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Antarctic Climate Evolution

AntarcticClimate
Evolution
Second Edition
Edited by
Fabio Florindo
National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology, Rome, Italy
Martin Siegert
Grantham Institute and Department of Earth Science and Engineering,
Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
Laura De Santis
National Institute of Oceanography and Applied Geophysics—OGS,
Sgonico, Trieste, Italy
Tim Naish
Antarctic Research Centre, Victoria University of Wellington,
Wellington, New Zealand

Elsevier
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Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India

Contents
List of contributors xiii
Preface xvii
1. Antarctic Climate Evolutionsecond edition 1
Fabio Florindo, Martin Siegert, Laura De Santis and Tim R. Naish
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Structure and content of the book 4
Acknowledgements 5
References 5
2. Sixty years of coordination and support for Antarctic
sciencethe role of SCAR
9
Fabio Florindo, Antonio Meloni and Martin Siegert
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Scientific value of research in Antarctica and the Southern
Ocean 10
2.3 The international framework in which SCAR operates 15
2.4 The organisation of SCAR 16
2.5 Sixty years of significant Antarctic science discoveries20
2.6 Scientific Horizon Scan 22
2.7 Summary 25
References 26
Appendix 27
3. Cenozoic history of Antarctic glaciation and climate
from onshore and offshore studies
41
Robert M. McKay, Carlota Escutia, Laura De Santis, Federica Donda,
Bella Duncan, Karsten Gohl, Sean Gulick, Javier Hern´andez-Molina,
Claus-Dieter Hillenbrand, Katharina Hochmuth, Sookwan Kim,
Gerhard Kuhn, Robert Larter, German Leitchenkov, Richard H. Levy,
Tim R. Naish, Phil O’Brien, Lara F. Pe´rez, Amelia Shevenell
and Trevor Williams
3.1 Introduction 41
3.2 Long-term tectonic drivers and ice sheet evolution 44
v

3.3 Global climate variability and direct evidence for Antarctic ice
sheet variability in the Cenozoic 46
3.3.1 Late Cretaceous to early Oligocene evidence of
Antarctic ice sheets and climate variability 47
3.3.2 The Eocene-Oligocene transition and continental-scale
glaciation of Antarctica 50
3.3.3 Transient glaciations of the Oligocene and Miocene 51
3.3.4 Pliocene to Pleistocene 57
3.4 Regional seismic stratigraphies and drill core correlations,
and future priorities to reconstruct Antarctica’s Cenozoic
ice sheet history 59
3.4.1 Ross Sea 61
3.4.2 Amundsen Sea 71
3.4.3 Bellingshausen Sea and Pacific coastline of Antarctic
Peninsula 76
3.4.4 The Northern Antarctic Peninsula and South Shetland
Islands 81
3.4.5 The Eastern Margin of the Antarctic Peninsula 82
3.4.6 The South Orkney Microcontinent and adjacent
deep-water basins 84
3.4.7 East Antarctic Margin 88
3.5 Summary, future directions and challenges 120
Acknowledgements 124
References 125
4. Water masses, circulation and change in the modern
Southern Ocean
165
Lionel Carter, Helen Bostock-Lyman and Melissa Bowen
4.1 Introduction 165
4.1.1 Defining the Southern Ocean 166
4.2 Water massescharacteristics and distribution 167
4.2.1 Upper ocean 167
4.2.2 Intermediate depth waters 171
4.2.3 Deep water 173
4.2.4 Bottom water 174
4.3 Southern Ocean circulation 176
4.3.1 Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) 176
4.3.2 Southern Ocean meridional overturning circulation
(SOMOC) 177
4.3.3 Deep western boundary currents 178
4.3.4 Subpolar circulationgyres, slope and coastal currents 180
4.4 Modern Southern Ocean change 182
4.4.1 Climate change 182
4.4.2 Ocean change 183
4.4.3 Change in dynamics and circulation 185
4.5 Concluding remarks 186
References 187
vi
Contents

