthrowing
awayofthemostpreciousthingwasthesuicide,.purely
frompersonalaffection,ofthegeneralofViraBellala,
KuvaraLakshmana (orKumaraLakshma)withhis
wifeSuggalaDeviandthearmywhichwasattached
tohim(atleastofaselectpartofit).KuvaraLakshma

417. KUMARAIiAKSHMANAOBLAKSHMA 389
wasbothministerandgeneralofViraBellalaand
cherishedbyhimashisson.
'
Betweenservantand
kingtherewasnodifference
;thegloryandmarksof
royaltywereequalinboth.'
'
Hiswealthandhis
lifeKuvaraLakshmadevotedforthegiftsandvictories
ofViraBellalaDeva,andconqueredtheworldforhim
asfarasthesouthernocean.'HiswifewasSuggala
Devi,whoalsoworeatodar(ahollowanklet,with
pebblesorpreciousstonesinside)likethehusband,
asamarkofherunswervingdevotiontoherlord.He
hadacompan)-ofathousandwarriors,vowedtolive
anddiewithhim.Hesetupavirasasana(whichis
recordedonapillarneartheHoysalesvara templeat
Halebid),onwhichareplacedimagesofhimselfand
Garuda,indicating thelatteraloneashisequalin
devotion tohismaster.
'
\Yhile alltheworldwas
praisinghimasthefounderofthegreatnessandin-
creaseofkingBellalaandthecauseofhisprosperity,
theDandesaLakshma,togetherwithhiswife,mounted
uponthesplendidstonepillar,covered«iththepoetical
virasasana,proclaiming hisdevotiontohismaster
:
andonthepillartheybecameunitedwithLakshmi
andwithGaruda.'Theinscription isleftincomplete,
butthesculpturesonthepillar,being allfiguresof
menwithswords,cutting offtheirownarmsand
legs,andeventheirownheads,indicateunmistakably
whathadbeendone.Thisexamplewasfollowedby
others,andactsofsuchwholesaleimmolationareon
recordontheoccasion ofthedeathofeachofthe
warlikesuccessorsofViraBellala.
Uselesswasteoflifeasthisappearstous,andentirely
needlesstodemonstrate faithfulattachment, itstill
showsadepthofdevotionandasacrifice ofthat
mostpreciouslegacy, lifeinthisworld,whichought
toevoketheadmiration ofall,howevermisguided
wasthezealinacausehardlycallingforthesacrifice.

418. CHAPTEEXVII
THEAGNIKULA :THEFIBE-BACE
Inoneofhisinteresting contributions entitledSome
ProblemsofAncie^itIndianHistory,publishedinthe
JournaloftheBoyalAsiaticSociety,1905,p.1ff.,
Dr.HoernleregardstheParamaraEajputsastheonly
familythatlaidclaimtobelongtotheAgnikulaor
Fire-racebeforethetimeofthepoetChand(loc.cit.,
p.20),and,sofar,theevidence allseemstopointto
anysuchclaimnotbeingfoundearlierthanthemiddle
oftheeleventh century. That,however,doesnot
precludeanearlierexistenceofthelegend. Itv?ould
beinteresting, therefore, ifthelegendcouldbetraced
toanearlierperiodthanthatoftheParamaras of
Malva.IntheearlyclassicalliteratureoftheTamils,
thereisareference tothissamelegend,andthere
appearstohavebeeninthatpartofIndiaafamily
ofancientchiefswhoclaimeddescentfromthesacri-
ficialfire.
TherehavebeenintheTamillandacertainnumber
ofchiefs,whosenameshavebeenhandeddownto
posterityastheLastSevenPatrons ofLetters,the
patronparexcellenceamongthemhavingbeenPari
ofParambanadu. Thischiefhadalife-long friend
inthepersonofahighlyesteemedBrahman,Kapilar,
whowasapoetsuigenerisinaparticulardepartment
ofthepoeticalart.
'Thethreecrownedkingsofthe
south,'—theChera,theChola,andthePandya,—
growing
jealousofthepowerandprosperityofPariasapatron
ofpoets,laidsiegeconjointlytohishill-fort,Mullur.
Parihavingfallenavictimtothiscombination, itfell

419. IRUNGOVBLOPABAYAM 391
tothelotofhisBrahmanfriendtogethisdaughters
suitablymarried, tobringaboutacceptablemarriages
beingoneofthesixspecialdutiesofBrahmans in
thesocialsystem.He,therefore,tookthegirlsover
successively totwochiefs,YichchikkonandPahKadi
MaiIrungovelofArayaui. Thislatterchiefisaddressed
bythepoetintheseterms :
'Havingcomeoutofthe
sacrificial fire-pitoftheEishi—havingruledoverthe
campofDvarapati,whosehighwallslonkedasthough
theywerebuiltofcopper—havingcomeafterforty-nine
generations ofpatronsneverdisgustedwithgiving
—
thouartthepatronamongpatrons.'
^Theallusion
tothecomingoutofthesacrificial fireofthesage
cannotbutrefertothesameincident astheother
versionsdiscussedbyDr.Hoernle. Thechiefthus
addressedwasapettychiefofaplacecalledArayam,
composedofthesmallerandthelargercitiesofthiit
name,inthewesternhill-country,somewhere inthe
regionsofthe"WesternGhatsinjNIysore.
Themoreimportant question, exactlyrelevantto
thediscussion, is :What isthetimeofthisauthor
andhishero?Thishas,sofar,referencetotimes
anterior toepigraphical records,andhasthereforeto
beconsideredonliterarydataalone. Thispoet,
Kapilar,isconnectedwithanumberofchiefsandkings,
andisoneofagalaxyofpoetsofhighfameinclassical
Tamil literature. According totheTirtivilaiyddal
Puranavi,KapilarwasborninTiruvadaviir,andwas
aBrahmanbybirth.Thetraditionthathewasone
ofthesevenchildren oftheBrahmanBhagavan,
throughthenon-castewomanAdi,isnotwellsupported
byreliableliteraryevidence. lint ifthistradition
betrue(therearesomeinconsistent elements init),
hemusthavebeenthebrotherofTiruvalluvar, the
authoroftheEin-al,;indofthepoetessAvvaiyar. This
1Purandnurii, 200,201.PanditSwaminathaIyer'sEdition.

420. 392 ANCIENTIKDIA
relationship,however,isnowhereinevidenceincontem-
poraryliterature.
Sofarastheyareavailable atpresent,hisworks,
allofthembeinga
'ParadiseofDaintyDevices 'in
Tamilliterature,are
:
—
1.TheseventhofthePadirruppattu, theTen-Tens,
inpraiseoftheCheramanSelvakkadutigovaliyadan.
2.Kuri'ijippdttu ofPattuppattu,theTen-Idylls,to
teachBrahasta,theAryanking,Tamil.
3.Aingurunuru,KurinjiSection,thewholeanthology
havingbeencollectedandbroughtoutbyKiidalur
KilarfortheChera
'
PrinceoftheElephant-eye
'
(Yanaikkatchey)
.
4.Inna,
'
thatwhich isevilandassuchtobe
avoided,'40.
5.TwentystanzasinNarrinai,29inEurunthogai,
16inAhananuru,and31inPurancinuru.
Kapilarappears,fromhisworks,andfromthehigh
esteeminwhichhewasheldbyhiscontemporaries,
poetsandpotentates,andfromthegreatapproval
withwhichheisquotedbygrammariansandcommen-
tatorsalike,tohavebeenaspecialist incomposing
poemsrelatingtoKurinji, i.e.thehill-country, this
beingthesceneoftheinwardfeelingsevoked,such
aslove,andtheoutwardactioninducedbyinward
feelings.Astodetailsofhislife,wehavebutlittle
information. Ofcourse,hesanginpraiseofthe
Cheraman Selvakkadungo, and received alarge
reward. Otherwise, heappears tohavebeenthe
life-longguestandintimatefriendofhispatron.Pari
ofParambunadu. Itwasafterthedeathofthis
chiefthatthepoetwentaboutwithhisdaughtersto
obtainforthemeligiblehusbands,andthattheallu-
sivereferencetotheAgnikuladescentwasmadefor
Irungovel.
ThisPariofParambunaduwasoneoftheSeven
Patrons,besidestheThreeKings,whoflourishedabout

421. THESEVENPATRONS 393
"thesamegeneration inSouthIndia.* Alltheseare
celebrated inthepoemcalledSirupanarruppadai of
NalliirNattattanar,whosanginpraiseofBrumanattu
Nalliyakkodan, asamoreliberalpatronthantheThree
KingsandtheSevenPatrons.Thesepoemsarerhap-
sodiesofaHomericcharacter,sungonoccasionsby
wanderingminstrels,whoreceivedsumptuousrewards
fortheirlabour.TheplanoftheSirupanisthata
wanderingminstrelisatalosstoknowwherehecould
findapatron ;andanother,returningfromthecourt
ofthepatron,solvesthepuzzlebypointing tothe
particularpersonagewhoistheobjectofpraise.As
3)rule,therefore,thesepoemsaredirectlyaddressed
tothepatronbythepoet.Andthiscircumstancemakes
themofgreatimportanceforpurposesofthehistory
andsocialcondition ofthosetimes. Unfortunately,
however,theauthordoesnotmentiontheThreeKings
byanyspecificnames—amatterofindifference to
them,astheycouldnothavehadanyideaoftherise
oflaboriousstudentsofhistoryamongtheirposterity.
ButtheSevenPatrons arereferredtospecifically
enough. Andcertainofthedetailsrelatingtothe
kingsthemselves giveimportant clues. TheSeven
Patronsare,intheordergivenbythepoet :Pehan,
roundaboutthePalnis
;Pari,alongtheWesternGhats
furthernorth ;Kari,roundaboutTirukkovalur in
SouthArcot ;Aay,roundaboutPadiyilHillinthewest
ofTinnevelly ;Adiyaman ofTagadur,eithertheplace
ofthatnameintheMysorecountryorDharmapuri
preferably
'
;Nalli,ofMalanadu (there isnothingelse
bywhichtofixhisexactlocality)
;andOri,withhis
territoryroundaboutKolliMalaiinSalem.The
CholaisassociatedwithUraiyilr,andtheCherawith
Vanji,specifically,andnotinthegeneral terrasin
1Patiupattu,PanditSwaminathaIyer'sEdition,3rdPoem.
2SeeIndianAntiquary, vol.xxii,pp.66and143,andEpigrapjtia
Indica,vol.vi,p.331.

422. 394 ANCIENTINDIA
whichtheMaharajas ofTravancore arenowadays
styled.
Kapilar isgenerallyassociatedwithParanar ;and
thetwotogetherareusuallyspokenofbytheelder
commentators Kapila-Paranar. Thatthis isdueto
contemporaneousness, isprovedbythefactthatKapilar
wasaneldercontemporary of
'theChera ofthe
Elephant-look' inwhosei-eigntheAinguru7iuru collec-
tion,ofwhichKapilarcomposedthethirdpart,was-
madebyKudalurKilar,aSangamcelebrity. Further^
boththesepoets,KapilarandParanar, interceded
withPehanonbehalfofhiswifewhenhedeserted
herinfavourofasweetheart. Thus,then,Kapilarand
Paranarwerecontemporaries,andthelattercelebrated
SerigQttuvanSerainthethirdsectionoftheTen-Tens.
This,therefore, takestheAgnikula tradition tothe-
ageofSeiiguttuvan,whowasthegrandson ofKari-
kala-Chola. ThisKarikala isplacedintheLeyden
GrantandintheKalingattupparani faranteriorto
Parantaka I;andthe8ilappadhikdram itselfmakes
Senguttuvan thecontemporary ofaGajabahu of
Ceylon,whosedateisheldtobeA.d.113-135.
ThenameofParihadbecomeproverbialforliber-
alityinthedaysofSundaramurti-Nayanar. Thislatter
musthavelivedcenturiesbeforeRajarajatheGreat,
assomeofhisgrantsmakedonationstotheimageof
theNayanar. ItwasRa.jaraja'scontemporary,Nambi
AndarNambi,whoelaborated theTiruttondattogai
ofSundara.Ontheseandotherconsiderations,Sundara-
murtihasbeenallottedtotheeighthcenturyofthe
Christian era,andthereforeKapilarandothershave-
tobelookedforatarespectable distanceanteriorto
this.For,betweenthedateofSundaraandthefifth
century A.c,thePallavas ofKanchioccupied the-
premierpositioninSouthIndia,andthereisabsolutely
noreferencetothisinthebodyoftheliteratureta
whichtheworksunderconsideration belong.

423. TRADITIONTRACEABLETOFIRSTCENTURYA.D.395
TheCher.icapital,asgiveninalltheseworks, is
Vanji,onthewestcoast,atthemouthofthePeriyar
;
whiletheCholacapitalwasUraiyfir. Inthelater
period,fromthedaysofKulasokharalvar, theChera
capitalcertainlywasQuilon, Thischange issaidto
havetakenplace,according totradition, afterthe
daysofCheraman-Perumal, whowasacontemporary
ofSnndara. Besidesthis,thelanguageofthewhole
ofthesouthwasTamil ;Malayalam hadnotyet
becomedifferentiated from it.Theseconsiderations,
again,wouldleadustoreferKapilarandthegalaxy
toaperiodanteriortotheseventhcentury,according
toeventhemostunfavourable estimate. But,in
pointoffact,thetimereferredtoismuchearlier
thanthis.Thecontemporaneousness ofGajabahu
referstheperiodofKapilartothesecondcenturya.d.
;
andthis,sofar,hasnotbeenshowntobeincorrect.
TherewasatanyrateakingGajabahupreviousto
thedaysofMahanaman, theauthoroftheearlier
partoftheMahdvanisa.
Thus,then,thetraditionofaraceofrulerswhose
eponymousancestorwasbornfromthesacrificial fire
ofaEishiisfarolderthantheperiodforwhichDr.
Hoernlehasfoundauthority. Thisdoesnotnecessitate
theaffiliation oftheonedynastytotheother. It
onlyshowsthatthelegend isverymucholder,and
mighthavebeenlaidholdofbyrulingfamiliesat
greatdistances,andotherwise unconnected, forthe
embelhshment oftheirgenealogies, justasinthe
caseoftheheroicGreeksofyore.

424. CHAPTEEXVIII
THEAGEOFNAMMlLVAB
Undertheunpretentious headingSomePointsin
theArchcBologicalReportfor1902-3,Mr.Pichaimuttu,
B.A.,L.T.,discusses inthepagesoftheChristian
CollegeMagazine forFebruary, 1904,thedateof
Nammalvar, oneofthetwelveVaishnava saintsof
SouthernIndiaandarrivesattheconclusionthat
'
it
islikelyhelivedintheninthcentury A.n.'Mr.
GopiaathaEao,m.a.,arrivesatthesameconclusion
byanother lineofargument. Thisconclusion, if
-correct,wouldbeanothermile-stoneinTamilliterary
history,anditwillbeexcused ifIventureinthe
samefieldandofferafewofmyownobservationson
thesamesubject,havinghadoccasiontostudysome
partsatleastoftheliteraturebearingonthisquestion.
Before,however,proceeding tostatemyownviews
onthequestion, itwillbewelltopassinreviewthe
argumentsadducedinfavouroftheconclusionsalready
arrivedatbythosethathaveprecededmeinthis
•question.
Mr.Pichaimuttu arrivesathisconclusionfromthe
followingconsiderations ;
-
'TheworksofNammalvararecalledDravidaVeda.
Madurakavihadthempublishedandestablished their
sacredness beforeacouncilof300menunderthe
presidency oftheroyalpoet,KambaNattalvar,during
the^angadaysofthePandyakings.'
'
Itispopularly
supposedthatKambanadan visitedthePandyacapital
ofMadura. Itislikelythat,inoneofhisvisits,he

425. REVIEWOPARGUMENTS 39T
approvedoftheworksofKammalvar, adescendantof
thePandyakings.'Mr.Pichaimuttufurtherobserves
thattherewasaVaishnavarevivalbetweentheeighth
andtheeleventh centuries A.d.
'
Beforethatthe
prevailing religion ofSouthIndiawastheSaivitic
religion. Beforethedays ofManikkavasagar, the
PandyaandIlakingswereBuddhists.'
Mr.GopinathaRaowhose articleappeared ina
recentnumber ofSenTamil, theorgan ofthe
MaduraTamilSaiigam,argued that,asNathamuni
learnttheTiruvTnjmoUfromMadurakavi, thedisciple
ofNammalvar, thislastandNathamunimusthave
beencontemporaneous, andinferredtheninthcentury
A.D.fromtherecognizedcontemporaneity ofKamban
andNathamuni.
Pendingafullerexamination ofthehistoryofthe
Alvars,whichIhopetofindtimetomakeatan
earlydate,Imayhereexaminetheseconsiderations
adducedasmakingfortheninthcenturya.d.,asthe
epochofthisAlvar,oneoftheoldestand,infact,the
greatestamongtheAlvars,andsuggestwhatappears
tomethemoreprobableageofNammalvar.
TotakeupMr.GopinathaRao'scasefirst,itisno
doubttrueaccording totheGuriqmramparai (the
traditionalchronicleofsuccessivegurusoftheVaish-
navas)thatNathamuni thefirstoftheAcharyas
(preceptorsasopposedtotheAlvarsorsaints)wentto
AlvarTirunagaritogainaknowledgeoftheTiruvoymoli
(thesacredwordofNammalvar) notfromtheAlvar
orhisdisciplebuttolearn itfromanyonethat
knewit,havingfailedtoobtainknowledge ofitfrom
everyotherprobablesourceoftheknowledge. This
hadbeenpublishedandlearntuplargelyforatime
;
buthadfallenintodesuetude.Nathamuniattempted
arevival.Nodoubtthestoryhasitthathegotit
atlastfromNammalvarandMadurakavibothappearing
tohimforthisspecialpurpose.Longbeforethedays

426. 398 ANCIENTINDIA
ofNathamuni, thelatestoftheAlvars,Tiruman-
gaimaananhadbuiltashrineandarranged forthe
recitaloftheTiruvoymoUinSrirangam. Thisarrange-
menthavingbeenallowed tofallintodesuetude,
Nathamunihadtorevive itandforthisverypurpose
hehadtomakethepilgrimage toAlvarTirunagari.
Ishallshowotherreasonsforregardingtheviewas
beinguntenableandwilltakeuptheothercasefor
consideration.
Nammalvar's worksarenotmerelycalled,bythe
courtesy ofposterity, theDrdvida Veda,butare
professedly therendering oftheVedasinTamil.
TheTiruv'iymoli 1,000beingthesubstance ofthe
SamaVeda,theTiruviruttam 100,theTiruvasiriyam
7andPeriyatiruvandadi 100arerespectively the
rendering, inbrief,oftheEig,YajusandAtharva
Veda.
AccordingtotraditionnodoubtMadurakavipublished
theTiruvoymoU andmayhavegotitssacredness
acknowledged intheSaiigamAssembly—butcertainly
notunderthepresidency ofKamban, forKamban
neverdidpreside,norevercouldhave,overthe
Saiigam,aswillpresentlybeshown.
Kamban,theauthoroftheBdmdyanam, oftenrefers
inthecourseofhisworktoapatron,notaroyal
sovereign,butaplainMudaliarbynameSadayappah
ofVennainalliir. Itishighlyimprobablethat,ifever
hehadaroyalpatron,hewouldnothavementioned
hisname,whilehesystematically referstoSadayappah
atregularintervals. AgainsofarasIknowthestory,
heissaidtohavebetakenhimselftotheCheracourt
andnottothePandya,butthedetailsofthestory
stampitasuntrueinthemain.Evenaccording to
traditionthe^angam issaidtohavegoneoutof
existencewithKunPandyaorSundaraPandyaor
NedumaranthecontemporaryanddiscipleofTirugnana
Sambanda(seventhcenturya.D.).

427. VAISHNAVAREVIVAL 399
IfKambanwaseverinapositiontopresideover
theSangam,howwasitthathehadtowanderfrom
placetoplaceseekingapproval forhisBamdyunam?
Hehadtogettheapprovalofthe3,000Brahmansof
ChidambaramandoftheassemblyofdivinesatSri-
rangam. OverthisassemblypresidedNathamuni,and
itwastopleasehimandhisconfreresthathehad
tocomposeandrecitetheShacjagoparandadi 100in
praiseofNammalvar. Inthefaceofthiswork,itis
passingstrangethatthetwogentlemenshouldhave
sothoroughlymistaken therelationofKambanto
Nammalvar.
FurtherMr.Pichaimuttu statesthattherewasa
Vaishnavarevivalbetweentheeighthandtheeleventh
centuries A.D.Itmaybeso,butwhatisthereto
connecttheAlvarswiththisrevival?Itis,tosaythe
least,misleading tostatethattheprevailingreligion
beforethattimewasSaiva. Ifitdoesnothing else,
thisbegsthequestion.Wehaveabundantreferenceto
Vaishnavasandtheirtemplesmuchanteriortothis,
notonlyinliteraturebutalsoininscriptions. Notto
mentionothersKochengaii Cholabuilttemples to
VishnuandSivaalike
;andthiscouldnothavebeen
merelyfortheoretical impartiality withoutapractical
demand.ParamesvaraVarmanPallavaandhisgrand-
fatherbuilttemplestoVishnuatKanchiandMaha-
balipuram. ThatthePandyaandIlakingswere
BuddhistbeforethedaysofManikkavasagar proves
nothinginthisconnexion,asinfactKunPandyawas
aBuddhist.Thefact isthatfromveryearlytimes
thevotariesofthesedifferentreligionslivedtogether,
anditdidnotmakemuchdifferencegenerallywhat
theparticularpersuasion oftherulerforthetime
beingwas.
ToreturntoNammalvar. Ihavealreadypointed
outthatNammalvar's workshadlongbeenpublished
andhadacquiredwidecelebrity,butcouldnotbe

428. 400 ANCIENTINDIA
obtainedinthedaysofNathamuniexceptattheA.lvar's
birthplace. Inthosedaysthiscelebritycouldnothave
beenattainedinashortperiodoftime.Nathamuni
was,according totradition, thecontemporary of
KambanwhoseworkShadag'parandddi deifiesthe
Alvar. Thiscircumstanceagainsuggestsconsiderable
lapseoftime.Eamanuja,thefamousreformerofthe
Vaishnavas,cameinthefifthgenerationfromNatha-
muni,notinofficialsuccessiononlybutalsoinactual
descent ;andEamanuja's life,A.d.1017-1137, iscoeval
withtheCholaascendencyinSouthernIndia.There-
fore,wemustassignNathamuni atleasttoacentury
earlier,andthisbringsusquiteclosetothetraditional
Saka807(A.d.885)forKamban'sBdvidyanam. No
soundargumentagainst thisdateforKamban has,
sofarasIknow,beenbroughtforwardexceptthe
statement thattheCholaruler atthetimewasa
Eajendra (identifiedwithKulottunga I).*Thename
Eajendra issocommonamongtherulersoftheChola
dynastythatwecannotatallbepositiveastowhich
personage itactuallyreferstowithoutextraneoussup-
port.Evenforthismerestatementthereisnovery
goodauthority. IfthenNathamuni livedabout A.d.
900wemustgobackforTirumangaiAlvaracenturyor
two,soastoallowtimeforhisarrangements atSrl-
rangamfortheworshipofNammalvar tofallinto
desuetude.Wemustgobackagainfromthistimefor
Nammalvar, ifalreadyhehadbecomeasaintworthy
ofbeingworshippedinapublicplaceofworshipofthe
dignityof
'TheTemple
'oftheVaishnavas (Sriran-
^am).
EeservingafullerexaminationofTirumangaiAlvar's
historyforafutureoccasion, itisquiteinplacetore-
markherethathisandKulasekharalvar's workswere
considered ofsufficientsanctitytowarrantprovision
1Videantenoteonp.378.

429. CONCLUSION 401
beingmadelortheirrecitalbyPrinceCholaKerala,
vicero)'ofKonguabouta.d.1050.Thisapart,oneof
themostunfamiliar ofthebirudasortitlesofTiru-
mangaiAlvarhadalreadybecomeanameassumedby
Yaishnavas, aswehaveArattamukkidasan among
theinscriptions ofEajarajaIIabouta.d.1150.To
crown all,thereareinscriptions inthetempleat
UkkalnearMamandur datedabouta.d.1000,which
givesthenameoftheG-odasTiruv5ymoliDeva. Tiru-
voymoliistheworksuigenerisofNammalvar,andthat
agodshouldbenamedafteritspeaksforconsiderable
antiquity. Dr.Hultzsch isofopinionthat'Nammalvar
musthavelivedcenturiesbeforea.d.1000.'
Coupledwiththeseconsiderations, thereisthefact
thatNammalvar deliberatelyworkedatpopularizing
the
'hiddenlore'theVedas. Thiscouldhavebeen
onlywhentheDravidianHinduswerepreparingfor
thesupersessionofBuddhismbyBrahmanism,nomore
tobethereconditeloreofthelearnedBrahmansonly.
Thistheoryfindspowerfulsupportinthefactthatthe
worksofNammalvar,incomparisonwiththoseoflater
Alvars,arepeculiarlyfreefromanycausticreflections
ontheSaivas.Underthecircumstances, Iaminclined
tothinkthatweshallhavetolookfortheageof
NammalvarintheperiodofstrugglebetweenBuddhism
andBrahmanism formasteryinSouthIndia,andthat
periodisbetweenA.D.500and700.
•JG

430. CHAPTERXIX
TIBUMANGAIALVABANDHISDATE
Paradoxical asitmayseem,itisneverthelessthe
factthat,although agreat dealhasbeenwritten
concerning theVaishnava saintsanddevotees, their
historyhasyettobevyritteu.Therehas,unfortunately,
beentoogreatatendencyinthewriters,greatand
small, toreferthemtoperiods,moreasitsuited
theirpreconceived notionsastotherecentoriginof
Vaishnavaism ingeneral,thanonanydispassionate
examination ofsuchevidence,imperfectinitsnature
ofcourse,asisavailable. Itwouldnotbegoingover
quiteabeatentracktobringtogetherheresuch
historicalinformation ashasbeenbroughttolight,
settingasidetheextremeSaivaarguments ofTiru-
malaikkolundu Pillaiandhisschoolontheoneside,
andtheardentVaishnavaviewofA.GovindaCharlu
andhisschoolontheother.ThisisnotbecauseI
donotappreciate theirlearning,butbecausetheone
schoolwoulddeemnothingimpossibleofbelief,while
theotherwouldseenothingthatcouldnotbemade
tolenditselftogivingthemostancientofthese
saintsadatesomewhereabouttheendofthefirst
millennium afterChrist.GopinathaEaobelongstoa
differentschool,andinhisrecentambitiousattempt
<intheMadrasBeview for190-5)atahistory of
Vaishnavaism inSouthIndia,hehascometocertain
conclusions,whichwouldcertainlyhavecommanded

431. ALVAESANDACHARYAS 403
.assent,butforatootransparenttendencytoestablish
certainconclusions.
Withoutpretending tosaythelastwordonthe
subject,Ishallmerelyputforwardcertainfactsand
argumentsIhavebeenabletogatherinmystudies,
andthenotesthatIhavemadefromthewritingsof
someofmyfriends,whohavebeenpursuingsimilar
research,andleave ittomyreaders todrawtheir
ownconclusions, whilenotdeprivingmyselfofthe
pleasure ofmakingsuchinferences asappeartome
warranted. Imayattheoutsetacknowledgemy
obligations tomyfriend,PanditEaghavaiyangar,
AssistantEditoroftheSenTamil,whohaswith
remarkable courtesyplacedsomeofhisnotesatmy
disposal,andhasbeenofgreathelptomeinlooking
upreferencestoliterature.
TheVaishnavas, liketheirconfrh-esofothersects,
^;racetheirhierarchj'ofgurus(preceptors inreligion)
fromGodhimself. Puttingthetranslunary parton
oneside,andcomingdowntoterrafirma,theirlist
consistsofnamesdividedintotwobroadclasses,entitled,
inVaishnavaparlance,theAlvarsandAcharyas.There
aretwelveamongtheformer,andalargenumber
amongthelatter,which isbeingaddedtobyeach
separatesectorunitatthedeceaseoftheexisting
guruforthetimebeing.Withoutgoingintothe
detailsofthehagiologyofthesesaintsandpreceptors,
weareenabledtocollecttheAlvars,fromthetradi-
tionalaccountsalone,intothreegroups—theancient,
themiddle,andthelast.
ThelistofthetwelveAlvars,withtheirtraditional
datesofbirth,isasfollows :—
^PoygaiAlvar ... ...4203B.C.
Bhutattar ... ...4203 „
PeyAlvar ... ...4203 „
VTirumalisaiAlvar,.. ...4203 „

432. 404 ANCIENTINDIA
Last..
/Nammalvar ... ...3102b.c
Madhurakavi ... ...3102 „
ikfidi^e.-jKulasgkhara
... ...3075 „
jPeriyaivar ... ...3056„
'Andal ... ...3005 „
Tondaradippodi ... ...2814„
TiruppanAlvar ...2760 „
TirumangaiAlvar ...2706
„
Disregarding theseapparently definite dates, in
•which,however,mostTamilworks,particularlythose
ofareligiouscharacter,arepeculiarlyweak,itisstill
possibletoregardthistraditional orderasfairlyin
chronologicalsequence.EventheVaishnavahagiologists
havevery littletosayaboutthefirstgroup.Their
informationaboutthesecond ismeagre,whileofthe
thirdtheyhavesomethingtosaythatmaybehistorical.
Thenameattheheadofthepaperistheverylast,
andtherearecertainfactsconcerninghim,which
cannotlightlybepassedoverbyanyonewhotriesto
examinethechronologyoftheAlvars.
Tirumangai Alvar istheauthor ofthelargest
number (1,361stanzas,ofthe4,000verses ofthe
Vaishnava Prahhandam) ,Nammalvar coming next
withanumberalmostasgreat.Hebelongedtothe
KallarcasteandwasbornatKurayalurinAliNaduin
theShiyalitalukoftheTanjore district. Therehe
pursued,whenhegrewuptoman's estate,the
profession ofhisfather,whichwasofaduplex
character—thegovernment ofasmalldistrictunder
thereigningCholaandtheplayingtheknightofthe
highway,inbothofwhichcapacitiesheappearsto
haveachievedgreatdistinction. Thecriticalstageof
hislifewasreachedwhenhefellinlovewiththe
foundlingdaughterofaVaishnavaphysician,whowould
notmarryhimunlesshereformedandbecamea
Vaishnava,HewenttoTirunaraiyur, nearKumbha-

433. LIFESTORY 405
tonam,andtherereceivedthesacrament.Hewas
notyettogaintheobjectofhisdesire,astheyoung
ladyinsisteduponhisfeeding1,008Vaishnavas aday
forawholeyear.Thishecoulddoonlybyplundering
wayfarers,whichhedid,consolinghimselfwiththe
ideathathewasdoingitinthenameofGod.A
secondtransformationwasyetinstoreforhim.One
nighthewaylaidaBrahman bridalparty,andwas
probablystcickenwithremorsefortheveryenormity
ofthisdeed.HetherereceivedfromtheBrahman,
whowasnootherthanGodhimselfcomeinhuman
shapetofulfilhisendsonearth,thatmysterious
"mantra 'thenameXarayana.Onbeingthusblessed,
hebrokeoutintoverseandhisfirstdecadofverse
makesthisconfession. Thereafterbebeganvisiting
alltheshrinessacredtoVishnu,andatlastsettledin
Srirangam, tospendtherestofhisdaysintheservice
ofGod,andtorebuildsomepartsandremodelothers
ofthegreatshrine,thefundsforwhichhehadto
findbydemolishing thegreatBuddhist shrineat
Negapatam. Havingdonethistohissatisfactionand
providedfortherecitalofNammalvar's TiruvuymoU
annuallyatSrirangamhepassedaway.This,without
anyoftheembellishments ofthehagiologists, isthe
life-storyofthemanbutnotofthesaint,forwhich
thecuriousmayreadA.GovindaCharlu'sHolyLives
oftheAlvdrs.
Letusnowproceedtoexaminewhathistoricalreliance
canbeplaceduponthisstory.Thematerials for
thehistoryofthesesaintedpersonages areentirely
traditional,andwecanattachtothedetailsonlyas
muchvalueascansafelybeattachedtomeretraditions.
Thegeneraltenorofthelifemaybecorrect,whilewe
oughtnottoinsistondetailswithtoomuchcertainty.
Eveninthismodifiedsensethestorydoesnot
enlio'htenusastotheageoftheAlvarandhisactual
doings.Buttherearethemonuments ofthelabours

434. 406 ANCIENTINDIA
ofTirumangaimannan, namely, hisworks inthe
Prahhandaandthebuildingsheundertook inthe
templeatSrirangam. Itiscertainlyveryunfortunate
thattraditionhasnotpreservedthenameoftheChola
rulerwhosevassaltheAlvarwas.Thisomission is
significantofthefactthathewasnotcontemporaneous
withanygreatCholaruler,althougheventheselatter
arenevernamedspecificallyenoughundersimilar
circumstances. Thathewasthelatestofthesaintsis
amplyborneoutbythefactthathecelebratesmost,
ifnotall,ofthenowwell-knowntemplestoVishnuin
India,whileotherscelebrateonlyafew.Thedestruc-
tionoftherichBuddhistsanctuary atNegapatam
andthefrequentreferenceshemakestotheBuddhists
themselves inhisworksreferustotimesanteriorto
thecenturies ofCholaascendency,which isagain
indirectlyborneoutbytherobberchieftainhaving
beensuccessfulinhisdefianceofhisCholasuzerain.
ThatNegapatamwasthehead-quarters ofaBuddhist
sectisborneoutbythereferences totheplacein
suchTamil classics asthePermumhandrruppaiai.
Thisfactisattestedevento-daybyaplacenotfar
offbeingknownasBuddankottam, although itisnow
aBrahman village.Thesefacts,inconjunctionwith
referencestothePallavasinthePeriyatirumoli,would
refertheAlvartotheageofthePallavaascendency
previous totheriseofthatCholapowerwhich
wieldedimperialswayoverSouthIndiafromthe
tenthtothefourteenthcenturyafterChrist.
ThePallavaascendencywascoevalwiththatofthe
earlyWesternChalukyaperiodandvanishednotlong
aftertheriseoftheRashtrakutas, whooverthrew
theirenemies,theWesternChalukyas. Beforeadducing
positiveevidencethattendstowardsthisconclusion,
wehavetoexamine criticallytheopinionsofferedby
othersastotheageoftheAlvar. BishopCaldwell
andthosethatfollowedhimcouldbeexcused, if

435. REVIEWOPEVIDENCE 407
theyheldthattheseweredisciples ofEamanuja,
asnowadaj-s GopinathaEao iswilling tobelieve
thatTirumangai AlvarandotherlaterAlvarswere
contemporaries, ifnotactiiallj'disciples,ofAlavandar,
Kamanuja's great-grandfather. Insupport ofthis
viewhequotesastanzafromaworkcalledKoiloluhu,
which isahistoryoftheSrirangam temple.Inthe
stanzaastreet,calledafterTirumangai Alvar,comes
nesttoastreetcalledafteraEajamahendra. This
latterisidentifiedwiththesonandsuccessorofthe
EajendrawhofoughtthebattleofKoppamina.d.1053.
HenceheinfersthatTirumangai Alvarmusthave
livedinthelatterhalfoftheeleventhcentury.^
ThatEamanujahadreadandhadderivedmuch
wisdomfromtheworksofthislastoftheAlvars is
inevidence,soastosatisfythemostfastidiousstudent
ofhistory,inthecentumknownastheRdmdnuja-
nUrrandhddhi, aworkcomposed duringthelifetime
ofEamanujabyaconvertandpupilofhisowndisciple
Kurattalvar. ThisconnexionbetweenAmudan,the
authorofthecentum,andKurattalvar isborneout
bystanzasevenofthecentumandtheoldGuruparam-
paraiofPinbalagya Jiyar,stanzas8-21.Theformer
acknowledgesR<lmanuja'sindebtedness toallthetwelve
AlvarsandthetwoearlyAcharyas,Nathamuniand
hisgrandsonAlavandar. Thisinconvenient pieceof
evidencehasbeenaccordednoplaceinthearrayof
evidenceandaathoritiespassedinreviewbyGopi-
nathaEao.
Topassontothepositiveevidenceavailable,the
Vaishnavas alwaysregarded theAlvars higherin
spiritual estatethantheAcharyas, notmerely as
such,butalsoasbeingmoreancient,andtheymust
havehadsomereasonformakingthisdistinction. If
Tirumangai Alvarandothersofthatclasshadbeen
1MadrasReview,FebruaryandJlay,1905.
—
HistoryoftheSrivaish-
navamovement.

436. 408 ANCIENTINDIA
disciples ofAlavandar,whycallthislatteronlyan
AcharyaandhisdisciplesAlvars, theidolsofthe
Alvarsbeingplacedintemplesandworshipped,while
thoseofmostoftheAcharyasarenot.Leavingthis
asideastheoutcomeofamostunreasonable partiality
'
onthepartoftheVaishiiavas,wehaveotherevidence
tofallbackupon.Inscriptions ofEajarajaII,about
themiddleofthetwelfthcentury,containtheunusual
nameArattamukkidasan—thefirstpartofwhich is
aspecial titleofTirumangai Alvar. Next,prince
CholaKerala,aboutthemiddleoftheeleventhcentury,
madeprovisionfortherecitalofTii-unedunddndaham,^
oneoftheworksofTirumangai Alvar,whichwould
beextraordinary ifhehadbeenlivingatthetime
andworkingtoaccumulatemeritandearnhistitle
tosaintliness, especiallyashislifewas,duringthe
greaterpartofit,farfromsaintly.
ThatTirumangaiAlvarwasnotadiscipleofAla-
vandarisalsomadeprobablebyastanzainpraiseof
hisworkbyTirukkottiyurNambi,fromwhomEama-
nujahadtolearn,whichgoestoshowthatthis
Alvar'sworkshadbeenregularlystudiedandhanded
downfrompreceptor todisciple forsometimeat
least.Again,theconqueringCholabrothers,Rajadhi-
rajawhofellatthebattleofKoppam,andhisyounger
brotherRajendrawhosucceededhim,hadanelder
brotherbynameAlavandan. Ifthisnamewasgiven
tohimbecauseoftheAcharya,thelattermusthave
beenaateriortohimbyaconsiderable interval,aseven
nowthenameisspeciallyVaishnava.
ThiswouldmakeAlavandar's grandfather iSTatha-
munimuchpriortotheageascribed tohimby
GopinathaRao.Helaysmuchstressuponthefact
thatNathamuniwasaccustomed togoingtoGangai-
kondaCholapuram, foundedbyGangaikonda Chola,
1Epigraphist'sReportfor1900,p.10.

437. NATHA-MUNI,EiKLYTENTHCBNTDET 40^
inA.D.1024.Thisisadetailwhichcannotbelooked
uponasacrucialpieceofevidence,asitispossible
thatthehagiolo^^ists aloneareresponsible forit.
Whentheearliestamongthemwrotethelivesof
theirsaints,theyweresoaccustomed toGangaikonda
CholapuramastheChoiacapital,thatwhentheyheard
thatXathamunivisitedtheCholaruler,theynaturally
putdownGangaikonda Cholapuram astheChola
capital. Itcertainlywouldnotbeunreasonable to
ascribeNathamuni toaperiodintheearlierhalfof
thetenthcenturya.d.Thisisexactlytheconclusion
warrantedbytheproperunderstanding ofthetradi-
tionalaccount,whichisthatNathamuniwasborn
inA.D.382andthatliewasinwjiatiscalledYoga
Samddhlfor340years.ThiswouldgivethedateA.d.
9-2'2forthedeathofXathamuni,whichisnotatall
improbable,takingallcircumstances intoconsideration.
Butwhydidthehagioloi;iststhenascribethislong
lifeorlongdeathinlifetoNathamuni? Theexpla-
nation isnotfartoseek.Theybelieved,andthe
Vaishnavas dobelieveevennow,thattherewasan
unbrokensuccession ofthesesaints,andunfortunately
theyfoundagapbetweenNathamuniandthelast
Alvar.Thistheybridgedoverinthisclumsyfashion.'-
Iftheaboveviewoftheconnexionbetweenthe
AlvarsandtheAcharyas iscorrect,thenweshallhave
tolookforTirumangaiAlvartwoorthreecenturies
earlierthanNathamuni, andthistakesustothe
seventhortheeighthcentury oftheChristian era.
Thisiscertainlywarrantedbythefrequentreferences
tothePallavas
*andbynoneatalltothemodern
Cholas,eventotheCholaRajamahendra,whodidso
1IfKalhana,theprofessedhistorian ofKasmir,didthesamewith
respecttotheearlyru)jrsofKasmirinthefirstcenturies A.D.,isit
wonderfulthabthesehi;,'iologists fellintosuchatrap?
2Seep.4SG,vol.in,SenTamil,PanditM.Raghavaiyangar's
article.