5. Advances in numerical modelling of the Antarctic ice
sheet
199
Martin Siegert and Nicholas R. Golledge
5.1 Introduction and aims 199
5.2 Advances in ice sheet modelling 200
5.2.1 Grounding line physics 200
5.2.2 Adaptive grids 202
5.2.3 Parallel ice sheet modelPISM 203
5.2.4 Coupled models 203
5.3 Model inputbed data 204
5.4 Advances in knowledge of bed processes 206
5.5 Model intercomparison 208
5.6 Brief case studies 209
5.7 Future work 211
References 212
6. The Antarctic Continent in Gondwana: a perspective
from the Ross Embayment and Potential Research
Targets for Future Investigations
219
Franco Talarico, Claudio Ghezzo and Georg Kleinschmidt
6.1 Introduction 219
6.2 The Antarctic plate and the present-day geological setting
of the Ross Embayment 221
6.3 East Antarctica 224
6.3.1 The Main Geological Units during the
PaleoproterozoicEarly Neoproterozoic
Rodinia Assemblage 224
6.3.2 From Rodinia breakup to Gondwana (c. 800650 Ma) 230
6.3.3 The ‘Ross Orogen’ in the Transantarctic Mountains
during the late Precambrianearly Paleozoic evolution
of the paleo-Pacific margin of
Gondwana (c. 600450 Ma) 237
6.4 West Antarctic Accretionary System 241
6.4.1 West Antarctica in the Precambrian to Mesozoic
(c. 180 Ma) evolution of Gondwana until the middle
Jurassic breakup 244
6.5 Mesozoic to Cenozoic Tectonic Evolution of the
Transantarctic Mountains 255
6.6 Tectonic evolution in the Ross Sea Sector during the Cenozoic259
6.7 Concluding remarks, open problems and potential research
themes for future geoscience investigations in Antarctica264
6.7.1 Persistent challenges for onshore geoscience
investigations 264
6.7.2 Antarctica and the Ross Orogen in the Transantarctic
Mountains 265
Contentsvii

6.7.3 Antarctica after Gondwana fragmentation 267
Acknowledgements 269
References 269
7. The Eocene-Oligocene boundary climate transition:
an Antarctic perspective
297
Simone Galeotti, Peter Bijl, Henk Brinkuis, Robert M. DeConto,
Carlota Escutia, Fabio Florindo, Edward G.W. Gasson, Jane Francis,
David Hutchinson, Alan Kennedy-Asser, Luca Lanci,
Isabel Sauermilch, Appy Sluijs and Paolo Stocchi
7.1 Introduction 297
7.2 Background 299
7.2.1 Plate tectonic setting 299
7.2.2 Antarctic paleotopography 301
7.2.3 Paleoceanographic setting 302
7.2.4 Global average and regional sea level response 302
7.2.5 Proxies to reconstruct past Antarctic climatic and
environmental evolution 303
7.2.6 Far-field proxies 304
7.3 Antarctic Sedimentary Archives 305
7.3.1 Land-based outcrops 305
7.3.2 Sedimentary archives from drilling on the Antarctic
Margin 313
7.4 Summary of climate signals from Antarctic sedimentary
archives 326
7.4.1 Longer-term changes 326
7.4.2 The climate of the Eocene-Oligocene transition 329
7.5 The global context of Earth and climate system changes
across the EOT 332
7.5.1 Climate modelling 333
7.5.2 Relative sea-level change around Antarctica 336
7.6 Summary 339
7.6.1 Earlymiddle Eocene polar warmth 340
7.6.2 Late Eocene cooling 340
7.6.3 Eocene-Oligocene transition 341
Acknowledgements 342
References 342
8. Antarctic Ice Sheet dynamics during the Late Oligocene
and Early Miocene: climatic conundrums revisited
363
Tim R. Naish, Bella Duncan, Richard H. Levy, Robert M. McKay,
Carlota Escutia, Laura De Santis, Florence Colleoni,
Edward G.W. Gasson, Robert M. DeConto and Gary Wilson
8.1 Introduction 363
8.2 Oligocene-Miocene Transition in Antarctic geological records
and its climatic significance 366
viii
Contents