438. 410 ANCIENTINDIA
.muchfortheSrirangamtemple.Evenaccording to
GopinathaEao,theonlyCholathatisreferredto
elaboratelybytheAlvaristheancientCholaKoch-
chenganinthedecadregardingTirunaraiyiir. This,in
combinationwithreferencestotheSarigaminthebody
ofthework,bringshimlaterthantheageofeither.
Butanotherdecadinpraise oftheParamesvara
VinnagaratKanchIgivesingreatdetailtheachieve-
mentsofaPallavaruler,whomDr.Hultzschconsiders
tobeidenticalwithParamesvaravarman IIfromthe
nameoftheshrine. Thisisnotanecessary infer-
ence,asanyotherPallavaparamountsovereignmight
havehadthe titlePallavaParamesvara, andthe
foundation,whencontracted,mighthavebecomePara-
mesvaraVinnagaram, e.g.VidyaVinitaPallavaPara-
mesvaram.Andnotwithstanding thedetailsgivenin
thedecad,itdoesnotfindsupportfromwhatisknown
ofParamesvaravarman II. ThisPallavasovereign,
whateverhisname,wonvictoriesoverhisenemiesat
Mannai,Nenmeli,andKarur. AtKarurhefought
againstthe.PandyaandatNenmeliagainsttheVillavan
(Chera),buttheenemyatMannai isnotspecified.
Ifthesenamescouldbeidentifiedwithplaceswhere
UdayaChandrawonvictoriesforhismasterNandi-
varmanPallavamallaorNandipottaraja, thentheAlvar
musthavelivedafterNandivarman, or,attheearliest,
duringhisreign.
Amongthesevictorieswefindmentionofadefeat
ofthePandyasatMannaikkudi andthetakingof
Kalidurga.' Mannaikkudi inaybetheAlvar'sMannai,
andKalidurgatheAlvar's'Kunrail'. Karurassuch
doesnotfindmentionintheinscriptions. Itmaybe
thatthisnamereferstoanincidentinwhichUdaya
Chandraplayednopart.ThencomesNelveli,where
1VideS.Ind.Ins.,vol.ii,pt.iii,No.74.Fleet,BombayOazetteer,
vol.i,pt.ii,pp.326-7.

439. VAIEAMEGHA,OVERLOED 411
UdayaChandrawonavictory
;buttheAlvarspeaksof
Nenmeli,andthewarwasbetweenthePallavaand
theChera(Villavan). Itisprobablethattheseseparate
incidentsrefertodifferentPallavaprinceswhowor-
shippedVishnuattheParamesvaraVinnagaramshrine.
Whatever betherealnature ofthesereferences,
whethertheyrefertoonePallavaNandivarman orto
several,suchasSimhaVishnu,Paramesvaravarman and
Nandivarman (infact,alltheVaishnava Pallavas), itis
clearthatwehavetolookforthedateoftheAlvar
whilethePallavaswerestillinpowerandtheCholas
hadnotcomeintoprominence.
Thereisonereference,however,whichshouldgive
usanarrowenough limitforhistime. Inthe
laststanzaofthedecad,immediatelyprecedingthat
justconsideredincelebratingtheshrineofAshtabhuj-
karaminKancbl,hemakeswhat,inhiscase,appears
asasomewhat peculiarreference toacertainVaira-
meghan,
'boweddowntobytherulerofthepeople
oftheTondacountrywhosearmy (orstrength)
surroundedKanchi 'Inallreferencesmadetorulers,
hehasspecifiedpeoplewhohadmadespecialdonations
toVishnu,whetherwithrespect toChidambaram,
TriplicaneorTirunaraiyur. Inthiscasealoneisthe
referencemadeinasecularfashion. Besides this,
thelanguageindicating theconnexionwarrantsthe
inference thatthereference ismadetoaliving
person.Inthecommentary ofPeriyaAchanPillai,
Vairameghan isexplainedbythetermchakravarti
(emperor). Thusitisclearthat,atthetimereferred
to,therewasaPallavarulerwhowasunderthe
protection ofanimperialpersonage,whosename(or
rather title)wasVairameghan. Thisagainwarrants
theinferenceofthedeclineofthePallavapower.
Amongtheinscriptions sofarbrought out,we
havenotoftencomeacrossthename,buttotheEash-
trakutaDantidurgaIIofthegenealogical tableofthe

440. 412 ANCIENTINDIA
family,inFleet'sKannadaDynasties, isascribedthis
titlemtheKadabaPlatespublishedbyMr.Eice.^
Thiswasthepersonagewhooverthrewthenatural
enemiesofthePallavas,namely,theWesternChalukyas
ofBadami,andintheirsteadestablishedtheEash-
trakutapower. According totheEUorainscription
referred tobyDr.Fleet,^Dantidurgacompletedthe
acquisition ofsovereigntybysubjugating theruler
ofSandhubhiipa, thelordofKanchi,therulersof
KalingaandKosala,thelordoftheSrisailacountry
(Karnulcountry),theSeshas. ThisDantidurgawas
deposedbyhisuncleKrishna I,about A.d.755.
ThekingofKanchi(duringtheperiodincluding
A.D.754,theonlyknowndateforDantidurga Vaira-
megha)wasNandivarmanwhoruledforfiftyyears
fromaboutA.d.710.^Heisregarded asausurper
andissofarthelastgreatPallavarulerknownin
SouthIndianhistory. Itishighlyprobablethatwhen
atlasttheChalukyapowerwasoverthrown,thePallavas
advancedinthedirectionofKarnul.TheEashtrakiita
records,therefore,togetherwiththestatement ofthe
Alvar,wouldleadustobelievethatDantidurgabeat
backtheenemyandwasinoccupation ofKanchi.
NandivarmanwasaVaishnava,andTirumangaiAlvar's
praiseofhimisadmissibleasthatofabrotherdevotee,
butanyreferencebyhimtoanenemywouldbefar
fromcomplimentary. Hence, itcanonlyhavebeen
madeinthemannerinwhichitis,andundercircum-
stanceswhenhecouldnotgetoutofanunpleasant
reminiscencesuchastheabove.Theinference,there-
fore,seemstobewarranted thattheAlvarflourished
inthisperiodexactly,anditwouldcertainlybein
keepingwiththemostcherishedtraditionoftheVaish-
1EpigrapJiiaGarnataka,Gb.61,vol.xi,Tumkur.
2BombayQazetteer,vol.i,pt.ii,p.389,andNo.4,vol.ix,Epigraphia
Indica.
3SenTamilsvol.i,p.80.

441. TIRUMANGAIALVAEANDSAMBANDAB 413'
navasthatthearrangementmadebytheAlvarforthe
recitaloftheTiruvoymoli ofNammalvarhadfallen
intodesuetude inthedaysofNathamuniandthat
hehadtoreviveitatSrirangamaftermuchado.The
dateofTirumangaiAlvarthenhastobeallottedtothe
earlierhalfoftheeighthcenturyoftheChristianera.
WehavenowtodisposeofanotherVaishnava tra-
dition,whichhasoftenledastraymanyaSaivascholar
ofrepute,andhasmadehimlosehisbalanceofmind.
ItisthestorythatTirumangaiAlvarheldasuccessful
disputiitionwiththeSaivasageTirugiianaSambanda.
Itdoesnotconcernusheretoexaminewhetherthe
disputationwassuccessful totheVaishnava orthe
Saiva.Ouronlybusiness istoexaminewhetherthe
twocouldhavebeencontemporaries. Alaterevered
Saivascholar,inalettertoafriendofmine,whoin-
quirediftherewasanythingtowarrantthis,promptly
wrotebacktosaythatitwas
'asfalseasanyVaish-
navatradition '.IfSambandapaidavisittotheman
whodestroyedBadamiina.d.642,itmayhavetaken
placeabouttheendoftheseventhcentury,andso,
ifTirumangaiAlvarwasattheheightofhisrehgious
devotionaboutthemiddleoftheeighthcentury, itis
possibletheywerecontemporary. Besides,theywere
bothnatives ofthesameplacenearly.TheSaiva
wasbornatShiyali,andtheVaishnava atavil-
lagenotfar off.Thedispute issaid tohave
takenacuriousform. Itwasnotareligiousques-
tion,butwasonlyoneoftitletoabilityincom-
posingpoetry.TheAlvar'sdiscipleswentaboutshout-
ing
'
herecomesNdluhavipperumal (hethatexcels
incomposingthefourkindsofpoetry).'TheAdiyar's
disciplesobjectedandusheredtheAlvarintotheir
preceptor'spresence.TheAlvarwasaskedtocompose
akural,andburstoutwithadecadinpraiseof^ri
EamaofShiyali,beginningwithOruhural(unparal-
leleddwarf),asenseentirelydifferentfromthatwhich

442. 414 ANCIENTINDIA
theAdiyarwouldhavegiventotheword.Thestory
furthergoesontostatethatBambandawassatisfied
andnotonlyacquiescedinthetitlesoftheAlvar,but
evenmadehimapresentofthetridentheusedto
carry. Itisofnousetoenterintothedetailsofthe
story,ap,sofar,ithasmerelyledtoannoyance,but
oneparticular,however,cannotbepassedoverhere
;
andthatis,thattheAlvar,whogenerallygiveshim-
selfoneofthetitlesintheconcludingstanzaofeach
decad,breaksoutattheendofthisoneintoarather
provokingandassertiveenumeration ofallofthem.
Itwouldappear,therefore,afterallhasbeensaid,
thattraditioncombinedwiththeresultsofhistorical
research,sofarasitbearsuponthesubject,would
allotTirumangaiAlvartotheearlierhalfoftheeighth
century afterChrist ;andthuspossiblyhewasa
youngercontemporary ofTirugSanaSambanda,and
iperhapsanelderofSundaramurtiNayanar.

443. NOTES
Page18.—Kosimbi :'Sir.VincentA.Smithwritesinregard
totheconnexionbetweentheGuptasandKosambi.
'Idonot]<nowofanyreasonforconnecting the
GuptaswithKosambi. Chandragupta I,whoestablished
theGuptaEra,reignedfroma.d.319-20toabout336
(not326asintheEarlyHistoryofIndia),andhis
dominions donotextendbeyondAllahabad. Itwas
hisgrandsonChandraguptaII(388or390)whoannexed
Surashtra.'
Pages49and131.—ChakraljottamandEulerofDhara.Cha-
kragottam orChakrakottamwashithertoregardedas
afortressofstrengthintheterritoryofDhara:but
BaiBahadurHiraLaiholdsthattheformerisinthe
BastarStateanditsconnexionwithDharavarasa is
accounted forasreferringtoDharavarsha oftheNaga-
vamsifamily(videEpigraphiaIndica,Vol.IX,pp.178-9
andVol.X,iii,pp.25-7).
Page245.—Vishnuvardhana's deathisputdowntotheyear
A.D.1141ontheauthority ofMr.Bice,butthereare
inscriptionswhichimplythathelivedabouttentofifteen
yearslater.Pendingafullerexamination oftheques-
tionthisdate isgivententatively (videQuarterly
JournaloftheMythicSociety,Vol.II,ii,p.64).
Pages153,378and400.—Kambanhadbeenregardedasa
poetofthetenthcentury a.d.onthestrength of
certain storiesconnected withhis life. Itismora
likelythathebelongedtothethirteenthcenturyfor
thefollowingreasonsamongothers
:
—(1)Herefers
toaCholaKingTyagamavinodhan (whoseemstobe
VikramaChola). (2)Hiscontemporaneityandhostility
toOttakkiittanseemsprovable. (3)Thereisonestory
whichconnectshimwithPratapaEudraofWarangal.

444. EEEATA
Pflge,line
81.—For
'Buudlekhand
'
read
'Bundalkhand
'.
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'
Itwasprobablyextended
'andreadwiththeprevious
1929.—/?or
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'
read
'hisson
'. [sentence.
2319.—^or
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'HiuenThsang(YuwanOhwang)'.
29 4.
—
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'MalvaDekhan
'read
'Malva-Dekhan '.
3223.
—
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'
idealizedpicture
'read
'anidealizedpicture
'-
3418.
—
For
'Sambahava
'read
'Sambhava
'.
43 l.^For','andprobablyunderhisfather
'
read
'andunderhisson
'
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'a .
4G21.
—
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'
fathersA.D.1044,'read
'fathers,a.d.1044
'
33.~For
'
A.D.1052
'
read
'a.l>.1053
'
5419.
—
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'the'beforeSophytes.
5617and24.
—
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'Yueh-chi'.
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'PolitioAl
'read
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'.
CO 4.
—
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'that 'read
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'
C'.l 3.
—
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'read
'war-craze
'
95head-line.—For'.Ilanirayan
'
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'Ilaudirayan
'.
109IC.—For
'
A.D.1052
'read
'
a.d.1053
'
114 26.
—
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'RajendraVirarajendra
'read 'EajendraandVirara-
122 7.
—
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'Ka^avadanda
'mad
'Kesavadanda
'.
[jendra
'
12827.—i''o»"'.Virarajendradeava
'read
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'-
13026.
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'
read
'^e^s^u\
15216.
—
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'thisfather 'read
'hisfather
'.
177 8.
—
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'
reatZ
'personalties'.
17911.
—
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'Konorinmaikondau
'
read.'Konerinmaikondan
'
18216.^i''or
'kalanju
'
read
'kalanju'.
21136.
—
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'those
'and
'in
'.
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'
read
'
Jg-sre^wriw
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22616—^o»-'A.D.1052'read'A.D.1053'.
2:i426.
—
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'Pramaras
'
read
'Paramaras
'-
36.
—
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'regrant
'read
'
re-grant
'-
2^9 4.
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'
.read
'
Vigrahin
'.
20.—jS'or'JBelugoal 'read
•Belugola
'.
26.—ForMarbalaIrtha
'
read
'MarbalaTlrtha
'.

445. EKEATA 4
Pfli;ciline
247 3.
—
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'Banevase
'
read
'Baiiavase'.
248 6.
—
For
'whowastobecome
'
read
'whoweretobecome
'.
36.
—
For
'Kakaiyas
'
read
'Kakatiyas
'.
25325.
—
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'YwanChwang
'read
'YuwanChwang
'.
26630.
—
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'enemy's
'read
'enemy '.
270 17.
—
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'hislateHighness
'read
'HislateHighness
'-
374 5.
—
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'RematiRevati 'read
'Remati,Revati'.
285'2i.~0mit
•Raja
'
i287 25.
—
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'Betad,Wodeyai-'s
'
read
'BetadWodeyar's
'
30228.
—
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'methodofthecollectioa
'read
'methodofcollection
'.
306Si.—For
'victorytoSlysore
'
read
'\ictoryforMysore
'
308 5.
—
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'herefore
'read
'therefore
'
314 15.
—
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'bandalism
'read
'vandalism
'.
31529.
—
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'poetry
'read
'poetics
'.
333l.—For
'Sakaa.D.1021or1093
'
read
'Saka1021orA.d.1099
'
334 23.
—
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'Muduraikkanji 'read
'JIaduraikkanji '.
354Note2,line'i.—For
'astheowner
'read
'wastheowner
'.
358Notes.—
BeforeTuvaraiinsert
'
(2)
'
364 25.
—
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'Dhamilas
'read
'Damilas
'
365 1.
—
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'miselection
'
read
'mislection
'.

447. INDEX
(Kefebbncbstopages)
Aay,61;contemporary ofPtole-
my,14;oneofthesevenpa-
trons,370,393.
AbdullahKhan,294,
Agnikula(thePire-Raoe), riseof
the,390.
AchannaNdyaka,Earanam,268.
Achdryas,theVaiahnava,195(see
alsoAlvars),
AchugiIIofGulburga,51;Vice-
royofVikramaditya, 136;op-
posesGangaRaja,142,240,242,
244.
AchyutaBaya,228.
Adavallin,ameasure,182.
Adhirdjardja, installed,233.
Adhirdjardja,Maudalam,174.
Adhirdjardjendra Olwla,accession
of,128.
Adhirdjardjendra Parahesarivar-
man,enthronement of,184.
Adhyayanotsavam, 209.
Adi,kapilarnotasonof,391.
Adigaimdns,familyof,155.
Adinagar,battleof,107.
Adittadevandr ,Puran,aliasEaja-
rajendrailuvendavelan, 165.
AdityaGholal,Bdjakesarivarman,
99
;overthrowsaPallavaChief-
tainandtheKongucountry,35.
AdityaCholaU,Karikdla,103,166,
332,361.
27
Adiyama,236,238.
Adiyavtdn,CholaViceroyatTala-
kad,360
;oustedbyGangaEaja,
146.
AdiyamdnNedumdnAnjiofTaga-
diir,apatron,62,388,358,370,
393.
Adiydrkkunalldr, 150.
Adiydrs orSaivadevotees,194
;
dateofthe,377.
Agnimitra, releasedemanded of
Maurya Sachiva, 12(note)
;
ViceroyatMalva,13.
Agustia, advent of,intothe
south,5.
AhandnUru collection, 338,392
;
ascribedtoUgraPandyan,3U0.
AhavamallaSomesvara,seeSomes-
varaI.
Aingufunuru, 342,392,394.
Aioi,situationof,72.
Ajdtasatru, 6,8.
Ajivakas,259.
Akalanka,259.
AkbartheGreat,273.
Akkddevi,Governess ofKisukad,
140(note).
Alamelumanga, 284.
AlduddinKhilji,invasionof,37.
Alavanddn,brotherofKajadhiraja,
109,408.
Alavanddr, great-grandfather of
Bamanuja, 195,257
;histime,
151 ;visitsBamanuja, 196
;

448. 420 ANCIENT INDIA
deathof,197 ;thethree-folded
fingers,198
;succeededbyRama-
nuja,201 ;fulfilment ofthe
objects of,204,206-7
;called
alsoYamunaitturaivar, 220
;not
contemporary withTirumangai
Manuan,407.
AlexanderofEpirus,12.
AlexandertheGreat,9;invasion
of,54.
Alupa,rulerof,submitstoVikra-
maditya,134.
Aiwors(orVaishnavaSaints), the
twelve,194
;installationoftheir
imagesintemples,210 ;refer-
encestoGodintheaspectof
achild,216
;theirtimeandrela-
tiontoRamanuja,220,377 ;Dr
Rost'sdates,376 ;distinctions
between,andAcharyas,397,403,
407.
AlvarTirunagari, birth-place of
Nammalvar,397.
Ambhikapathi, inpraiseofMani-
mekhalai,383.
AmeenKhan,306.
Ammangadevi,daughterofGangai-
kondaChola,112,115,232.
Amoghavarsha, 101.
Amudan ofArangam, Smartha
converttoVaishnavaism, 210,
407 ;author ofBamdnuja-
nUrrandddi,212,220.
Amur,32 ;siegebyNalamKilli,
354.
Anamkonda,248.
Anandhdpuri, 299.
Anaiitarya,320.
AnantavarmanChodaOanga,131,
144.
AnaniojiofTanjore,296.
Andal,worshipof,210-11.
AnddrNambi,394.
Aiidhrabhrityas, 42-3,368(seealso
Sdtdvdhanas)
.
Andhrapurmx, 820.
Andhras,accessionofthe,topower,
13;decadence ofthe,15-16
;
counteract theadvanceofthe
Sakas,16,57;composition of
theBrihatkathaunderthe,17
;
overthrown bytheSakas,18
;
theirperiod,31 ;socialfeatures
oftheruleofthe,34
;ofthe
Dekhan,223.
Anga,8.
Angadi,thecradleoftheMysore
dynasty,228./
Angara,subjugation of,243.
Anji,32;celebratedinthePurand-
nuru,339.
Aniialan,122.
AntigonusofAsia,55.
AntigonusGonatasofMacedonia,
12.
AnUochusofSyria,12 ;theGreat,
14.
Aornos,fortof,9.
Apardjita,Ganga-Pallava, 99-100.
AppaiyaDikshita,commentator
onVedantaDesika,323.
Appar,190,375-6.
Apprameya, aChola Viceroy,
229.
AraiyanMadurantakan, 148.
Arakalgadu,gainof,299.
Aranyakas, 3.
ArattamukkiDdsan,nameofTiru-
mangaialvar,401,408.
Archcaology,Indian,314.
Arcot,Nawabship of,37
.
ArcticCircle,theoriginalhome
oftheAryans,4.
Argalic,60.
Arhats,11.
Arikere,287.
AriJtulakesarin, 102.
Arinjaya,orArjunaChola,Raja-
kesarivarman, 102.
AriiilKildr,anadvocateofKan-
ijahi,341.
Arjuna,ministerofHarsha,26.

449. INDEX 421
Arjuna, (oftheMahabharata)
attemptsatself-mamolation, 385.
Arsakes,14,17.
Arulalapperunial Emberumdndr,
VaishuavanameofYagnamurti,
204.
ArumoliDeva,surnameofRaja-
raja,105.
ArumoUDevanMeasure,182.
ArumoliDcvanMunayan,149.
Aryans,Pre-Indianageofthe,1
;
crossthefrontier, 2;policy,
religion,learningandtraditions,
3
;homeinthearctic circle,
4
;immigrationintothesouth,
5,30.
Asandinad,Governorof,387.
Ashtabhujakaram, 411.
AsiaticQuarterlyReview,830.
Asmalea(AssakaorAsvaka),7.
Asoka,ViceroyatVidlsa,10;reign
of,11
;Buddhismunder,12
;
successors of,12 ;construction
oftheSudarsanatank,18;free
hospitalsdueto,22
;edictsof
30,58;records,31;boundaryof,
'sterritory,41;versusthesucces-
sorsofSeleucus,55 ;andMahi-
shamandala, 77 ;firstmention
ofcholasintheedictsof,90.
Aivattaman, ancestorofSkanda-
sishya,362.
AtiViraRamaPdndyan,254,373
;
authorofNaidadam ,375;revi-
voroftheclassicalperiodof
Tamil,376.
Attabhuyagaram, 822.
AugustanageofTamil,336,379,382.
Aurangzeb,298.
AvanU(Malva),7,42,67.
Avvaiyar,thepoetess, sisterof
Tiruvalluvar, 338 ;luckyeater
oftheblackgooseberry, 339;
enjoyedthepatronageofAdiya-
manAnji,340 ;laterthan
Paranar,356 ;starofthefirst
magnitudeintheliteraryfirma-
ment,358,391.
Ayirattunurruvan, 160.
Bactria,kingdomof,14
;indepen-
denceof,56.
Badduii,Chalukyacapital,27,43
;
destroyedbythePallavas,34
;
newcapitaloftheRashtrakotas,
79.
BajiRao,expeditionof,307.
Bakari,72.
Bakare,60.
Bdldditya,Emperor,21.
Balagdnive,head-quartersofGan-
gavadi,118 ;aOhalukyaRaja-
dhani,140.
Baldjee,name oftheTirupati
God,216.
Bdlakumara,fatherofKanakaand
Vijaya,855,367.
Ballare,252.
Ballavarasa, 388.
Balligdve(Balagamve),erectionof
aJinalayaat,142.
Bamma,General,156,248,250-1.
Bammarasa, Governor ofBana-
vasenad,267-8.
BammayyaNdyaka,slaveofSan-
kamale,387.
Bana,authorofHarshaCharita,
23.
Banas,mastersofNolambavadi,
78;overthrownbyParantaka,
100.
Banavdse Viceroyalty, 47,78-9,
140-1,240
;absorbedbyBelala,
250.
Banavdsendd ,137.
Bandanike,252.
Bangalore,captureof,298.
BanTcdpur, capital ofVishnuvar-
dhana,245,249.
Basava,ministerofBijjala,270.

450. 422 ANCIENTINDIA
Basavaraja,Dalavoy,305.
Bayalimddu,249.
Bednur,Viceroyalty of,83;Na-
yaka,297.
BellofJustice,346.
Bellala,ViceroyofGaugavldi,141.
BellalaIVira,230,234, 237,
388-9.
Bellala II,Vira, successor of
Narasimha Hoysala, 249-50
;
conquestsof,251 ;titlesof,252
;
consolidation ofMysoreby,263
;
rivalsof,264
;deathof,156.
Bellalassometimeswronglyap-
pliedtoHoysalas,81.
Beluvola,109,232.
Bengal,invasion of,by"Vikrama-
ditya,138.
Beta,founderoftheKakatlyas,
248.
BetadOhamaraja, sonofBole
Chamaraja, 279,282,286,289;
hisrule,277 ;siegeofKesare-
gonte,283.
BetadGhdmarajaWodeydr, Iliri,
276.
BetadWodeydr,successor ofBole
Chamaraja,279-80
;successorof
Mallarajayya, 286-7.
Bezwada,Battleof,50.
Bhagavan,Brahman,391.
BhagavatGitaandtherevivalof
Brahmanism, 58
;commented
uponbyRamanuja,204.
Bhairava, allyofKanakaand
Vijaya,367.
Bhalcti,thedoctrine
of,inMahaya-
nismandHinduism,58
;taught
bytheAlvarsandAdiyars,194.
Bhandarlcar, Dr.,onPanini,5
;
onSatakarni,368.
Bhoja,49,138.
Bharata (oftheRamayana) in
illustrationofSati,385.
BharatamofVilliputtflrar's, Prof.
Vinson'sdateforthe,373.
Bhdshyam,, Sankara,written at
Benares,26(note).
Bhattaraka,founderoftheVal-
labhidynasty,21.
BhavaNandin,theGrammarian,
156.
Bherundesvan Pillar,388.
Bhujabala,252.
BhutaPandyan'swife,awriterin
thePurananurii, 359 ;andan
instanceofSati,385.
Bijapar,kingdomof,37.
Bijjala,usurperoftheChalukya
empire, 52,247,249-51 ;rise
of,264
;persecution oftheLin-
gayets,266,269 ;character,267
;
atBelagamve,268
;administra-
tionandendof,270.
Bilhana,authorofVikramS/nka-
devaCharitam, 122,133 ;Vidya-
patiofVikrama,142.
Billama,251.
Bimbisara, 6,8.
Bindusara,10,55.
BirudantembaraQanda,277,282.
BittaDevaHoysala,conquest of
Gangavadi,146.
Bil^tiDeva,seeVishnuvardhana.
Bodhdyana,204.
Bolea,anofficerofViraSomesvara,
387.
Bokkimayya, 249.
BoleChdmaRaja,sonofBetad
Chamaraja,277
;succeedsTim-
maRaja,278
;sonsof,279.
Bomballi,captureof,294.
Boppa,Gangaraja'sson,241.
Boppanna,brotherofMaSanayya,
387.
Bopparasa,Mahasamanta, 388.
Brihasta,392.
Brahmddhirdja, 159.
Brahmanas,commentariesonthe
Veda,3
;theirdate,4.
Brahmanism,givenupbyAsoka,
11,revival of,underPushya-

451. INDEX 423
mitra,13;revival of,under
Samudragupta, 20;underthe
Pallavas,23.
Brahmans, position ofthe,in
AncientIndia,71.
Brahmasutrascommenteduponby
Kamanuja,198,204-5.
Brihadratha, lastoftheMauryans,
12.
Brihatkathd ofGucadya, 2,8
(note), 17,38,327.Paisachi,
34,74.
BrihaUtathimanjari, 327-8.
BritishIndia,31;foundationof,38.
BuddhanKotiam,406.
Buddha,the,andBuddhism, 6
;
birth,7.
Buddhamitra, author ofVira
Soliyam, 127,259,373 ;and
Manimekhalai, 383.
Buddhism,foundedbytheBuddha,
6;underAsoka,10-11 ;accepted
byKanishka, 15
;underthe
Guptas,20
;acceptedbyHarsha,
26;underthePallavas,35;
supremacy of, (Mahayanist
school), 58;underVikrama-
ditya,142
;inSouthIndia,369
;
overthrowof,862,384.
Buddhists, deities ofthe,82;
patronizedbytheAndhras,34.
Burtnah,conquestin,byEajendra
I,130.
Bumell,Dr.,ontheearliestdate
oftheTamillanguage,374.
Batuga Perumdnadi, aGanga
feudatory,36,44.
c
Caldwell,Bishop,onTamilLitera-
turebeforethetwelfthcentury,
151
;onEamanuja'srelationto
theAlvars,220,254,377;on
Eamanuja's following,406
;his
date.
Garacalla,tradeunder,73;date
ofdeathof,75.
CeylonChronicle,75,380.
Ceyloneseandthewarforthe
Pandyanthrone,36.
ChaTcragotiam, 49,(seealsoSah-
karagottam).
ChakrapaniNambi,162.
ChakravartiTondaman,215,333.
ChakravariiVaishnava,261.
ChdlukyanEmpire, divisions of
the,139
;extentofthe,146
;
additionstothe,51
;disorganiza-
tionanddecline ofthe,52,
81,152;Heujeru,agateof,
117.
ChdlukyaperiodofSouthIndian
History,31.
Chdlukyas, the,riseof,33;occu-
pationoftheDekhan, 17,23
;
occupation ofVengi,22 ;and
thePallavas,23,34,43
;atwar
withtheCholas,36,46,80,111
;
absorption ofBanavase,78;at
warwiththeRashtrakutas, 44,
79,103
;ownpartoftheDek-
han,97 ;defeatedbyVrrara-
jendra,123
;overthrowofthe
dynastyof,27
;ofVatapi,224
;
ofKalyani,225.
Chdmaraja,sonofBoleChamaraja;
279,286 ;thenomineeofDala-
voyDevaraja,307.
ChdmarajaWodeydr,276 ;sonof
NarasaBaja,286 ;succeedsBaja
Wodeyar, 287 ;rule of,288
;
religionof,304.
ChdmarajaDodda,279.
ChdmarajaHiri,276.
Chamberlain,40.
Champa,8.
Chdnakya,thediplomatist, 9.
Clmnd,390.
ChandaMahasena,8(note).
ChandaPajjotaofUjjain,8.
ChandaiyaTuluva,387.

452. 424 ANCIENTINDIA
ChandraguptaMauryaandthe
Nandas,9;treatywithSeleuoua
Nicator,10;marriageandthe
foundingoftheGuptaera,19
;
problemofempire,40;empire
under,55;atSravanaBelagola,
77.
Chandragupta Vihramiditya, 20-1.
Changajvas, the,235,249,251.
ChannaBasava,birthof,270.
Channapatna, Viceroyalty of,83
;
captureof,288.
GhanniahofNagamangala, 293-4.
Chashtana, thedynasty of,868
(note).
ChattimayyaNdyaka,268.
Chedi,7.
Chengilvas,240.
Chengiri,286,238.
Chera,31,33,42
;extentofthe
territory,61 ;ascendancyunder
Senguttuvan, 63,371
;ascend-
ancyquestioned,18.
CheraminPerumil,376,395.
Chersonese,65.
CheviLr,battleof,103.
Chidambaram ,Govindarajatemple
at,153,210,220.
Chikkadevaraja Wodeyar,84,295-
6
;reign of,299 ;reforms of,
300 ;domesticarrangements of.
303 ;religionanddeathof,304
Chintamani,oneofthefiveilaha-
kavyas, dateofthe,373,375
modelforKamban's Bdmd-
yanain,379
.
Chitra,allyofKanakaandVijaya,
367.
Chokka,aPandyanking,299,
ChokkalingaNdyaka ofMadura,
invasionofMysoreby,296.
Cholaempire,riseofthe,27,33,
85,44;extentofthe,61
;as-
cendancyofthe,underKarikala,
62;makersofthe,98 ;admin-
istrationandconsolidation of
the,147;thesettlementofthe^
149 ;systemofadministration
anditscharacter, 158,175
;
divisionsofthe,173 ;resources
ofthe,179;coinsinthe,183;
declineofthe,52,152,158,372.
Chola-Kerala, ViceroyofKongu,
151,401,408.
Cholamandalam, 174.
Cholaperiod,the,ofSouthIndian
History,31.
Cholas,the,atwarwithEashtra-
kutas,36,80
;atwarwiththe
Chalukyas, 46,48 ;conquestof
Nolambavadi, 78;alliancewith
theHoysalas,82
;andGanga-
vadi,152,225 ;retreatofthe,
226.
ChronologyofIndia,363.
Close, SirBarry, resident in
Mysore,88.
CoinsundertheCholas,183.
Commerce ofSouth India,65
;
withRome,72.
Conjeevaram records ofVijaya-
laya'sreign,99.
Coomaraswami, theHon'bleMr.
P.,onthedateofKarikala,349
;
versusDr.Hultzsch,863.
CorneliusNeposontheexternal
relationsofHindustan,59.
D
Dadoji,300.
Dahala,51.
Daivardshtra (orMaharashtra),
22.
DakkanaLatam,conquest of,107.
Dakshindpatha, 6,10-11,59.
Dalavoyscomeintonotice,85
;
revivaloftheappointment of,
286 ;powersofthe,curbedby
Kantlrava, 291 ;riseofthe,
805.
Damodara,236.

453. INDEX 42^
Dandabutti(Dandabhukti), oon
-
questof,107.
Dandakdranya,6.
Dandaiidtha, Lankhdpura, of
Ceylon,164.
Dandi,327.
Dannayakana Kote,287.
DantidurgaBdshtrakatd,, 411.
Darapwaiii,conquestof,297.
DariusHystdspas, 6.
JOavaka,19.
Davids,Prof.Uhys,ontheCeylon
Chronicle,380.
Dekhan,the,duringAsoka'stime,
16;occupiedbytheChalukyas,
17,23;disintegrationandinva-
sionbySamudragupta, 22,43
;
unitedunderKlrtivarman, 28
;
invasionbyHarsha,25
;pla-
teauandMalva,29,41.
Dekhan,Dr.Bhandarkar's, 368.
DekiNdyaka,388.
Deogari,overthrowof,53.
Devandhi,thenunoftheSilap-
padhikdram, 345.
Devaraja oftheKanohitemple,
197.
Devaraja Dalavoy, 86,305-6
;
victoriesof,307.
Devaraja,Muppin,279,282,286,
295.
Da7nilas,the,364.
Dhanakataka (orDhara^ikot), 16,
42,223.
Dhanuttara, allyofKanaka,367.
Dhdra,49,51 ;battleof,234.
Dharmapdla,defeatof,107.
DMraratha,defeatof,107.
Diadochi,55.
Dikshit,Mr.SankaraBalakrishna,
ontheBrahmanas, 4.
DinaChintdmani, aqueen of
Kulottunga,147.
Dinndgdcharya, 325.
Divikaram, Dr.Eost'sdatefor
the,375.
DoddaDevardjaWodeydr,295
;
ruleof,296 ;administration of,
298
;religion,304.
DoddaRaja,305.
Doddayyachdrya, seeMahdchdrya.
Doravddi,252.
DrdvidaVeda,worksofNammal-
var,396
;whysocalled,398.
DravidianCivilisation,30.
Dravidians incontactwiththe
Aryans,2.
Duff,Miss,authoroftheChrono-
logyofIndia,363
.
Dumme,battleof,236-7.
Dusserah, institution ofthe,
285-6,290.
Dvdrdpati,391.
Dvdrasamudra, capitalofthe
Hoysalas, 234,245 ;overthrow
of,53.
Dwaraka, 7.
Dwdrdvati(Halebid),275.
JE
EchaldDevi,234,250.
Edirili CholaSambhuvardyan,
154-5.
Ekandthmeasure,150.
Ekoji,299.
EUni(Yavanika),descendants of,
155.
"Elisaivallabhi, aqueenofKulot-
tunga,147.
Embdr,secondVaishnavanameof
Govindabhattar, 202.
EmpirebuildinginSouthIndia,
27
;thepassingawayof,s,40.
Encyclopixdia Britannicaonthe
Tamillanguageandliterature,
374.
EpicsoftheAnklet,seeSilappa-
dhikdram.
Epics,Hie,chronology of,30.
EpigraphiaCarnaUca,386.
Epigraphy,Indian,316.

454. 426 ANCIENTINDIA
Erindapalla (orKandesh),22.
Eremberege(orYelburga),252.
EreyangaMoysala,136,141,232,
23i,2i0,243,265.
Erode,conquestof,297.
ErumaiyHrdn,222.
Brumdnattu Nalliyakkon,hero
ofSirupanarruppadai, 339;ruler
_
ofMavilaugai,363,393.
Etagiri, aOhalukya Eajadhani,
140.
EudamossucceedsPhiliptothe
ViceioyaltyofthePunjab,55.
Eukratides,56.
EumeTies,55.
Evvi,Chieftaincy of,32,61,342,
370.
ffaHian,theChinesetraveller,
20
;onfreehospitals,22.
Festivals,inancientSouthIndia,
71.
Pishemblem,erectionofthe,on
theHimalayas,356.
Fleet,Dr.,onSomesvara II,125
;
'squotation fromVikraman-
kadevaGharitam, 133, 232
;
ontheauthenticityoftheCeylon
Chronicle,380,412.
G-
Gajabahu I,KingofCeylon,63,
74,93,380-2,334,364,394;
presentattheconsecration of
PattiniDevi'stemple,363
;con-
temporai;y ofSenguttuvan, 349,
380 ;argumentsreidentification
of,381;accountsanddateof,
365-6,382.
GajabihuII,dateof,381.
OambhiraBajaYirupanna,ambas-
sador,285.
Oanapati,defeat of,byRajadhi-
raja.111.
Oandagiri,286.
Gandagopala, 157.
Oandappaiyan,deathof,111.
OandarddittanChola,102.
Qandardinakaran, defeated by
Eajadhiraja,111.
Gdndhara, 7,15,20.
Oangadharan,deathof.111.
GangaikondaChola,45-6,49,50.
GangaikondaCholamandalam, 174.
GangaiKondapuram, ruins of,
187.
GangaikondaSolapuram,i9;occu-
pation of,122
;purification of
thetankandconstruction ofa
templeat,108,408.
Gangamandalam, captureof,136.
Gangamandalika(Udayaditya
)
lordofAlampara,137.
GangaPallavas,overthrow of,by
Parantaka,80.
Gangappddi,conquestof,104,110.
Gangardja,51,helpstheHoysalas,
142
;GeneralofBittaDeva,146,
241 ;andJaintemples,261
;
captureofTalakad,339.
Gangas, the,thedynasty of,35,
44-5
;inMysore,77 ;ownpart
ofthePallavaterritory,97,225.
Ganyavddi(orAshtagram), 47,51,
78-9 ;the,Viceroyalty, 141
;
conquestof,byBittaDeva,146 :
losttotheOholas,152 ;con-
quest of,byiiajaraja, 225
;
divisions of,230 ;Hoysalacon-
questof,235.
GaudofMagadi,overthrow of,
306-7.
Gautamdchdrya, 268-9.
GautamaSakyaMuni,6.
Glianagin,273.
Ghatikdchalam, 320.
GoldstUcker,Dr.,onPanini,4.
Golkonda,kingdomof,37.
GopinathaEao,Mr.T.A.,onthe
contemporaries ofAlavaadar
i