8.3 Conundrums revisited 371
8.3.1 What caused major transient glaciation of Antarctica
across the OMT? 371
8.3.2 Apparent decoupling of Late Oligocene climate
and ice volume? 374
8.4 Concluding remarks 378
Acknowledgements 379
References 380
9. Antarctic environmental change and ice sheet
evolution through the Miocene to Pliocenea
perspective from the Ross Sea and George
V to Wilkes Land Coasts
389
Richard H. Levy, Aisling M. Dolan, Carlota Escutia,
Edward G.W. Gasson, Robert M. McKay, Tim R. Naish,
Molly O. Patterson, Lara F. Pe´rez, Amelia E. Shevenell,
Tina van de Flierdt, Warren Dickinson, Douglas E. Kowalewski,
Stephen R. Meyers, Christian Ohneiser, Francesca Sangiorgi,
Trevor Williams, Hannah K. Chorley, Laura De Santis,
Fabio Florindo, Nicholas R. Golledge, Georgia R. Grant,
Anna Ruth W. Halberstadt, David M. Harwood, Adam R. Lewis,
Ross Powell and Marjolaine Verret
9.1 Introduction 390
9.1.1 Overview and relevance 390
9.1.2 Far-field records of climate and ice sheet variability 395
9.1.3 Southern Ocean Paleogeography and Paleoceanography 409
9.1.4 Land elevation change and influences on Antarctic Ice
Sheet evolution 411
9.2 Records of Miocene to Pliocene climate and ice sheet
variability from the Antarctic margin 412
9.2.1 Introduction to stratigraphic records 412
9.2.2 George V Land to Wilkes Land Margin 414
9.2.3 The Ross Sea Embayment and Southern Victoria Land 424
9.3 Numerical modelling 453
9.3.1 Miocene 453
9.3.2 Pliocene 456
9.4 Synthesis/summary of key climate episodes and transitions in
Antarctica through the Miocene and Pliocene 461
9.4.1 Early to mid-Miocene 461
9.4.2 Miocene Climate Optimum 463
9.4.3 Miocene Climate Transition 466
9.4.4 Late Miocene 473
9.4.5 Pliocene 475
9.5 Next steps 479
Acknowledgements 481
References 482
Contentsix

10. Pleistocene Antarctic climate variability: ice sheet,
ocean and climate interactions
523
David J. Wilson, Tina van de Flierdt, Robert M. McKay
and Tim R. Naish
10.1 Background and motivation 523
10.1.1 Introduction 523
10.1.2 Orbital cyclicity and climate 526
10.1.3 Antarctic feedbacks in the global climate system 527
10.1.4 Strengths of Pleistocene research on Antarctica 528
10.2 Archives of Pleistocene Antarctic climate and
climate-relevant processes 529
10.2.1 Polar ice cores 529
10.2.2 Deep-sea paleoceanographic records 535
10.2.3 Ice-proximal sedimentary records 543
10.3 Records of global and Southern Ocean climate during
the Pleistocene 545
10.3.1 Global sea level 545
10.3.2 Sea surface temperatures 549
10.3.3 Intermediate and deep ocean temperatures 550
10.3.4 Antarctic temperatures and atmospheric CO
2 551
10.3.5 Sea ice extent and dust supply 552
10.4 Late Pleistocene carbon cycle and climate dynamics 553
10.4.1 Controls on glacialinterglacial atmospheric CO
2 553
10.4.2 Southern Ocean mechanisms based on sea ice,
ocean circulation and deep stratification 553
10.4.3 Southern Ocean mechanisms based on dust supply,
productivity and nutrient utilisation 557
10.4.4 Sequence of changes through the last glacial cycle 558
10.4.5 Millennial climate variability and the bipolar seesaw 561
10.5 Antarctic Ice Sheet dynamics in the late Pleistocene 565
10.5.1 Climate context 565
10.5.2 Global evidence on the Antarctic Ice Sheet 566
10.5.3 Regional studies of Antarctic Ice Sheet behaviour
before the LGM 568
10.5.4 Regional evidence on the West Antarctic Ice Sheet 568
10.5.5 Regional evidence on the East Antarctic Ice Sheet 571
10.5.6 Mechanisms of Antarctic Ice Sheet retreat and insights
from ice sheet modelling 577
10.5.7 Millennial variability and ice sheetoceanclimate
feedbacks 581
10.6 Antarctica during earlier Pleistocene climate states 583
10.6.1 Lukewarm interglacials 583
10.6.2 Super-interglacial MIS 31 585
10.6.3 Mid-Pleistocene Transition 586
10.7 Future research on Antarctica in the Pleistocene 591
10.7.1 Motivation and outlook 591
x
Contents