455. INDEX 42^
151;ontheTirupatitemple,
215
;onthechronologyofSilap-
padhikdram, 216 ;onthedate
ofNammilivar,396 ;onthecon-
temporaneity ofcertainAlvars,
407
;conclusions of,notaccept-
able,403.
GotamiputraSdtakarni,246,368.
GovindaIP,97,100.
GovindaBhatiar,Sattai,ofIrai-
yiir,148.
GovindaBhattar,cousinandclass-
mateofRamanuja, 195,conver-
siontoSaivismandreclamatioo,
202.
GovindaChandra,retreatof,107.
Govindacharlu, Mr.A.,onthe
dateofAlvars,etc.,402.
Govindaraja, restoration ofthe
shrineof,210,220,316.
GovindaYogi,theSannyasinname
ofYadavaprakasa, 201.
GrahavarmanofMaghada,24.
Grama(ortownship),139.
Greece,comparisonbetweenIndian
Historyandthatof,33.
Grierson,Dr.,theexponentofthe
'Christian
'Ramanuja theory,
193.
GujjalaDevi,250.
Gulur,299.
Guptas, the,prominent inthe
north,17
;dynastyof,andera,
19;BrahmanismandBuddhism
under, 20 ;religion of,21
;
empire of,attacked bythe
Huns,23 ;freehospitalsunder,
22;conquest oftheDekhan
by,43 ;riseof,56,224.
Gwjaras,the,67,97.
Guruparamparai, the, ofthe
Vaishnavas, 219-20, 257,316,
332,397.
Guitas,the,ofGuttal,141,246.
Guttavolalu,252.
Oulti,Biegeof,126,252.
28
H
Hadana,oldcapitalofMysore,277
HaidarAli,riseof,86,286,30G
308
;formationofMysoreunder
222.
Baladi,252.
Salawe,252.
Halebid,capitaloftheHoysalas
82.
Handalageri,299,
Hangal,siegeof,245.
Hanuman, messenger ofRama,
385.
Sdnungal,240.
Haridle, daughter ofVishnu-
vardhana,240,258.
Harihar,originofthetempleat,
260.
Harpalos,60.
Harsha,103.
HarshaCharitaofBana,123.
Harshavardhana, Slladitya, 24,
43
;son ofPrabhakara, 24
;
empirebuildingby,25
;religion,
deathandsuccession, 26
;of
Kanouj,224.
Hassan,cessionof,297.
Hastimalla,GangaBanaPrithvi-
pati,100.
Hayagriva,imageof,presentedto
Ramanuja,205.
Hemddri,commentator, 325.
HemajiPandit,294.
BemmadiRaja,261.
Senjeru(orPenjeru),agateof
theChalukyaempire,117-8.
HimdsUalaversusAkalanka,259.
Hinduism,Pauriinic,35;modern
37.
Hindustan,oneofthedivisionsof
India, 23,29
;broughtunder
theruleofHarshavardhana, 25
;
overthrowof,26.
HiraLaiPundit,130,

456. 428 AiSICl3Biit,TiKbIA
HistoryofIndia,materialsforthe
studyofthe,314;languages
neededtherefor,315;defectsto
beguardedagainst,326.
Hiuen-Thsang, Chinese traveller,
23,43;administration ofthe
empireinthetimeof,25 ;in-
fluence of,onHarsha, 26
;
cededdistrictsundertheearlier
Cholas inthetime of,97
;
political divisions ofIndiain
thetime of,224 ;visitedthe
Court ofPulikesin II,255;
Buddhism overthrown when,
visited,362.
Siung-nu,fallontheYueh-ohi.
Hoernle,Dr.,ontheAgnikulas,
390,395.
Sonnavalli,299.
Hoskote,siegeof,288.
Hoysala ChaJcravartin, 252(see
Bella}"'II)-
Eoysalas, the,36-7,51-3 ;rise,
81 ;versustheKalaohurya,82
;
empire of,62
;masters of
Gangavadi,141
;advancenorth-
ward,142
;attemptatindepend-
ence,155 ;versusthePandyas,
157
;originof,228.
Huligere,240.
Bult^sch, Dr.,onSomesvara II,
125-6 ;ontheearlier inscrip-
tionsofKulottunga, 129;on
theidentification ofaUajendra
Ohola,131;onthedateof
Nammalvar, 151,191,401 ;on
thesituationofKandalur,185
;
versusCaldwell,254;onthe
identification ofaGajabahu,
363 ;ontheKarikalaofPattin-
appalai,381 ;ontheKilliof
Silappadhikdram, 348
;onPara-
mesvaravarman ,410.
Buns,the,andtheGuptaempire,
21,23
;beatenback,24.
SunOS,the,224,
Idaitturainddu,conquestof,106.
Idavai,attackedbyVaraguna,99.
IhJceri,captureof,293.
IkkeriBasava,300.
IkkeriNailes,84-5.
IkkeriNayaka,294.
llaKings,religionofthe,397,399.
llam(Ceylon), 66;subjugation
andconquest,106.
llamCheliyan,rulerofMadura,
358.
llamCheliyan,successor ofUgra
Pandyan,355-6.
llamCheliyan,ViceroyofKorkai,
334.
llamKilli,ruleratKanohi,354.
llamKiranar, Porundhil, 343,
357.
Ilandiraiyan,Tondamdn, ofKan-
chi,94-6;330,383;celebrated
byRudiranganijanar, 352 ;origin
forgotten,362.
Tlango(orIlangovadigal),aSangam
poetandauthorofSilappadhi-
Jtdram,217,330,340,359,380.
Ilanjetchenni (orUruvappaharer
Ilayon),fatherofKarikala,92,
349,351.
ImmadiKrishnaRajaWodeydr,
308.
ImmadiRaja,287-8.
India,oftheAryaninvasions,1
;
politicaldivisionsinthesixth
century a.c,7;firstreliable
dateinthehistoryof,10;forma-
tionofStates,23;naturaldivi-
sions,29;acontingent of,in
Greece,6.
Indo-iryans,seeAryans.
Indraratha,defeatof,107.
Inndforty,ofKapilar,342,392.
Innes,Mr.L.C,onthedateof
thethirdSangam,380-2 ;on

457. INDEX 429
thedate ofManikkavasagar,
376.
Inscriptions, antiquity of,383
;
auxiliarytohistory,30;Akkd-
salai,143
;Arkalgud,387 ;Bala-
giimeva,267,269 ;Davanigere,
119;Dombal, li2;DrSksha-
rama,141 ;Kadur,387
;Karu-
vur,175 ;EUora,412 ;Mara-
mangalam, 143 ;Perumbudur,
148
;Pitfipuram,130 ;ofRaja-
rajaII,401,408
;ofRajendra
Chola,331
;ofSamudragupta,
77
;Sanchitope,380
;Shikarpur,
142,149;SouthIndian, 126,
132
;Srlrangam,151 ;Tiruppar-
kadal, 147
;Tiruvanaikkaval,
149;TiruvidamarudOr, 144;of
Vlrarajendra, 177,181 ;Uggi-
halli,230 ;Ukkal,401.
Iraehchayyan, 122.
Iranddyirattunurruvan, 162.
IrrigationundertheCholas,187.
Irukkapdla,aViceroyunderVik-
ramaditya,136 ;defeatsSomes-
varaII,234,
Irungolas,237-8.
IrungovelofArayam,apatron,
62,229,358 ;descentof,391-2.
Irungovel PuUkadinidl oflered
Pari'sdaughters,342,370.
lyiirMulangilAr,338.
lyyappaNdyaka,296.
JaitugiYddava,252.
Janaka,Bajarishi, calledIndian
PisistratuB, 6 ;kingofthe
Videha,7.
Janandthan, 124.
Janandthapura, 244.
JanasthSnaontheGodaveri,8.
JatakanaDurg(Devarayadurga),
captureofandchangeofname
ofthe,299.
Jayakarna, sonandviceroy of
Vikramaditya, 138(note),143.
Jayakesin I,134,136.
JayakSsinII,143,243-4.
Jayamgonda Chola,titleofRilja-
dhiraja.111
;titleofRajariija,
105,181.
JayamgondaCholamandalavi, 174.
JayamKondan,Kaviohakravarti
ofkulottonga, 144, 150,152,
333,361.
JayasimliaPrince,brotherofVikra-
maditya,50;supportshim,114
;
defeatedbyRajadhiraja,111,205.
JayasimhaIII,defeatedbyRajen-
dra,106 ;rulerofBanavasi,135
;
revoltof,138,141.
JewelBelt,seeManimekhalai,
Jina,othernameofMahavira
Vardhamana, 6.
Justice,administration ofunder
theCholas,167.
Justice,Bellof—see.BeZZ,
JagaddSva,235-6,245.
JagadekaMaltaII,245,247,249,
264-5.
JagadevaBayalu,80,288.
JainismversusVaishijavism,260.
Jains,the,abodeofthedeitiesof,
32
;
patronizedbytheAndhras,
84 ;inMysore,77
;persecution
of,208,219.
Jaitdji,300.
Kadabaplate,412.
Kadaivallaldr, 341,390,393.
KadambasofOna,51 ;viceroyalty
ofthe,141,246 ,-movement of
the,142.
KadambasofHangal,141.
Kadambu,VictoryofSenguttuvan
over,355.
Kadambu tree.The,destniction of,
73.

458. 430 ANCIENTINDIA
Kadaram, capture of,107,126,
185;re-oonquest of,131 ;battle
of,331.
KaildsandthatempleofEUora,35.
Kakatiya,The,36-7,52-3,82;at-
tempt atindependence, 155
;
founderofthedynastyof,248.
Kdla,236,238.
Kalachuryausurpation,81,156.
Kdlaham(Burma),66.
Kdldmukha,asectoftheSaivas,
269.
Kdlapdla,244.
KalarkiUi, brother ofIlamkilli,
354.
Ealdthalaiydr, 95,229,342.
Kalavur,battleof,229.
Kalhana,historianofKasmir,409.
Kdliddsa,12,14;ageof,325.
KalidevanPorrikuli,162.
Kdlidurga,captureof,410.
KdligaHoysala,229.
Kalikdnal,353.
KalingaChodaGanga,145.
Kalmgainaddedtotheempire,11
;
enemyofPushyamitra,13;sub-
jugation of,51
;acquiredby
Kulottunga, 62;conquest of,
105,144,381
;burning of,by
VikramaChola,152.
Ralingattupparani, 50,116, 125,
128,131,136,144-5,152,349,
381,394 ;dateof,146,366 ;on
KilliandKarikala,361.
Ealumalam,battleof,96.
EajavU,349.
Kalydna (Kalyani), Chalukya
capital,113,139-40.
Kimadeva,248.
EdmaHoysala,280.
EamalanayanaBhatta,195.
EdmarUpa (Assam), 19,25,51
;
invadedbyVikramaditya, 138.
Eamban, author oftheTamil
Bamayana, 153,322 ;dateof,
330,334,878
;patronof,379
;
contemporarywithNftthamuni,
857,400;notthePresidentof
the Council that approved
Madurakavi's publication, 898
;
getshisEamayana approved,
399.
Eambandtidlvdr, 396.
Eambhoja, 7.
Eambhoja(horses),236.
:
Kampli(Kampili),47 ;head-quar-
tersofVijayaditya,120 ;burnt
byVirarajendra,125.
Eanaikkdlirumporai Chera,96.
EanakaandSenguttuvan,830,355
,
367.
Kanahasabhai Pillai,Mr.,116;
identifiesTagadurwithDhar-
mapuri,367,880.
Knarese,value of,forresearch
work,315.
KancM,Pallavacapital, 16,19,
22-3,83;occupation of,byVik-
ramaditya,122.
Edndalur, Boads of,victory of
RajarajaIat,104,110
;destruc-
tionoftheCherafleetat,185.
EanddrddUtan Madhurdniaka,
165.
EandeBoo,toolofHaidar,86.
EanhiTcere,299.
Eanishka,15;theconstantine of
Mahayanism, 57;history of,
828.
EarnaofDahala,138.
EaroogahallyWodeydr,275.
EarundkaraTondamdn, 51,144,
146,152,215,333,381.
Earur,Pallavavictoriesat,410.
Easis,8.
Eaiyapa,viceroyofBijjala,267-8.
Eataka,34.
Eathdsaritsdgara ofSomadeva,
327-8.
Eautilya(Chanakya), 9.
Edvana,seeEdmadeva.
Eavera,91,349.

459. INDEX 431
Kaverippattinam, construction of,
93 ;anemporium,94
;destruc-
tionof,95.
Kavirajamdrga, 315.
Eeladi,subjugation ofthe,kings,
299.
KempaDeviah,295-6.
EengeHamima seekstheaidof
thePadishaofBijapur,292 ;ex-
posureof,294.
Keralds,The,andParantaka, 30,
100
;defeatof,atUlagai,11,16,
23,41,45,52,123.
Kern,Prof.,onNagarjuna,58.
Kesaregonte,siegeof,283.
KesavaBhatiar,fatherofRama-
nuja,195.
Ketamalla,238.
Ketarasan,122.
Eetasamudra, 299.
KetayyaDandandyaka, 236.
Kevudan,generalofRajadhiraja,
111.
KhdiMidn,supersedesRanadhoo-
lakhan,294.
Kielhorn,Prof.,119
; 'sdatefor
theaccession ofAtiviraRama
Pandyan,375.
KiUr,Eudalur,392,394.
KannadaDynasties of.Dr.Fleet,
412.
Kannahi, wifeofPehan, 341
;
heroine ofSilappadiledram,
344
;propitiation byIlam
Cheliyanofthemanesof,357.
KannaiiArurdn,160.
Kannegdla,battleof,51,142.
KanthiaDalavdy,305..
EaniiravaNarasaII,successorof
ChikkaDevaRaja,304-5.
KaniiravaNarasaRajaWodeydr,
84,285;beginshisrule,289;
introduceshisowncoinage,290
;
keepstheDalavays incheck,
291 ;defendsMysoreandSerin-
gapatam,298
;invadesBijapur,
294
;death of,295 ;Revenue
under,301
;religionof,304.
Kdiivdyana, familyofrulers,18,
15
;theirage,14.
Kdpdlilca,aSaivasect,269.
Kapilar,aSangamcelebrity,229
;
anadvocate ofKannahi,341
;
worksof,342,392 ;contempo-
rariesof,343 ;connectedwith
MantharamSeralirumporai,357
;
astarofthefirstmagnitudein
theliteraryfirmament,358,390.
Karadikkal, apillarofvictoryat,
125.
Edravela,theKalinga rulerof
Orissa,12,57
;invasionofMaga-
dha,15.
EdriofTirukkovilur, 32,313,
358,370.
Earikdla,atitleofVirarajendra,
116
;sungbyKalattalaiyar,
342
;oftheLe}'denGrant,394
;
oftheSilappadiledram, 348-75,
ofPattinappalai, 381
;dateand
identification ofthe,ofthe
epics,362.
EarikdlaChola,42
;Cholasupre-
macyunder,62
;rulerofPuhar,
63,358;thefirstgreatChola,
92,185,188,325,330,332;
erectsthetigeremblem,356;
relationtoKokkilli,361.
EarikdlaMallarajayya, 286.
Edriydr,battleof,62,95.
KilUChola,sungbyAvvaiyftr,338
;
sungintheSilappadhikdrain
,
848 ;Ilandirayantracedto,352
;
marriageof—withaNagaprin-
cess,353.
Kirdtas,299.
Eirtivarman, 23.
Eiiukad,243.
Eochchengan Chola,96,255,399,
410.
Eodumbai,67.
Eoilolugu,407.

460. 432 ANCIENTINDIA
Koinos,mutinyunder,54.
KokkilU,333 ;oftheSilappadhi-
kdram,358;relationtoKari-
kala,361.
Koldlapura,237.
Kolli,333.
Kolkoi(Korljai),34,60,67.
Kollam(Quilon),conquestof,105
;
era,376.
Eolldpuram(Kolliapur),apillarof
victoryat,47;112,116.
KoUipdkkai, 47,conquest of,106
;
advanceoftheCholafrontierto,
117.
Kongalvas,229,240,249,251.
Kongu, earliestconquest ofthe
Cholas,115,240.
KongudiarajdkJsal, 100.
Kongumandalam, 44-5,
Kongunddu,870.
Koneriiimaikondan, Tribhuvana-
chakravarti,179.
Kopana,241.
Kophen,The,river,9.
Koppam,battleof,46,109,111-2,
118-9,127,226,231.
Kopperunjinga, 157-8.
Kosalanddu,conquestof,107.
Kosalas,8,8.
Kosambi,7,18.
Eottdru(CapeComorin),51,136.
Kovalan^heroofSilappadMIedram,
344.
Eovalur,287.
KSvilKilar,authorofapoemin
Purandnuru,355.
Kranganore,aKeralacapital,16,
84.
KrimikantaChola_817,820.
Krishna,brotherofYaduSaya,
275.
KrishnaI,Mysoreafter,85
;Rash-
trakuta, deposes Dantidurga,
412.
KrishnaIII,36,44,80,97,101,
117,225.
KrishnaBhatta Sri,ofAranl-
puram,148.
KrishnaRaja,sonofBetadChama
Raja,277
;passedover,278.
KrishnaRaja.Dodda,85.
KrishnaRajaII,86.
KrishnaRajaWodeydr,Dodda,
299,305,307.
KrishnaRajaWodeydrIII,res-
torationofMysoreto,88.
KrishnaRaya,320,323.
Kshetrapas, The,14,16,18,22,33,
42,224,382.
KudalSangamam, battlesof,48,
121,123,127,227,233.
Kudamalainddu, subjugation of,
186.
Kukkanur,166.
Kulasekhara,theelephant,297.
Kiilasekhardlvdr ,151,191,317,
395 ;recital oftheworks of,
401.
Kulasekhara Pandya, rival of
ParakramaPandya,153-4,834.
Kulavdnigan Sdttan,seeSittalai
Sdttanar.
KuloUungaChola,49-50,52,81,
227,233,236-7,239.
KuloUunga Chola I,aneastern
Chalukyaprince,112,115 ;suc-
cessionof,disputed, 121,124;
governorofthemiddlecountry,
128 ;colonization under,148,
189 ;conquest ofKalingam,
144-5
;queensofandmilitary
settlementsunder,147
;ageof,
aperiodofliteraryrevival,150
;
calledtheSungaudavirta Chola,
182
;
persecutor oftheVaish-
navas,190,207,218,221
;patron
ofTamilliterature, 191
;time
of,221,318,331-2
;notKarikala
oftheHimalayanfame,361
;
RajendraCholaidentifiedwith,
378;aliasRajakesarivarmanRa-
jendraCholaYuvaraja,129-80
;

461. litDEX 433
legitimate heir tothe rule
ofVengi,131;versusVlrarajen-
dra,132 ;defeatedbyVikrama-
ditya,135 ;achievements of,136
;
Gholaempireunder,139.
Kulottunga II,ruleof,153,259,
318,323 ;arulerofthemiddle
ofthetwelfthcentury,363.
KulottungaCholaIII,154,156-7,
332.
KulottungaCholan TJlcL,153,220,
319.
KulottungaSolaKeralaBajan,148,
KumaraBellala,240,250,270.
KumaraOuptaI,21.
KumaraTdtirya,seeTdtachar.
Kundalakesi, aBuddhisticwork,
360.
Kundavvaiydr, 104,115.
KunPandya(orSundaraPandya),
aconvertofGuanaSambanda,
381,398.
Kuntala,Kingof,vanquishedby
Kulottunga,132.
Kuntalds,The,227.
Kural,theearliestoftheSangam
works,330,337,355,360,385,
391;Dr.Rost'sdateforthe,
375,380.
Kurattdlvdr , first disciple of
Ramanuja, 200 ;blessedwith
children,206 ;intheCourtof
Kulottunga, 207,209,218;con-
vertsAmudan,210,407.
Kurugaikkdvalan orNammalvar,
151.
Kurugodu,252.
Kurunthogai,392.
Kurus,The,orKauravas, 3,7.
Kushanas,The,rulerofGandhara,
20
;establishment ofakingdom
inthePunjab,57;endofthe
ruleof,16.
Kusindra,8.
Kuttuvan,3i3
;ofPurandnuru,341.
KutuiShdh,300.
LachehalaDevi,queenofTribhu-
vanamallaSomesvara,387.
Lalcshmana,governorofBanavase,
114,137.
LaJcshmana, Kuvara,general of
ViraBellala,388-9.
LakshmiDevi,241.
Lattalur,agateoftheChalukyan
empire,117,118.
LearninginAncientIndia,69,
Leyden Grant,authors of,on
Karikala,349,394.
TAchavvis,The,ofVaisali,8.
LimuriJte,65.
Literature,Indian,315.
Liuke(orVelliyanKallu),60.
Logan,Mr.,ontheMalayalam
language,381.
Lokkigundi, occupiedbyVira
BeUala,252.
Lokkundi,occupiedbyViraBella-
la,251.
m:
Macedonian empire, partition .of
the,55.
Machetas,54.
Mackenziemanuscripts,228.
MddaikkUli orSeigniorage on
coinage,150.
Mddhavi,mistressofKovalan,344.
Madhura(Muttra),7.
Madhurdntakan Mddai,coin of,
150.
Madhurdntaki, marriage of,with
aChalukyanPrince,112.
Madhurdpura, 244.
Madhua&dhanan, defeatof,111.
Mddhyamika, 12.
MadiraiKondaBajakesariVar-
man,102.
Madura,Pandyacapital,67;cap-
tureof,anderectionofapillar
ofvictoryat,154.

462. 484 ANCIENTINDIA
Maduraikkdnji, 357.
MadhuraKavi,210,220
;disciple
ofNammalvar,396 ;teacherof
Nathamuni,397.
Maduramandalam, conquest of,
107.
MaduraNdyaJca,revoltof,274,294,
MaduraStlialapurdnam, 338.
Maduvanan,122.
MaerisofPatalene,54.
Magadha,kingdomof,anditsca-
pital,6,8;Alexander'sinvasion
of,9;Karavela'sinvasionof,15
;
occupiedbytheAndhras,16
;
securedbyGhandragupta, 19.
MagasofGyrene,12.
Mahiban,fortof,9.
Mahd,bha,rata, the,period,2.
Mahdcharya, 320,323.
Mahadevi,234.
Mahaffy,Prof.,12.
Mahdkdntard, 5,29.
Mahdkavyas,Prof.Vinson'speriod
forthe,373.
MahamadBinTaglak,invasionof,
82.
MahamadGhazni,Indiaafter,156.
Mahdmalla, seeMarasmihaVar-
man.
MahdnadiDelta,anacquisitionof
Asoka,11.
Malidndman, authorofMaha-
yamsa,381,395.
Mahdrdjddhirdja, titleofVirarS-
jendraOhola,116
;titleofBel-
lalaII,252.
Mahdvamia ofGeylon,59-60,63,
75,116,330-1,349,367,380,
382,395.
MahdviraVardhamdna,founderof
theJinareligion,6.
Mahdydnism, aschoolofBud-
dhism,26,58.
MahendraPallava,23.
Mahlpdla (ofSangukksUana), at-
tackon,byKajendra,107.
Mahishamandala orMysore,77.
MaildlaDevi,daughterofVikra-
maditya,143.
Maitland,Prof.,onthedefective
appreciation ofthehistorian,
326.
MalapakulaEdla,229.
MdlaviJcdgnimitra, adrama,12.
Malaydlamlanguage,valueofthe,
forresearchwork,315 ;making
ofthe,381.
Malayamdn ofTirukkoilur, 61,
69.
MalikEafur,invasionof,37,53,
82,252,372.
Malta,8.
Mallindtha,commentator,325.
MalliyanaNdyaka,268.
Malloi,the,54.
Mdlva,13,14.
Mdmallapuram, cavetemples at,
26.
Mdndbharana decapitated by
Rajadhiraja, 110;andGaja-
bahu,364.
Mdndygan,fatherofKannahi,344.
Mandalam
(=province),139.
Mandalapurusha, Prof.Vinson's
datefor,373.
Mandali,territoryofSinganaDeva,
118.
MandiraminTuynadu,166.
Mangalisa,23.
MdngudiManidan,aSangampoet,
69,357,359.
Mdnihkavdiagar ,221 ;ageof,317,
321,330;dateof,accordingto
Dr.Eost,Mr.Innes, etc.,376,
379,397.
Mdnikyadevi, 236,238.
Manimekhalai,oiSittalaiSattanarj
330,340
;storyofthe,347
;date
of,360,380;Prof.Vinson's
periodfor,373,382 ;anecessary
sequeltoSilappadhikdram, 383.
ManjigaHoysala,229.

463. INDEX 485
Maifnai(orMannaikudi),Pallava
victoriesandPandyadefeatat,
410.
Mannaikkadagam, conquest of,
106.
Manne,battleof,230.
Manneyakere, aRajadhani (capi-
tal),140.
Mdntharam Seralinintporai, 343,
357.
Manit,theancient Cliolawho
passedhisoaroverhisson,91,
112.
Manuve,2b'2.
Manyaketa, oldcapital ofthe
RashtrakQtas, 79,97 ;attacked,
103.
Maradam(JIahratta).07.
Marana, father ofDekinayaka,
388.
MiraniyakaDalavdy,theusurper,
275-6.
Marasimha,103,225-6.
Marayan,li'i.
MariansDandanayaka, 234.
Masarta,expedition against,241,
243.
Mdsanayya,387.
Mdsittuvan ,fatherofKuvalan,
344.
Maspero,40.
Mastikkal(^lahasatikal), 385.
Matangahill,262.
Matsyapurdna, 367.
MaUya,the,7.
Mauryadynasty,9-12.
Mauryan empire (orthe first
empire),rise,55
;fall,57.
Mdvanko,Cheramdn, celebrated
byAvvaiyar,333.
Mdvilangai, country ofEruma-
nattuNalliyakkOn, 32,363.
_
MdyavddaKandanam ofAlavan-
dar,203.
MeghadutaofKalidftsa,325.
MeghavarnaofCeylon,20.
29
Menander(Milinda),rulerofKabul,
12,14,16,57.
Metdlu.f,CelerandtheIndians,
59.
Mihiragula, theHunkingof
Sagala,21,24.
Militarysystem,theChola,184.
ilithila,8.
Uithridates I,14,56.
MommsenonIndiantrade,64.
Monuments auxiliary tohistory,
30.
MookaArasu,thedeaf-muteson
ofChikkaDeva,85.
ilo,asas,299.
MouHkanos,54.
MudathdmaKanniydr, 349,351,
359.
MudattirumdranPandya,337.
MudigonddChola,Bdjendra,106.
MudigondaCholaMandalam,230.
MudikondaSolapuram,158.
Mdduraikkdnji, 334.
Mulanjur,149.
MuUur,siegeof,390.
MummudiChola,titleofBajaraja,
105.
Mummudi CholaBrahmardyan,
162,164.
MummudiCliolaNallUr,149.
Munja.103.
Mupparasan, 124.
Musldika,299.
Mussalmdnincursions,37.
Mussalmdn-Mahratta period,31.
Mustaphakhan, 294.
Muiugundan, 91.
Muve.ndi,122.
Muyangi,battleof,106.
Muziris(Muyirikkudu), 60,65-6.
Mysore, 11,35,37 ;divisions of,
47,78;inva.sionof,byVikrami-
ditya,50 ;losttoKulottunga,
52
;retrospectof,76
;makingof,
84 ;viceroyalties of,83 ;Chola
conquest of,250 ;siegeof,by

464. 436 ANCIElsTINDIA
Ranadhoolakhan, 292
;invasion
of,byOhokkalingaNa5'aka,296.
MythicSocietyofBangalore,39.
Naehchinirkiniyar, commentator,
352,.382 ;PanditSwaminatha-
iyarcalledmodern,340.
Nadaviyappaiyanavidu, aChalu-
kyaRajadhani,140.
Nadu=division,139.
Nagamangala, 288.
Nagdrjuna,58,327.
NdgavarammaHoysala,229.
Nahapana Kshetrapa, 42,368
(note).
NaidadamofVallabhaDeva,375.
NaJclcavaramorNioobars,116.
Niladiyar,Dr.Host'sdateforthe,
375.
'
NalamKilli,siegeofUraiyurby,
354.
NiliyiraPrabandham, arrange-
ment fortherecital of,in
temples, 190, 194,211
;Dr.
Host'sdateforthecomposition
of,375.
Naldyiravan, 160,
Nalli,oneofthesevenpatrons,
393.
Ndlukaviperumdl, 413.
NdmanailtJeSnam, conquestof,107
.
Nainmdlvdr, timeandsurnames
of,151,191,321
;dateof,396.
NambidnddrNambi,377.
Nanda,overthrownbyChandra-
gupta,55.
Nandas,the,9.
NandiJcJtalimbaleam, 23.
Nandivarman Pallavanialla(Nan-
dipottaraja),410-12.
Nangalipura, 237-8,240.
NanjaRajahDalavdy,86,305.
NanjaBajahSarvddhiJcari, 308.
NanjaBajiah,KaraGhuri,308.
NanjaRajaWodeydr,defeat of,
ofCoorg,294.
Nannan,anancestorofVichchikon,
355.
Nannul,dateof(TamilGram-
mar),156,374.
Nappasalaiydr,Mdrokkattu,343.
Xdranan,defeatof.111.
NaraaaBaja, 283,286.
Narasimha Brahma, oustedby
GangaRaja,146.
Narasimha Chattirvedimangalam
,
241.
NarasimhaDeva,301.
NarasimhaHoysala I,37,82,111^
249,270,364.
NarasimhaHoysala II,successor
ofViraBellalaII,156-7.
NarasimhaVarmaPallavacomes
topower,23;buildsthecave
templeatMamallSpuram, 26,
255
;attacksanddestroysBftda-
mi,43,224,236,238,244,376
;
rivalofPulikesin II,255
;Pal-
lavaascendancyunder,371.
Narasimha,Vijaya,birthof,241.
Narasinga,242.
Ndrdyanabhattar,Sarvakratu
Vajapeyayajlyar, 148.
Ndrdyana-Krama Vittar,Kattugai,
148.
NdrdyanaBajaSimha,159.
Narayanaswami Aiyar,Mr.,onthe
Tirupatitemple,215.
Ndrehehonai, aCho)aprincess
whomarriedaOheraPrince,93.
Narkirar, aSangam poet,357,
359.
Ndthamuni,195 ;revivesTiruvoy-
molirecital,377 ;acontempo-
raryofKamban,379;learningof
theTiruvoymoU, 397 ;approves
ofKambaBamdyanam, 399
;
dateof,400,408-9.
NattattanSr,Nallur,339,359,393.
Navy,theChola,185.

465. INDEX 43'/
Nayakirti,241.
Nedmndran, 398.
Medumseliyan Pandya,330,334,
355
;successorofIlamCholiyan,
357
;victoratTalaiyalanganam,
358.
Xediimseralddhan, 92
;erectsthe
fish-emblem,35G.
Xedumu-dikiUi, successorofKari-
k&la,95.
XedimalVadai,334,357.
Xedungulam, 67.
Menmeli,Pallavavictoryat,410.
Xerivayil,battleof,95,352,355,
357.
Xetiar,battleof,154.
XigariUorRajendraChola,106.
XikhariliCholamandalam, 175,
231.
XilaJtesitteriittu,arefutation of
Kundalakesi,360.
Xilaparvata,237.
NinraSirNedumdran orKan
Pandya,381.
XUimargaGanga,387.
Kitrias,72.
Xolambavddi, 47,51;orNandi-
droog,78,81
;lordedbyVikra-
manolamba, 137
;viceroyalty of,
141
;Gangaconquest of,226
;
Hoysalainvasions of,235
;ab-
sorptionof,byBellala,250.
XolambavddiOondaorVishnu-
vardhanaHoySala,241.
Nripakdma,229-30.
Nripatunga,315.
Xulambappddi (orNolambavadi),
104.
Nyoacinda(Nlrkunram), 60.
o
Oddavishaya,conquestof,107.
Olaindyaham orChiefSecretary,
175,177.
Omaluru,conquestof,297.
OmphesofTaxila,9.
OriofKoUimalai, 32,62
;oneof
thesevenpatrons,393.
Oiissa,oneoftheacquisitions of
Asoka,11.
Orukural,413.
Ottahhattan,CourtpoetofKuIOt-
tungaII,153,318,334.
Oxyartes, viceroy ofParopani-
sadae,54.
Oxydrachoi, the,54.
Oxykanos,the,54.
Fadigam,340.
Padirruppattu,
340,342,351,392.
Paitan,capital oftheAndhras,
16,42,223.
I'aldsige,243.
Pdlayagars,32,61.
Pdli,valueofthestudyofthe,
language,816.
Pallavaiyan,Perundaram Irdyi-
ravan,164,177.
Pallavaraiyan, 154,178.
Pallaras, the,16,23,26,31,34
;
riseof,32
;ascendancy of,begin-
ningunderVishuugopa,35,371
;
atwarwiththePaudyas,35
;
atwarwiththeChalukyas,43
;
ownNolambavadi, 78;break
upoftheempire of,27,79
;
routedbyKrishnaIII,80;and
ToncjamanIlandirayan, 96.
Pampdsaras, 5.
Panchalas,the,3,7.
PanchavdraVdriyam,172.
Pandyas, the,11,10,18,32,41,
52 ;versusPallavas,35;versus
Gangas,44;extentoftheking-
dom of,61
;ascendancy, 63
;
overthrow, 75,80;religion of,
307,399.
Pdi},ini,dateof,5.
Panjappalli,conquestof,107.
Pappdlam,aportofBamafina,lip

466. 438 ANCIBJITINDIA
Pardhramahdhu, theGreat, of
Ceylon,153
;andGajabahu,364.
PardkramaPandya,153-4.
ParamaBhalidraka, titleofBel-
lala11,262.
Paramdras, the,103,234,890.
Paramesvara, titleofBellalaII,
252.
Paramesvaravarman Pallava,255,
399,410-11.
Paranar,95;ontheconquestof
Tirukkoilur,849;andAdiyaman
Anji,340 ;anadvocate for
Kannahi,341 ;timeof—relative
toAvvaiyar,356 ;astarofthe
firstmagnitude, 858 ;anasso-
ciateofKapilar,394.
PardntakaCholaI,36,44
;vic-
toriesof,80;dateof,aguide
tothatofVijayalaya,99;Para-
kesarivarman ,etc.,100,147
;
ruraladministration under,166,
168,178,175,861,894.
Pardntaka Cliola 11,Sundara
Ghola,102.
Pardsara,Ramanujaaskedtoper-
petuatethenameof,198 ;name
of,perpetuated,206.
Parasurima,106.
PariofParambanadu,62
;patron
ofKapilar,841,366 ;oneofthe
lastsevenpatrons,358,370,381,
390,393.
Paropanisadae, 54.
Parthians, the,14-7,51.
Pdsa,captureof,154.
Pdsupata,asectofSaivas,269.
Pdtaliputra, 8,15.
Patanjali,ageof,theGramma-
rian,13.
Patna,8.
Patri,34.
Patrons ofLiterature, thelast
seven—.SeeKadaivajlaldr.
Pattinappdlai, 94,326,332,349,
850,881.
PattiniDevi,consecration ofa
templeto,63,71,347,363,865.
PattiPerumdla,237.
Pattuppdttu,330,392.
Pavanandi,Prof.Vinson'sdatefor,
378.
PehanofNallur,oneofthepa-
trons,32,61,341,358,370,393.
Peithon,ViceroyofSindh,54-5.
Perdiccas,55.
Peridlpdr,254.
Feriapatna,captureof,151,295.
Periclesandempire-building, 40.
Periplus,65,72.
PeriyaAchdnPillai,411.
Periyanambi,adiscipleofAlavan-
darandemissarytoBamAnuja,
197
;chosenpreceptorofKama-
nuja,199 ;separationfromthe
disciple,200 ;inthecourtof
Kulottunga,207
;death,209,218.
!eriyaTirumoli,406.
Periyatiruvandddi, 898.
Permmadi,GovernorofTardavadi,
264.
Ferrdnddittan, 159.
PerumdnadiButuga,44,98,101,
225,232,801.
PerumdnadiOanga,110,119.
Perumbdndrruppadai, 95,333,
406.
Perumkunfur Kildr,anadvocat
ofKanijahi'scause,341
.
Perumseral,358.
Perumieralddhan,Oheraenemyof
Karikala,93,351 ;sungbyKala-
thalaiySr,342.
Perunarkilli, Verpaharadakkai—
grandfather ofKarikala, 92,
334.
PerunclioYYuchcholan, 91.
Perundevandr ,commentator o
VirasoUyam, 127.
I'erungadai,seeVdayanankadai.
Petronius,ontheRomandress,64,
PeutingerianTables,72-3.

467. INDEX 439
PeyAlvdrontheaspectofthe
Tirupatideity,216.
Philip,viceroyo£thePunjab,9,
54.
Pichainiuttu,Mr.,onthedateof
Nammalvar,396.
PidartUalaiyan, uncleofKarikala,
93.
Pilldn,seeTirukkurahaippird h
.
Pillaydiida,241.
PinbalagyaJiyar,authorofQaru.
parampdrai,407.
PinnaTimma,323.
Pisistratus,Indian,516.
Plataea,Indiancontingentat,6.
PlinyonthetradeofIndiawith
Borne,04,72.
Pohuttelini.patronofAvvai,338.
PonparriiPonpefti),127,259.
PortsofIndia,60-1.
Porunardrruppadai, 349,351.
jPorMSandAlexander, 'J ;assassina-
tionof,10,54.
Poaan,MummudiChola,162.
Potali,Potana,7.
Pottarayan,122.
PrabhdkaraVardhana,24.
Prabandham, 23(seeXdldyira-
prabaiidham).
Pradhan,anoffice,85,86.
Prairitdialects,34.
Prapanndmritam, 320,323.
Pratdpa Chakravartin, title of
Bellala11,252.
PrdtapaRudraDevaI,251.
PratapaBudra,II.
Prdtishtdna(Paitan),34.
Prithvipati IOanga, fallof,
99.
Prithvi Vallabha, Sri, titleof
BellalaII,252.
Prola,founderofWarangal, 248,
261,266.
Pseudostomos(alimukham), 60.
PlolemeyIIofEgypt,12.
PtolemeyPhiladelphus, 65.
PublicworksundertheCholas,
185.
PugaUndi,153,334.
Pulidr(Kaverippiimbattinam), 34,
(il-3, 66-7,70,333,344,352
362.
PulikaiJimdl,229.
L'ulikesin II,23,25-7,43,224,
246,255.
Pulimdyi (PulOmavit), 42,368
(note).
PunditaChola,131.
Punisa,236.
PurageryorPortofMysore,277.
Purandnuru, 338-9,342,359,3«5,
392.
Purdnas,chronology ofthe,300
;
Matsya,Vishnu£Ydyu,31.
Purniah,RegentofMysore,88.
Pushpaka,afemaleelephant,122.
Pushyainitra, SenSpathi, 12,13,
14.
PushyamitraSunga,theIMauryau
general whooverthrew the
empire,57.
PythagorasinIndia,4.
R
liaghavaiengar, Brahma Sri,on
theshrineatlowerTirapati,22U,
403.
Bdhulabhadra, 58.
Bdjabdhu,364.
Bajadhdnis (=alternativecapitals),
140.
Bajddhiraja Jayamgonda Chola,
sonofBajeudraGangaikonda
Chola,46,109-10,114,174,181,
239,408.
Bajddhiraja,successorofEajaraja
II,153.
Bajddhirdja,sonofBOleChama-
raja,279.
Bajddhirdjan Bdjardja, title of
VIrarajeudra, 125,

468. 440 ANCIENTINDIA
BdjadityaCholaRajakesarivar-
man,36,44,80,101,225.
Majagriha, capitalofMagadha,6
;
fortified, 8.
Rajah,headman oftheVijjian
clan,7.
RajaJeesari,ameasure,150,182.
RajahSsariNallurKilavan,162.
RdjakesariNdtakam,189,191.
Rdjakesarivarman Rdjardia,377.
Rdjakesarivartnan RdjendraCho-
la,129,182.
Rdjamahendry, capital ofthe
Ghalukyas,97.
Rajamdhendra Chola,successorof
Rajendra II,112,117 ;astreet
calledafterhim,407,409.
RdjamallaPerumdnadi, 230.
RdjamayyaDandandyaha, 124.
Rdjaraja AbhayaKulasekhara
andSaivarevival,377.
RdjardjaBrahmddhirdjan, 178.
RajarajaChdlukya,43,121,124,
180,232.
RdjardjaChodaQanga,145.
Rdjardja theGreat,36,45,46
;
occupation ofMysore, 81 ;a
makeroftheCholaempire,94,
98,103 ;conquestsof,104,115,
117,144,titleof,105 ;admin-
istrations,147,164,175,;i77,183,
190,331-2,384,394.
Rdiaraja 11,successor ofKulot-
tungaII,153-4,318,323,332.
Rdjardja III,Rajakeaarivarman,
156.
Rdjardja,rulerofKalinga,131
;
rulerofTrikalinga, 144.
Bdjarajadeva, Sri,161.
Rdjaidjamandalam, 174,
Rdiardjainuvenda Veldn,128,165.
BdjardjanAchohudan,ChiefSec-
retary,178.
BdjardjanAraiyan,178.
RdjardjanUli,319,
BdjardjanVillavan,178.
RdjardjaPandinddu, 149.
Rdjardja ParanripardksTiasan,
128,165.
Rdjaratndkari, 364.
Rdjasekharavildsa, 46,108.
RdjasimhaPandya,o.erthrowof,
100.
Rdjasraya, titleofBajaraja,106.
Rdjasuya, a,sacrifice,18.
Rdjdvali,864,366.
RdjaWodeydr,83-4,85,276,277
;
parentage,279;rule,283,280;
invitedbytheViceroyofSriran-
gapatna,284
;grantofSriran-
gapatna,284 ;cursedbyTiru-
malaraya'swife,285;administra
tion,286
;adoptionofKantlrava-
narasaraja,239;andtheDala-
vays,291 ;revenue,801 ;religion,
304.
Rdjendrafather-in-law ofKulot-
tuugaI,332,361.
RdjendraChdlukya,marriage of,
v?ithMadhurantaki, 112,115.
RdjendraChola,father-in-law of
theKalingaruler.Rajaraja,131.
RdjendraCholaandthepublica-
tionofKambaRamdyanam,878.
RdjendraCholaI,occupationofa
partofMysore,81;distinction
ofKulottmigaunder,130-1
;con-
questofKalingam,144
;subju-
gationoftheMysoreChiefs,146
;
captureofKacjftram,185.
RdjendraClwlaII,theGangai-
kon4a Chola, 45-7;accession
of,105 ;conquests of,106,116
;
chiefachievements of,112
;in-
vestitures under,114 ;alliance
withtheGhalukyas, 115 ;ad-
vanceupontheMysorecountry,
117 ;successorsof,118
;inscrip-
tions of,127;identified with
thefather-in-law ofKalinga
Rajaraja, 146 ;death of,231,
408.