10.7.2 IODP Expedition 374: Ross Sea West Antarctic Ice
Sheet History 592
10.7.3 IODP Expedition 379: Amundsen Sea West Antarctic
Ice Sheet History 593
10.7.4 IODP Expedition 382: Iceberg Alley and Subantarctic
Ice and Ocean Dynamics 593
10.7.5 IODP Expedition 383: Dynamics of Pacific Antarctic
Circumpolar Current 594
Acknowledgements 595
References 595
11. Antarctic Ice Sheet changes since the Last Glacial
Maximum
623
Martin Siegert, Andrew S. Hein, Duanne A. White,
Damian B. Gore, Laura De Santis and Claus-Dieter Hillenbrand
11.1 Introduction 623
11.2 Response of the ice sheets to glacial climate and late
Quaternary ice sheet reconstructions 625
11.3 Constraining late Quaternary ice sheet extent, volume and
timing 627
11.4 Last interglacial (Eemian,B130116 ka) 629
11.5 Last Glacial Maximum, subsequent deglaciation and the
Holocene (B200 ka) 630
11.5.1 Queen Maud/Enderby Land 631
11.5.2 Mac.Robertson Land/Lambert Glacier-Amery Ice
Shelf/Prydz Bay 632
11.5.3 Princess Elizabeth Land to Wilkes Land 633
11.5.4 Ross Sea sector 636
11.5.5 Amundsen-Bellingshausen Seas 641
11.5.6 Antarctic Peninsula 646
11.5.7 Weddell Sea Embayment 650
11.6 Discussion: pattern and timing of post-LGM ice retreat
and thinning 659
11.7 Summary 661
Acknowledgements 662
References 662
12. Past Antarctic ice sheet dynamics (PAIS) and
implications for future sea-level change
689
Florence Colleoni, Laura De Santis, Tim R. Naish, Robert M. DeConto,
Carlota Escutia, Paolo Stocchi, Gabriele Uenzelmann-Neben,
Katharina Hochmuth, Claus-Dieter Hillenbrand, Tina van de Flierdt,
Lara F. Pe´rez, German Leitchenkov, Francesca Sangiorgi,
Stewart Jamieson, Michael J. Bentley and David J. Wilson
12.1 Research focus of the PAIS programme 689
Contentsxi

12.2 Importance of evolving topography, bathymetry, erosion
and pinning points 695
12.3 Reconstructions of Southern Ocean sea and air surface
temperature gradients 701
12.4 Extent of major Antarctic glaciations 705
12.5 Antarctic ice sheet response to past climate warmings712
12.6 Antarctica and global teleconnections: the bipolar seesaw721
12.7 The PAIS legacy: bridging the past and the future 725
12.7.1 The PAIS legacy 725
12.7.2 Challenges for the next programmes 729
12.7.3 Long-term projections and role of PAIS and future
programs 731
12.8 Coauthors from the PAIS community 733
Acknowledgements 735
References 735
Further reading 766
13. The future evolution of Antarctic climate: conclusions
and upcoming programmes
769
Martin Siegert, Fabio Florindo, Laura De Santis and Tim R. Naish
13.1 Introduction: the past is key to our future 769
13.2 Upcoming plans and projects 771
13.3 Conclusions 774
References 774
Index 777
xii
Contents