469. INI»EX 441
BdjendraGholaDevaIII,158.
BdjendraCholaPrithviKongdlva,
victoratManneoverNripakama,
230.
UdjendraSoUsvara,148.
RdjyaSri,daughterofPrabhakara,
li.
Rdjyasundari,QueenofKalinga,
131.
Edjyavardhana,sonofPrabhakara,
24.
Bdma,385.
Bdviadeva,37.
Bamanathaixjer, Mr.K.B.,ser-
viceof,totheTamilPublic,
878.
Bdmdyiuja, theVaishnava re-
former
;misapprehensions re-
garding, 193
;parentage and
earlylife,195 ;differenceswith
the preceptor, 196
;plotted
against,197;atthefuneralof
AlavandSr, 198 :initiated by
Periyanambi, 199 ;entersthe
Sanyasiasrama, 200 ;succeeds
Alavandar, 201 ;studiesTiru-
voymoU, 202 ;conversion of
Yagfiamurti, 203 ;studies in
Ramayana, '204 ;fulfilment of
thefirstobjectofAlavandar,
205 ;thesecondobject,206
:
andthethird,207
;persecution
byKulottongaandconversionof
Bittideva, ICO,218,257,882;
oil-millincident,258 ;erection
ofthetempleatMelkote, 208,
219 ;returnfrom exile, 153,
209 ;restoration oftheGovin-
darajaTemple,210,316
;prepa-
rationstodepart,211
;accounts
of-andcriticism thereon,212,
13;ageof,150,221 ;relation
tovaishnavaism,254
;relationto
theAlvars,377
;PallavaVaish-
navasof,409.
BdrndnvjaDariana,202.
BamanujaXurrandddi, 210,212,
220,377,407.
EamrtppaGaMnrfa,overthrow of,300.
Bamaraja, ruleroftheKannuda
country, 273 ;fall,274,27S
;
succeedsKrishnaraja, 320,323.
Bdmdyanam, 3;onMahakSntara,
5
;ontheAryanexpansion, 8.
Bdmdyanam, Eamba, 322,330;
Prof.Viuson'sdateforthe,373,
378
;approvaltothe—
(howgot),
399
;dateofthe,400.
Bamayya,GovernorofBauavase,
388.
Bdviesvaram,captureandplunder
of,154.
Banadhoolakhan, general ofthe
BijapurPadisha,293
;layssiege
toSeringapatam, 292 ;super-
sededbyKhanKhan,294
;con-
queredbyChikkaDevaraja,299.
Banasura,defeatof,107.
Bangasamudra, 287.
Bdshtrakutds, the,usurptheChii-
lukyanempire,27,34 ;checkthe
Pandyaactivity,35
;atwarwith
theCholas,36,80 ;atwarwith
theChalukyas, 79,103 ;over-
throwof,44,80
;ownaportion
oftheDekhan ,97
;underGo-
viudaIVandKrishnaIII,98
;
ofMauyakheta,225.
Bdshtram=Province,139.
BaHappddi, invasion of,105-6
;
conquestof,123 ;225.
BattasofSaundatti ;141,246.
Bavideva,ministerofBammarasa,
268.
Bayaleotiaplates,362.
Bed-chera,Gheraascendancyunder,
63 ,destructionoftheKadambu-
tree,73
;ageof,74.
Remati-Bevati,VenkataRegentof
TirumalRaya,274
;defeatof,278.
Revenue,collection of,underthe
Cholas,176,

470. 442 ANCIENTINDIA
Rhodes,Mr.Cecil,40.
Rice,Mr.L.,onRajadhiraja,and
hisbrotherRajeudra,109;on
thesonsofAhavamalla, 114
;
aSO,239
;onJainaimages,269
;
authorofthevolumesofinscrip-
tionsinMysore,272.
Richards,Mr.F.J.,ontheAvvai-
malai,338.
Rishabadata, .368(note).
Romans,the,14.
Eost,Dr.Reinold,374.
Roxana,54.
RoyalAsiaticSociety,Journalof
the,390.
Rudirdngannandr, aSangampoet,
95,330,333,351,359.
Eudra,allyofKanakaandVijaya,
.367.
Rudraddman,greatestoftheSaka
rules,18.
RupabhatiayyaDandandyaka, 143.
RUpahritaliasSamudragupta,
19.
S
SdadatuUahNawab,306.
Saohiva,Maurya,12.
Sadagopaddsar,surnameofNam-
malvar,151
;
perpetuation ofthe
nameof,orderedbyAlavandar,
198.
Sadagoparandddi, composition of,
322,399,400.
SadayappaMudaliar,thepatron
ofKamban,379,398.
Saddharma-pundarika, founderof
theMadhyamikaSchool,58.
Sagala,theancientcapitalofJla-
dra-desa,24.
Sahasrandmain,commentedupon
byParasaraBhatta,206.
Sahya(WesternGhats),subjuga-
tionof,136.
Saiiundgas, 6,8,9.
SaivaBeUgion,Dr.Rest'sdatefor
therevivalofthe,376.
Saleaera,notsupersededbythe
ChalukyaVikramaera,148.
Sakalabhuvandiraya, titleofVira-
rajendraOhola,116.
SakJespura,gainof,299.
Sakas,the,ofSakastan,14,17 ;on
therightbankoftheIndus,16
;
ofthePunjab,15
;overthrow
theAndhras,18 ;overthrovfn bj'
Chandragupta, 19;oftheGan-
dhara,21
;drivenoutbythe
Yueh-chi,56-8.
Sdketd,8,12.
Sakkrakottam, Capture of,107,
124, 130,131; Kulottunga's
victory at,132
;cession of,
297.
Sala,228.
Sdlai,occupation of,136.
Saligram,207.
SallSkhana,oftheJains,386.
SamanjasapriyanBrahmagund-
karaVidhydsthdna Mangald-
ditya,160.
Samantakutam, 353.
Sdmantas,the,defeatof,121.
SamastaBhuvandsraya, aliasYira
Bellala,252.
Samatata(theDelta),19.
Saniballi,captureof,294.
Sambandar,authoroftheTevd-
ram,190,375
;visitsSirutton-
dan,376.
Saynbhava,34.
Sambhu,300.
Sambus,kingdomof,54.
Samudragupta, theNapolean of
India,19,23
;invadestheDek-
han,22-3
;dominionsunder,41,
234 ;contemporary ofVishnu-
gopa,362,371.
Sandhubhupa, subjugation ofthe
rulerof,412.
Sdndimattiva,conquest;of,106.

471. INDEX 443
Sangam,theTamil, institution
of,70;dateo£thethird,328,
330 ;existence of,discussed,
337
;
poets,359 ;ageof,outof
existence,381.
Saniama,251.
Sanhamale,389.
Sankardcharya, Sri,age,26.
SdnkhyaSystems,learnedbyPy-
thgoras.i.
SantaldDevi,239-41.
Santdgdra, 6.
Sanskrit,revivalof,14,20
;classic
periodof,37
;usefulness ofre-
searchworliin,315.
Sarvddhikdri, officeof,85-6.
Sasakdpura,228.
SasdnkaofBengalandRajyavar-
dhana,24.
SassanianPersians,17.
Sdtakarni Gutaviijiutra, i'2,367-
8.
Sdtavdhanas, the,223-4.
SdtavdhanaversusKshetrapas.
Sdtavahanas, tlie,31,3.3-4 ;con-
nexions-svithJlysore,77 ;temple
of,74 ;oftheDekhan,75.
Sai-iinSouthIndia,71
;origin
andinstancesof,385.
Satiyajmtra, 11,41.
Satyatnangala, captureof,294.
SatydsrayaChdlukyadefeatedby
Eajaraja,105.
SatydirayaDeva,388.
SatyavdkyaOanga,387.
Savandroog,captureof,307.
SeindiaMahaddji, 40.
Sebkildr,authorofPeriyapura-
nam,151,153,218.
Seleucidan, empireofthe,attack
ed,56.
SeleueusNikator,treatyof,with
Chandragupta, 10,55
;descend-
antsof,14,
Selvakkadungovdliyddan Chera-
mdn,392.
30
Senai=acultivator,163.
SendpathiBhattdraka, seeBhatta-
raka.
SendpathiPushyamitra, seePush-
yamiira.
Sendamangalam, 157.
Sendan,Prof.Vinson'sdatefor,
_
373.
Sengalam,Senguttuvan's victory
at,357.
Senguttuvan Sera, 42
;Chera
ascendancyunder,63-4,95 ;and
theGangas,77 ;achievements
of,108,330,332,334;grand-
sonofKarikala,349
;ageof,the
periodofSangamactivity,337
;
andParanar,839;victoriesof,
354-5
;CheraruleroftheSilap-
padhikdram, 358 ;consecration
ofPattiniDevi'stempleby,363
;
Gajabahu I,thecontemporary
of,366 ;andtheSatakarnas,367
;
divisionsandchieftainciesinthe
_
timeof,369.
SenniorKulottunga I,147.
SenTamil,397.
SeshagiriSastriar,Prof.,254.
SeunaChandraII,136.
SeunaDeiavioeroyalty, 140,246.
ShadTarkaShanmukha,239.
Shaji,299.
Sibi,amythicalking,91,348.
SiddojiOhorepara,306.
SildidtyaofKanouj,224.
Sildharas,the,ofthenorthernand
southernlConkan,140,142 ;move-
mentsof,142
;ofKolhapur,141.
Silappadhikdram,EpicoftheAnk-
let,42,94,150,255,325,330,
332,834,340,394
;alighthouse,
185 ;ontheTirupatiTemple,
215;andUgravarmaPandyan,
338 ;ontheparentage ofSen-
guttuvan,340
;plotofthe,343
;
dateofthe,360,380
;Prof.Vin-
son'speriodforthe,318
;not

472. 444 ANCIENTINDIA
commenteduponNachchinar-
kiniyar,382 ;incompletewith-
outManimekhalai, 383.
SimhaVishifu,255,411.
Sindagere,234.
Sindas,the,ofYellurga,141,146.
Smdhu,battleofthe,13.
SmduvajU,conquest of,byTim-
maraja,278.
Singa,allyofKanaka,367.
Singalikatrampled,243.
SinganaDeva,Mahamandalesvara
ofLattalflr,117.
Singanam, capture of, 121-2,
136.
Sira,capture of,293.
SiriyaDevi,wifeofBopparasa,
388.
Siriya7elan,102.
Sirupandffuppadai, 839,341,555,
^
359,863,393.
Siruttondar visitedbySambanda,
376.
Sitabaldi,head-quarters ofavice-
royaltyofVikramaditya, 247.
SWhalaichdttandr ,authorofMani-
mekhalai, 330,341,359,380;
andthecompositionofSilappa-
dhikdram,383.
Siva,templesdedicated to,23
;
worshipof,32.
SivoBhUldma'ij.iehaturvedimanga-
lam,160,162.
Sivaji,298.
Sivamdra,241;II,256 ;versus
VaragunaPandyan,362.
SivappaNdyaka ofIkkeri,296-
7.
Sivaprahd^swami inpraise of
Manimikhalai, 383.
Shandagupta, 21.
SkandaiishyaPallava,862.
Skylax,admiralofDariusHys-
taspes,6.
SmithVincent,13.
Sola-Keralamandajam, 174.
Solamandalam, 149.
Solapuram,endowment ofatem-
pleat,147.
Solicountry,91.
SoliBatta,365.
SoliyavenddhiTirukkannan, 343.
Somadeva,327-8.
SomayajiarKunrahuli,148.
Somesvara I,Ahavamalla, 46-8
;
ascends thethrone ofthe
Karnatic,81 ;victoroverRaja-
dhiraja,110 ;feudatories of,111
;
theoneobjectof,113 ;versus
Virarajendra, 119,121 ;deathof,
113,226,230-1,233,256,270 ;an
exampleofSati,386.
Somesvara, II,Bhuvanaikamalla,
47-50; viceroy atBanavase,
113,115
;governor inthe
Bellary district,120,123,125
;
accession of,126
;overthrowof,
133,135;cessionby,ofcountries
toLakshmana,137,226,233
;de-
featedbyIrukkapala,234.
SomesvaraIII,BhUlokamalla,suc-
cessorofJayakarna, 143,239,
240 ;suzerainofVishnuvardh-
ana,242,245,249,264,267.
SomesvaraIV,thelastChalukya,
248,250-2.
SomesvaraHoysala,82.
SomesvaraTribhuvanamalla, 387.
Sophytes,54.
Soratar,251-2.
Soievur,234.
SouthIndia,Historyof,29
;period
inthehistoryof,31 ;historyof,
capableoffurtherworkinginto,
38.
SouthIndianAssociation,326.
Speyer,Prof.,onthedateofBrihat
Kathd,74.
SravanaBelgola,77;records,386.
Srdvasti,8.
SriB?iashj/a,Ramanuia'scomment-
aryontheBrahmasutra,206.

473. iNbfix 445
SridharaNayoka,karanam,268.
Srikrishnardma, 164.
Srimedhinivallahha aliasVirara-
jendra,116.
SriPurushaMuttarasa,fatherof
Sivamara,256.
Srinivasaraghavaiengar ,Dewan
BahadurMr.,ontheresurveyof
theOholacountry,148
;onthe
CholaRevenue systemand
standardsofmeasure,176,182
;
onthestandardoflifeinIndia,
190.
SriP»(ia=aroyalfort,144,176.
SriPdla,thegreatJainteacher,
239.
SriPdlaTrividyaDeva,260.
SriParambi, seeTirupparam-
biyam.
Srirangandyaki, 284.
Srirangapatna, viceroyalty of,83
;
acquisition of,283 ;siegeof,by
Ranadhoolakhan, 292;siegeof,
bySivappanayaka,296
;siegeof,
inthereignofDoddakrishna-
rajaWo4eyar,306.
SrirangaRayal,thefugitiveruler
ofVijayanagar, 273,296
;death
of,274.
Srivallabkamadanarajan ofCey-
lon,111.
States,formation of,23.
Sthalapurdnas, Prof.Vinson'sdate
forthe,373,
Stotra-ratnam ofAlavandilr, 197.
Stupas,11.
SuchindramrecordsofVijayalaya's
reign,99.
Svdariana,repairstothe,tank,18.
Suevi,kingofthe,andQ.Metellus
Celer,59.
SuggaldDevi,388.
Su}en,gal,terntoryofSinganaDeva,
118.
SundaramPillai,Mr.,onthedate
ofSuudramQitiNayanar,866
;
onthedateoftheoonquest of
Kalingam,381.
SundramurtiNdyandr, 321,366,
381,394.
SundaraPandya,37
;expulsionof,
110
;Maravarman,157,334,398.
Sundarar,190,375
;contemporary
ofCheraman, 876.
Sungadynastyfounded,12
;over-
_
thrown,13 ;age,14.
Sungandavirla Chola,seeKulot-
tungaI.
Siirasenas, 7.
Sutra period,Aryanmigration
inthe,416.
Sveta,allyofKanaka,367.
Swaminathaiyer ,Mahdmahopddy-
dyaPundit,service of,toTamil
literature, 324-5,340.
SwdyambhuVaijyandtha,241.
T
Tadigaivali,104.
TagadUr,capitalofthepatronsof
Avvai,338 ;fallof,358.
TailaII,103.
TailaIII,247,249,265.
Tailappa,rulerofBanavase,387,
Takkaydgapparani, 153,319.
Takkolam,battle of,44,80,101,
225.
Talaidlangdnam, battle of,64,
357.
Talahdd,capitaloftheGangas,77,
80
;captureof,237,240
;capital
ofVishnuvardhana, 245.
Talakddugonda aliasVishnu-Var-
dhana,236.
Talikota,battleof,273,278.
Tamil,valueof,forresearchwork,
315 ;thelanguageoftheChera,
etc.,381.
TamilLiteratureunderthePalla-
vas,23
;Augustanageof,836
;
periodinthehistoryof378.

474. 446 ANCIENTINDIA
Tdmralipti,34.
TantrwpalaHemmddi,251.
Taprabane,islandof,60.
Tdrdndth,theTibetanHistorian,
58.
Tardawddi,viceroyalty,141.
TdrhihaChakravarti,239.
TdtdChar,Kotikanyakftdhanam,
323.
TdtdryaGuru,320.
TaxaUonundertheCholas,180.
Taxila,7,10.
Telciplate,145.
Teliigu,valueof,forresearchwork,
315.
TeluguBhimadefeatedbyVikrama
Chola,152.
Ten^ylls, seePattuppdtlu.
Ten-tens,seePadiffuppattu.
Tereyur,237-8.
Tettarundiral ofKulasekharalvar,
151.
Tevdram,194,215,375
;Dr.Host's
dateforthe,376 ;oftherecital
of,377.
Thanesvara,supremacy of,23.
Thibaut,Dr.,4.
ThimmappaGaudadefeated by
ChikkaDeva,300.
ThimmappaNdyalea,successorof
VikramaRaya,291.
Tribhuvanamalla Vikramdditya,
seeVikramdditya.
Tripura,captureof,299.
Tikha,theTeluguchief.
Tikkdlivallamassembly,165.
TikkamayyaMdyaka,268.
Tilak,Mr.B.O ,ontheAryan
home,4.
Timati Venkata, seeBemati,
Bevati.
TimmaNdyaka,Kereyoor,283.
TimmatdjaHiri,flightof,273.
Timmaraja Wodeyar,sonof
HiriBefadOhamaraja, 276-Y,
279.
TipuSultan,sonandsuccessorof
Haider,87.
Tiruchchirfambala Kovai, 221,
317.
TirugndnaSambandar,97 ;date
of,362,381 ;contemporary of
SundaraPaudya,398;disputation
withTirumangaialvar, 413.
Tirukkachchinambi andRama-
nuja,198-9.
TirukkillicelebratedbyNappS^al-
aiyar,343.
TirukkoUyiirNambi,preceptorof
RamauujainMantrartham,201,
408.
Tirukkovilur, 32,67,69,99,339.
Tirukkurukaippirdm Pilldn,com-
mentator ofTir^ivoyvwU ,207
;
successorofRamanuja,211.
Tirmndlaiydnddn, teacher ofTi-
ruvoyinolitoRamSnuja,202.
Tirumaliyangar, fellow-pupil of
ChikkaDeva,84,272,274,279,
284,295,303,305,307.
Tirumalaikkolundu Pillai,Mr.,on
thedateofManikkavftSagar, 376
;
onthedateoftheVaishnava
saints,402.
TirumalaRdyaofSeringapatam,
83;killedbyRajaWodeyar,84
;
sonofRamaraja,274,279 ;con-
sequenceoftheminorityof,280
;
rivalofhisuncleVenkatapa-
tiraya,281;plotsagainstRaja
Wo4eyar,282 ;atthesiegeof
Kesaregonte,283
;flightof,284
;
succeededbyRajaWo4eyar,285.
Tirumangaidlvdr, 151,191,318
;
ageof,322,400,413 ;institutes
therecitalofTiruvoymoli,398
;
lifestoryof,404
;worksof,406
;
notacontemporary ofAlavan-
dar,408
;disputationwithTiru-
gSanaSambandar,413 ;relation
toSundaramurti Nftyanar,414.
TirumudiKdri,Malayaman,343.

475. INDEX 447
Tirunaraiyar, 404.
Tirundrdyanapuram,erectionofa
templeat,208,219.
Tirunedunddndaham, 408.
Tirupati, temple at,Vaishnava
orSaiva,205,215
;consecra-
tionofaGovindatemple at,
153,210,220.
Tirupparambiyam, battleof,35,
a,79,99,362.
Tirutiondar,312.
Tiruttondaitogai, 394.
Tiruvdlangddu, agriculturalsettle-
mentat,149
;
plates,103,107.
Tiruvallamrecords,165.
Tiruvalluvar, 380,351,355,359,
380,391.
Tiruvaludinduddsar orNammal-
var,151.
Tiruvandddi, 217.
Tiruvarangapperumdl Arayar
,
201-2.
TiruvdSagam ofJIanikkavasagar,
322,375.
Tiruvdsiriyam, 398.
TiruvikraynaBhatta,159.
Tiruvikramdpura, 140,142.
Tiruvilayddalpurdnavi, 338,355,
391.
'"iruviruttam, 398.
Tiruviaaippa, 102.
Tiruvoymoli,151,191,321 ;recitals
of,377,405 ;learning of,by
Nathamuni, 397.
TiruvoymoliDevafromanameof
Nammalvar, 151,191,401.
Tolkdppiyan,Dr.Burnell'sdatefor
the,374.
Tonda,44-5.
Tondamdn,chiefSecretary,178.
Tondamdn,Karundkara, 51(see
alsoKarnasikara).
Tondamdndfj'ur Tunjina Udai-
ydr,166.
Tondamandalam, earliestconquest
o£theOholaB,115,174.
TondanUr, 82.
Tondi,captureof,34,154.
Toramana, 21.
Tradition,relationof,tohistory,
30.
Tulu,249.
Tumkur,captureof,299.
Turuvekere,occupation of,294.
Tuvarai,342(note).
Tydgamdvinodan, 153.
TydgavalH,QueenofKuJottunga,
147.
Tyndis(orTondi),60,67.
u
Uchchangi, territory ofSingana
Deva,118.
XJchehangidrug,236
;siegeof,251.
TJdayachandra, victories of,410
;
GeneralofNandipottaraja, 410.
Udaydditya,236,239.
l/doi/araa,successorofAJatasatru,8.
Udayanankadai, trans1ationof
Brihatkathd,328.
Uddare,252.
VgraPeruvaludi,Pandya,patron
oftheSangam,337 ;causesthe
collectionofAhandnaru,338.
UgraPandyan,365 ;erectsthe
fish-emblem, 356 ;Ahandnuru
ascribedto,360.'
UgraVarmaPandya,338.
Ujjain,7.
likkal records ofVijayalaya's
reign,99
;ofCholaadministra-
tion,J59.
TJlagai,defeatoftheKeralasat,
123.
TjllangaiQonarndandyandr
,Sai-
vanameofGovindaBhattar,
202.
Vmmattur,conquest of,byTim-
maraja,278.
Upanishads, 8.
Or=Township,139.

476. 448 ANCIENTINDIA
UraiyHr,capitaloftheOholas,67,
333 ;siege of,byNalamkilli,
884.
UruvappaharerIlanjetchenni,851
.
VttamaChola,Parakesarivarman.
108
;Rajendra,106.
Vttamasili,102.
Ottara,allyofKanakaandVijaya,
367.
Uttarameruchaturvedimangalam
(=Uttarainallur), 159.
VddMbaSimhaorSriPala,239.
Vachi^avali acquiredbyParan-
taka,100.
Vaduhanambi,authorofYatitaja-
vaibhavam,212.
Vaidumbas, the,ownNolambava4i,
78
;overthrow of,byParan-
taka,100.
VaiJekarai,34.
Vairdgaram, 49 ;captureofthe
elephantsat,129,132.
VairamegJM,BdshtrakUtaDanti-
durga,occupation ofKanchiby,
27,79,322 ;break-up ofthe
Pallavapowerafter,35,411.
Vaisali,capitalofMagadha,6;the
Licchavvisof,8.
Vaishnavaism, originof,192
;
pre-
valence of,beforeEamanuja,
254 ;versesJainism,260
;ver3et
Saivism,399.
Vajjianclan,the,7,8.
Vajranddu(Bundalkhand), 42.
Vallabhadeva 254(seeAlivira
BamaPandiaalso).
Vallabhidynasty,21.
VaUabhipatan, 34.
VdmaSaktiMunisvardeharya, 268.
Vamsa,thecountryoftheVatsaB,7.
VanangdmudiMudaliar,294.
Vanavasi,conquestof,106.
Vangdladiaam,conquestof,107.
Vanji,theCheracapital,68.
VaragunaPandya,35,44
;verses
theGangaa,79,98,371 ;defeated
byAparajlta, 100,321 ;verses
Sivamara,362.
Vaidlmmihira,75.
Vdsavadatta,8(note).
Vdsudeva,lastoftheKushauas,15.
VasumitraPrince,13.
Vdtdpi(Badami),burningof,376.
Veda,compositionofthehymnsof
the,3.
Vedandyagam Pillai,Pundit,on
thedateofManikkavasagar,
326.
Vedingas,sixfoldclassification of
the,3;treatedof,intheBrah-
manasandUpanlshads, 4.
VedintaDesika,213,323.
VedantaDipam,204.
VeddntaSdram,204.
VedantaSangraham,204.
VedojiofBijapur,296.
VeerabhadraMayaka,294.
VeerajiahDalaviyofKa1a1e
,
305-6.
Vellore,anancientchieftaincy,32.
VelPari,seePari.
Vembil,stormedbyVaraguna,99.
Vendd,110.
Vengai(orVengi),conquestof,by
Vlrarajendra,124,
Vengaimandalam, 45.
Vengaimandalesvara, 47.
Vengaimarban, defeatof,byUgra
Pandyan,338.
Vengainadu,conquestof,byRaja-
raja,104.
VengioccupiedbytheOhalukyas,
22;boundaryof,in1084,145.
Vengimandalesvara, atitle of
Vijayaditya,120.
VenkatapaU,Pradhan,308.
VenkatapaURayaofPenukon4a,
88;viceroyofTanjore,273
;
practicallytheruleroftheEm-

477. INDEX 449
pire274
;allianceof,withBaja
Wo4eyar,280,284,285
;
patron
ofTataoharya,323
Venkayya,Mr.,onthePallavas,
35;116;onPonparri, 127;
identifiesRajyasundarl's father
withESjendra II,145 ;onthe
identificationofVairagaram,180
;
ontheearlylifeandinscriptions
ofKulottunga,129,131 ;onthe
Tirupatitemple,215;onanin-
scriptioninaMadrastemple,255.
Vennkkuyattiyar, 95.
Vennil,battleof,62,93,349.
Verfiver Cheliyan, seeIlam
Oheliyan,
Vichchikon, Paris'daughters
offeredto,342,391 ;celebrated
byKapilar,355.
Viehitra, ally ofKanakaand
Vijaya,367.
Yidaiyadhikhari, despatcher,177.
Videhas,3,7-8.
Tidharba,12(note) ;conqueredby
Agnimitra,18.
Vidisa,10.
Vidyaranya, 82.
Vigndnesvara, author of the
MitdksharaSystem,143.
Vijayaand.Senguttavan, 380,355j
367-8.
Vijayaditya,retreatoftheOhalu-
kyas under. 111 ;succeeds
Rajaraja,121 ;viceroyofVengi,
134-5,129,131,227,333.
VijayadityaMangalam,236.
Vijayilaya,amakeroftheChola
empire,98-99.
Viyalur,355.
Vijaywnagar Empire,ascendancy
of,31,82;establishment of,
37,63,872;extentof,273.
VijayaNa/rasimha,seeNarasimha.
VijayaPandya,249,251,264.
VijayipuraNalfUr,aEajadhani,
140,287.
Vijayavddi (Bezvvada), battleof
121,124.
Vikkalan,119,121.
Vikramabdlm ofCeylon,111.
VikramaChalukya,eraof,143.
VikramaChola,239
;riseof,248
succeedsKulottunga I,152,318
conqueror ofKalingam, 144
timeof,221,363
;landrevenue
under,177,183
;issucceededby
Kulottunga II,323.
VikramaCholamandalam, 231.
VikramaCholamVld,128,130,
348-9.
Vikramaditya,theageofSanskrit
revivalunder,14;Sakasoccupy
thelandof,18
;eraof,57.
VikramddityaChandragupta, 20-1.
Vikramaditya, partplayedby,in
thewarsbetweenCholasand
Chalukyas, 48,81 ;retreat of,
theChalukyas under. 111
;
viceroy atGangavadi, 113
;
beatenbackbyVIrarajendra,
119,253,265;attempts of,to
instalhisbrother-in-law, 128
;
overthrows hisbrothers,138
;
exploits of,according tothe
VikramankadevaCharitam,131
;
treatywithVirarajendra, 135,
233
;viceroysof,136,140
;first
warsof,187
;invasions ofBen-
galandAssam,138
;wives of,
140,143 ;aspatronofletters,
142;eraof,143 ;extentofterri-
toryof,188
;retiresfromVengi,
145 ;successors of,156 ;versus
Somesvara II,226
;giventhe
Yanarajya, 234;versus
Vishnuvardhana, 242
;deathof,
289 ;historyof,328.
VikrainddilyaVishamaiila,328.
Vikramdditya VI,388.
Vikrama Ganga,Kdnchigonda
243.
VikamaKdla,Chalukya,235.

478. 450 AKCIBKTINDIA
Vikramdnlcadeva Charitam, 114,
122,124,128,133,226,234.
Vikramanolamba, lordofNolam-
bavadi,137.
VikramaPanduofCeylon,111.
VikramaFandya,154,363.
Vikramdpuram (orAraslabldu),a
Rajadhani, 140.
ViJtramaBaya,DalavSy,287-9.
Vilinam,occupation of,byVikra-
maditya,136.
Vilivdyakura II,orGotamlputra
Satakarni,16.
VillageassemblyundertheCholas,
148
;
powersanddutiesofthe,
159;constitution, 168; elec-
tionofmemberstothe,169.
VUlavaraiyanaliasMunayanAru-
molidevan,149.
Vimaldditya, son-in-law ofRaja-
raja,45;marriedtoKundav-
vaiyar,104,115.
yinaydditya,lieutenant ofAhava-
malla,136,141,253.
Yinaydditya Soysala, Thribhu-
vanamalla,111,230,232.
Vinson,Prof.Julien,onVaishna-
vaism,254 ;onthehistoryof
Tamilliterature,373.
ViraBelldla,seeBelldla.
VirabhadranTillaividangan ,178.
ViraGhola,atitleofVirarajendra,
116,126.
ViraGangaVishnuvardhana, 236.
ViraKerala,110,155.
VirakeralaVarman,363.
Virakkal,385.
ViraNarasimhadeva Polafvadan
dandiha,260.
ViraPandya,103,154,242,244,
249,264,361,863.
Virarajendra versusVikramaditya
inthewarbetweentheCholas
andtheChalukyas,47
;investi-
turesunder,114
;conquestsand
titlesof,116 ;beatsbackVikra-
maditya,119 ;notausurper,
120;northerninvasionof,121,
242,245
;atKadalSangamam,
123 ;conquest ofVengi by,
124
;burningofKampili,125
;
CivilAdministration andcon-
questofKadaram, 125
;patron
ofVirasoliyam, 127 ;assists
Vijayaditya inusurping,131
;
treatywithVikramaditya, 135,
226,233 ;invasionofKalingam,
145
;accession topower,232
;
grantsYauarajyam toVikrama-
ditya,234.
Virarajendra DevaBdjakesari-
varman,134,166.
VirarajendraJayamurinaddlvdn
,
178.
VirarajendraMangalapperar-
aiyan,178.
ViraBaviVarman,Chera,rulesin
themiddleofthe12thcentury,
.364.
Virasdlameghan ofCeylon,111.
Viraiolallango,128,165.
VirasoliyamofBuddhamitra,Pro-
fessorVinsons'datefor,37,127
;
DrBurnell'sdatefor,374,382.
Virasomesvara,HI,158.
Viirdta,252.
Virupdkshapura record,238.
Vishalakshana,Pundit,Jaintutor
ofChikkadeva,84,300,303.
Vishaya=division,139.
Vishnu,templesto,23;worship
of,32.
Vishwigopa ofKanchi,22-3,224;
contemporary ofSamudragupta,
362 ;Pallavaascendancydates
from,871.
Vishnugupta, 4.
Vishnukamaldvildsin, 140,142.
Vishnuvardhana Hoysala,45,51,
81,141,224
;persecutionofthe
Jainsunder,219,227,232
;ex-
peditionagainstNolambavadi,

479. INEDX 451
235
;conquestsof,236
;titlesof,
238;conversiontoVaishnavaism,
titleof,207,219,257,'332;to
Banavasi,249;Mysoreatthe
timeof,250
;erectionoftemple
by,261 ;notasectarian, 262
;
begins the consolidation of
Mysore,263,364;deathof,245.
Yishnuvardhana Vijayadiiya,114,
120,188.
VitalaDeva,seeBittiDeva.
Yiyalur,357.
Visagapatam Plates,145.
Wang-Biuen-t'se, aChineseam-
bassador,26.
Warangal,overthrowof,53.
Wellesley,SirArthur,Commander
oftheBritishforcesinMysore,
88.
TVilks,Col.,ontheselectionofa
monarchbyHaidarforMysore,
86
;historicalsketchesof,272
;
onYaduRaja,275
;ontheparti-
tionoftheestate,277 ;onBetad
Wodeyar,279 ;onthedeathof
VikramaEaya,290 ;onthe
successorofKantlrava,295.
Wodeyars, riseofthe,83,275
;
significance oftheterm,274
;
declineoftheprosperityofthe,
304.
Wusung, the,defeatof,byYueh-
chi,56.
Y
Yddavabhyudayam, 323.
Yidavachakravarti, atitleofVira
Bellala,252.
YddcxaNikandu,213.
Yadavaprakdsa, theadvaitaguru
ofKamSnuja,195 ;differencesof,
withthedisciple,196
;
plotsof,
31
againstthedisciple,197 ;conver-
sion of,bythedisciple,201
;
examination intothetruthof
thestory,213.
Tddavdpura, 239.
Yadavas,the,36,52,82,155.
YaduJRdya,founderoftheWode-
yarfamily,275-6.
TagfiaSri,368.
Yagnamurti, the firstdisputant
withRamanuja,203
;thetruth
ofhiaconversionexamined,215.
YagnasenaSdtakarni,57.
Ydnaikkatchey
,392,394.
Yasddharman, rulerofMalva,21.
YatidharmaSamuchchayam, work
ofGoviudaYogi,201,213.
Yatirdja,SurnameofRamanuja,
200.
YatirdjaVaibhavam,212.
Yavana,the,invasion,16,6-67.
Yedaiorendd, aCholafrontier,45,
117.
Yelandurumangala, 287.
Yueh-chi,the,15,56.
Yuwan-chioang, seeHiuen-
thsang.
FINIS
Note.—Iamobligedtomyfriend
Mr.V.Gopalasami Iyengar,e.a.,
oftheMysoreGovernmentGeneral
andRevenueSecretariat forthis
indexinthepreparation ofwhich
hebestowedconsiderabletimeand
labour.

480. eX5~?CKeK»
PBINTEDATTHE
E.PBESS,VEPEBY,MADEAS
1911
sQX'KS^

481. OPINIONSON'ANCIENTINDIA'
Basingstoke,
November26,1911.
EAELCUBZON.
Prayacceptmythanksforsendingmeacopyof
yourinteresting work. Iamindeedgladthatyou
haveturnedyourattentiontosuchtopics.
OXFOED,
December 7,1911.
Db.a.F.E.HOEENLE, M.A.,PH.D.,CLE.(Oxford)
Authorof'Historyofhidia.'
Itisaverycreditableperformance, andIpromise
tomyselfmuchpleasureandnolessprofitfromthe
readingofit.
Letmeexpressthehopethatthismaybethe
beginning ofmuchmoreusefulandsuccessfulwork
byyouinthesphereofIndianHistoricalEesearch.
EOBHAMPTON,
December3,1911.
E.SEWELL,Esq.,i.c.s.(retired)
Authorofa
'ForgottenEmpireofVijayatiagar.'
IcannotexpresstoyouthepleasureIfeelthat
agentleman likeyourselfshouldtakeupsoseriously
andcarefullyanddispassionatelythestudyoftheHis-
toryofSouthIndia. Ihavebeenhopingformany
yearsthatsuchaworkshouldbeattemptedbya
SouthIndianBrahmanformanyreasons ;andIsend
youmywarmcongratulationsonthehappyclimaxof
yourlabours.

482. Oxford,
December4,1911.
VINCENTA.SMITH,Esq.,m.a.,i.c.s.,etc.,{retired)
Authorof
'EarlyHistoryofIndia.'
Yourvolumelookswellandwillbeusefultome
ifIlivetobringoutanewedition oftheEarly
History,asIhopetodo.
Camberly,
December4,1911.
Dr.G.a.GEIBESON, ph.d.,c.i.e.,i.c.s.{retired)
oftheLinguisticSurveyofIndia.
IcanseeclearlythatAncientIndia isamost
interesting book,andthatIshallprofitmuchfrom
itsperusal. Itrustthatitisonlyapreliminary to
otherworksonalargerscale,suchastheEarlyHis-
toryofSouthernIndiawhichasMr.VincentSmith
says,issomuchwantedbyallstudentsofthesubject.
Madras,
October27,1911.
J.H.STONE,Esq.,m.a.,f.r.hist.s.,
Madras.
Itwasanexcellentideatocollectyouressaysin
thehandsomevolumewhichcontainsmuchofgreat
interest.
Madras,
September29,1911.
SibS.SUBEAMANYAIYEE,k.c.i.e.,ll.d.,d.c.l.,
Madras,
Itisscarcelynecessary formetoaddthatyour
literaryworkwillbringhonourtoyourAlmaMater.

483. Mylaporb,
November10,1911.
HoN'BLEMb.V.KEISHNASWAMI lYEE,c.s.i.
Icongratulateyouonthevolumeofhistoricalessays
youhaveissued.
Mallbsvakam,
November 1,1911.
E.NAEASIMHACHAE, Esq.,m.a.,m.r.a.s.
'Stuffed vs'ithusefulandsuggestive information
elucidating severalimportant pointsinSouthIndian
History.'
Halle,Germany,
December13,1911.
FromDr.E.HULTZSCH, ph.d..
LateEpigraphist toMadrasGovernment.
Manythanksforthecopyofyourinterestingvolume
onAncientIndiain^Yhichyouhavetreatedina
masterlymannerseveralproblems ofSouthIndian
Historywhichhaveinterestedmeformanyyears.Let
mecongratulateyouonthevividmannerinwhich
youhavearrangedandrepresentedthedisjectamembra
ofhistoricalinformation. Itisnosmallgratification
tometoobservethatyouhavesocarefullyexami-
nedandutilizedeveryitemwhichisbroughttonotice
inmyepigraphical publications. Ishalloftenconsult
yourvolume,thevalueofwhich isenhancedbythe
fullindex.
IndiaOffice,Whitehall,S.W.
December20,1911.
FromSirAV.LEB-WAENEE, k.c.s.i.
IhavetothankyouforAncientIndiaintowhichI
havedippedbutwhichIhopetostudymorecarefully.
ItiskindofyoutoremembermeandIamalwaysglad
toseeMysorewellrepresentedinthefieldoflettersas
inotherfieldsofknowledgeandenterprise. Wishing
youallthebestcompliments oftheseasonetc.

484. THETIMESOFINDIAILLUSTEATEDWEEKLY.
January24,1911.*****
Thisisanoteworthybookinmanyrespects. Itisa
proofthatthehistoricalspiritisbeginningtotakehold
ofEnglish-educated Indians,whocandoinvaluable
workinthrowinglightontheobscurechaptersofAncient
IndianHistory.