List of contributors
Michael J. BentleyDepartment of Geography, Durham University, Durham, United
Kingdom
Peter BijlLaboratory of Palaeobotany and Palynology, Department of Earth
Sciences, Marine Palynology and Paleoceanography, Utrecht University, Utrecht,
the Netherlands
Helen Bostock-LymanSchool of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of
Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Melissa BowenSchool of Environment, University of Auckland, Auckland, New
Zealand
Henk BrinkuisLaboratory of Palaeobotany and Palynology, Department of Earth
Sciences, Marine Palynology and Paleoceanography, Utrecht University, Utrecht,
the Netherlands; Coastal Systems Department, Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea
Research, Utrecht University, Den Burg, the Netherlands
Lionel CarterAntarctic Research Centre, Victoria University of Wellington,
Wellington, New Zealand
Hannah K. ChorleyAntarctic Research Centre, Victoria University of Wellington,
Wellington New Zealand
Florence ColleoniNational Institute of Oceanography and Applied Geophysics –
OGS, Sgonico, Italy
Laura De SantisNational Institute of Oceanography and Applied Geophysics –
OGS, Sgonico, Italy
Robert M. DeContoDepartment of Geosciences, University of Massachusetts,
Amherst, Amherst, MA, United States; Institute for Climate Change Solutions,
Frontone, Italy
Warren DickinsonAntarctic Research Centre, Victoria University of Wellington,
Wellington, New Zealand
Aisling M. DolanSchool of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds,
United Kingdom
Federica DondaNational Institute of Oceanography and Applied Geophysics –
OGS, Sgonico, Italy
Bella DuncanAntarctic Research Centre, Victoria University of Wellington,
Wellington, New Zealand
Carlota EscutiaAndalusian Institute of Earth Sciences, CSIC and Universidad de
Granada, Armilla, Spain
xiii

Tina van de FlierdtDepartment of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College
London, London, United Kingdom
Fabio FlorindoNational Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology, Rome, Italy;
Institute for Climate Change Solutions, Frontone, Italy
Jane FrancisBritish Antarctic Survey, Cambridge, United Kingdom
Simone GaleottiDepartment of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Urbino
Carlo Bo, Urbino, Italy; Institute for Climate Change Solutions, Frontone, Italy
Edward G.W. GassonSchool of Geographical Sciences, University of Bristol,
Bristol, United Kingdom; Centre for Geography and Environmental Science,
University of Exeter, Cornwall Campus, United Kingdom
Claudio GhezzoDepartment of Physical, Earth and Environmental Sciences,
University of Siena, Siena, Italy
Karsten GohlAlfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz-Center for Polar and Marine
Science, Bremerhaven, Germany; School of Geography, Geology and the
Environment, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom
Nicholas R. GolledgeAntarctic Research Centre, Victoria University of Wellington,
Wellington, New Zealand
Damian B. GoreDepartment of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Macquarie
University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Georgia R. GrantGNS Science, Avalon, Lower Hutt, New Zealand
Sean GulickInstitute for Geophysics & Deptartment of Geological Sciences,
Jackson School of Geosciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX,
United States
Richard H. LevyAntarctic Research Centre, Victoria University of Wellington,
Wellington, New Zealand; GNS Science, Lower Hutt, New Zealand
Anna Ruth W. HalberstadtClimate System Research Center, University of
Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, United States
David M. HarwoodDepartment of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of
Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, United States
Andrew S. HeinSchool of GeoSciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh,
United Kingdom
Javier Herna´ndez-MolinaDepartment of Earth Sciences, Royal Holloway
University of London, Egham, Surrey, United Kingdom
Claus-Dieter HillenbrandBritish Antarctic Survey, Cambridge, United Kingdom
Katharina HochmuthSchool of Geography, Geology and the Environment,
University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom; Alfred Wegener Institute,
Helmholtz-Center for Polar and Marine Science, Bremerhaven, Germany
David HutchinsonDepartment of Geological Sciences and Bolin Centre for Climate
Research, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
Stewart JamiesonDepartment of Geography, Durham University, Durham, United
Kingdom
xiv
List of contributors

Alan Kennedy-AsserBRIDGE, School of Geographical Sciences, University of
Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
Sookwan KimKorea Polar Research Institute, Incheon, Republic of Korea
Georg KleinschmidtInstitute for Geosciences, University of Frankfurt, Frankfurt,
Germany
Douglas E. KowalewskiDepartment of Earth, Environment, and Physics, Worcester
State University, Worcester, MA, United States
Gerhard KuhnAlfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz-Center for Polar and Marine
Science, Bremerhaven, Germany; School of Geography, Geology and the
Environment, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom
Luca LanciDepartment of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Urbino Carlo
Bo, Urbino, Italy; Institute for Climate Change Solutions, Frontone, Italy
Robert LarterBritish Antarctic Survey, Cambridge, United Kingdom
German LeitchenkovInstitute for Geology and Mineral Resources of the World
Ocean, St. Petersburg, Russia; Institute of Earth Sciences, St. Petersburg State
University, St. Petersburg, Russia
Richard H. LevyGNS Science, Avalon, Lower Hutt, New Zealand; Antarctic
Research Centre, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
Adam R. LewisDepartment of Geosciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo,
ND, United States
Robert M. McKayAntarctic Research Centre, Victoria University of Wellington,
Wellington, New Zealand; School of Earth and Environment, University of
Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
Antonio MeloniNational Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology, Rome, Italy
Stephen R. MeyersDepartment of Geoscience, University of Wisconsin-Madison,
Madison, WI, United States
Tim R. NaishAntarctic Research Centre, Victoria University of Wellington,
Wellington, New Zealand
Christian OhneiserDepartment of Geology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New
Zealand
Phil O’BrienDepartment of Environment and Geography, Macquarie University,
Sydney, NSW, Australia
Molly O. PattersonDepartment of Geological Sciences and Environmental Studies,
Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY, United States
Lara F. Pe´rezBritish Antarctic Survey, Cambridge, United Kingdom
Ross PowellDepartment of Geology and Environmental Geosciences, Northern
Illinois University, DeKalb, IL, United States
Francesca SangiorgiLaboratory of Palaeobotany and Palynology, Department of
Earth Sciences, Marine Palynology and Paleoceanography, Utrecht University,
Utrecht, The Netherlands
List of contributorsxv

Laura De SantisNational Institute of Oceanography and Applied Geophysics,
Trieste, Italy
Isabel SauermilchLaboratory of Palaeobotany and Palynology, Department of Earth
Sciences, Marine Palynology and Paleoceanography, Utrecht University, Utrecht,
the Netherlands; Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of
Tasmania, Hobart, TAS, Australia
Amelia E. ShevenellCollege of Marine Science, University of South Florida, St.
Petersburg, FL, United States
Martin SiegertGrantham Institute and Department of Earth Science and
Engineering, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
Appy SluijsLaboratory of Palaeobotany and Palynology, Department of Earth
Sciences, Marine Palynology and Paleoceanography, Utrecht University, Utrecht,
the Netherlands; Institute for Climate Change Solutions, Frontone, Italy
Paolo StocchiLaboratory of Palaeobotany and Palynology, Department of Earth
Sciences, Marine Palynology and Paleoceanography, Utrecht University, Utrecht,
The Netherlands; Coastal Systems Department, Royal Netherlands Institute for
Sea Research, Utrecht University, Den Burg, the Netherlands; Institute for
Climate Change Solutions, Frontone, Italy
Franco TalaricoDepartment of Physical, Earth and Environmental Sciences,
University of Siena, Siena, Italy; National Museum for Antarctica, University of
Siena, Siena, Italy
Gabriele Uenzelmann-NebenAlfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Center for Polar
and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany
Tina van de FlierdtDepartment of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College
London, London, United Kingdom
Marjolaine VerretAntarctic Research Centre, Victoria University of Wellington,
Wellington, New Zealand
Duanne A. WhiteInstitute for Applied Ecology, University of Canberra, Canberra,
ACT, Australia
Trevor WilliamsInternational Ocean Discovery Program, Texas A&M University,
College Station, TX, United States
David J. WilsonInstitute of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University College
London and Birkbeck, University of London, London, United Kingdom;
Department of Earth Sciences, University College London, London, United
Kingdom
Gary WilsonGNS Science, Lower Hutt, New Zealand
xvi
List of contributors

Preface
In July 2008, we published the first edition ofAntarctic Climate Evolution;
the first book dedicated to understanding the origin and development of the
world’s largest ice sheet and, in particular, how it responded to and influ-
enced climate change during the Cenozoic. The book’s content largely mir-
rored the structure of the Antarctic Climate Evolution (ACE) program,
which was an international initiative of the Scientific Committee on
Antarctic Research (SCAR), to investigate past changes in Antarctica by
linking climate and ice-sheet modelling studies with terrestrial and marine
geological and geophysical records. ACE was succeeded by another SCAR
programme named Past Antarctic Ice Sheet dynamics (PAIS), which existed
between 2013 and 2020. By building on the ACE legacy, and because of sig-
nificant improvements in ice-sheet modelling and the acquisition of palaeo-
climate records in key regions, PAIS led to new insights into Antarctica’s
contribution to former global sea-level change over timescales from centuries
to multiple millennia. PAIS also helped to understand better the interconnec-
tions between ice-sheet mass loss and atmospheric and oceanic processes at
local, regional and global levels.
The second edition ofAntarctic Climate Evolutionis a result of both SCAR
programmes, and serves to document the ‘state of knowledge’ concerning ice
and climate evolution of the Antarctic continent and its surrounding seas from
the beginning of the Cenozoic era to the present day. We hope the book will
continue to be of interest to research scientists from a wide range of disciplines
including glaciology, palaeoclimatology, sedimentology, climate change, envi-
ronmental science, oceanography and palaeoentology. We also anticipate that it
can serve as a guide to those wishing to understand how Antarctica has chan-
ged in the past, and how past change can inform our future.
Fabio Florindo
1
, Martin J. Siegert
2
, Laura De Santis
3
and Tim R. Naish
4
1
National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology, Rome, Italy,
2
Grantham
Institute and Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial
College London, London, United Kingdom,
3
National Institute of
Oceanography and Applied Geophysics—OGS, Sgonico, Trieste, Italy,
4
Antarctic Research Centre, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington,
New Zealand
xvii

Chapter 1
Antarctic Climate Evolution
second edition
Fabio Florindo
1
, Martin Siegert
2
, Laura De Santis
3
and
Tim R. Naish
4
1
National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology, Rome, Italy,
2
Grantham Institute and
Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, London, United
Kingdom,
3
National Institute of Oceanography and Applied GeophysicsOGS, Sgonico, Italy,
4
Antarctic Research Centre, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
1.1 Introduction
The Antarctic continent and the Southern Ocean are influential components
of the Earth System. Central to the understanding of global climate change
(including increases in temperature, precipitation and ocean pH) is an appre-
ciation of how the Antarctic Ice Sheet interacts with climate, especially dur-
ing times of rapid change. To comprehend the rates, mechanisms and impact
of the processes involved, one must look into the geological record for evi-
dence of past changes, on time scales from centuries and up to millions of
years. For several decades, international efforts have been made to determine
the glacial, tectonic and climate history of Antarctica and the Southern
Ocean. Much of this information derives from studies of sedimentary
sequences, drilled and correlated via seismic reflection data in and around
the continent (e.g.,Cooper et al., 2009). In addition, there have been numerous
terrestrial geological expeditions to the mountains exposed above the ice,
usually close to the margin of the ice sheet (e.g., GANOVEX expeditions).
Holistic interpretation of these data is now being made, and new challenging
hypotheses on the size and timing of past changes in Antarctica are being
developed.
In 2004 the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR)
commissioned a scientific research programme on Antarctic Climate
Evolution (ACE) to quantify the glacial and climate history of Antarctica by
linking climate and ice sheet modelling studies with terrestrial and marine
geological and geophysical evidence of past changes. ACE grew out of the
ANTOSTRAT (ANTarctic Offshore STRATigraphy) project, which was
1
Antarctic Climate Evolution. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819109-5.00007-4
©2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

sanctioned by SCAR in 1990 to reconstruct the Cenozoic palaeoclimatic and
glacial history of the Antarctic region from the study of the sedimentary
record surrounding the continent. The main achievements of ANTOSTRAT
and ACE were published in a set of special issues (Barrett et al., 2006;
Escutia et al., 2012; Florindo et al., 2003, 2005, 2008, 2009) and summarised
in the first edition of this book published in December 2008 (Florindo and
Siegert, 2008). ACE was followed from 2013 to 2020 by the Past Antarctic
Ice Sheet (PAIS) dynamics programme, which continued to work on con-
straining Antarctica’s contribution to sea level resulting from past changes in
ice sheet mass loss, and understanding its impacts on global environments
through changes to atmospheric and oceanic circulation. Based on paleo
analysis, PAIS aimed to bound the estimates of future ice loss in key areas
of the Antarctic margin with a multidisciplinary geoscientific approach
and, importantly, by integrating observations and records with numerical
models.
The PAIS research philosophy was based on datadata and datamodel
integration and intercomparison, and the development of ‘ice-to-abyss’ data
transects, extending from the ice-sheet interior to the deep sea (Fig. 1.1). The
‘data transect’ concept links ice cores, ice sheet-proximal information, off-
shore sediments and far-field records of past ice sheet behaviour and sea
level change, allowing reconstructions of former ice sheet geometries, and ice
sheetocean processes and their interactions. Different sectors respond dif-
ferently to external forcing due to a variety of constraints including bed
topography and geology, proximity to warm water masses and ice accumula-
tion rates (to list a few), so results from one sector are not necessarily repre-
sentative of the whole of Antarctica. Therefore PAIS aimed to develop
several transects across numerous regions. These integrated datasets enable
robust testing of a new generation of ice-sheet models (Siegert and Gollege,
2021), which are beginning to be coupled with glacial isostatic, atmosphere
and ocean models.
ANTOSTRAT, ACE and PAIS stratigraphic studies were based on a
huge compilation of multichannel seismic profiles, collected by many nations
and made freely available via the Antarctic Seismic Data Library System,
established and endorsed in 1991 by SCAR and by the Antarctic Treaty for
scientific cooperation and research purposes (seeMcKay et al., 2021).
Extensive PAIS-facilitated fieldwork on land and at sea has been planned
and undertaken within a framework of national and multinational projects,
including International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP) expeditions 374
(in 2018) (McKay et al., 2019), 379 (Gohl et al., 2021) and 382 (Weber
et al., 2021) (in 2019). PAIS research addressed some of the key questions
formulated by the 20-year Scientific Horizon Scan for understanding
Antarctic and Southern Ocean processes (Kennicutt et al., 2014, 2015, 2016,
2019), was influential in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) (IPCC, 2014), the IPCC Special
2Antarctic Climate Evolution

FIGURE 1.1
PAIS research approach.
Left panel
: Change of relative sea level caused by a deglaciation episode in West Antarctica normalised by the ocean-
averaged value, obtained solving the Sea Level Equation for an elastic Earth.
Central panel
: Proposed drilling strategy using International Ocean Discovery
Program drilling platforms to collect records linking climate, ice sheet and sea level histories on geologic time scales.
Right panel
: Ice sheet volume reconstruc-
tions for extreme interglacials considering four forcing mechanisms (sub-ice-shelf oceanic melting, sea level changes, annual precipitation cha
nges and tempera-
ture changes from present). Black dots in the right panel indicate the ANDRILL, the International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP) deep and shallow (SHALDRILL and MeBO) drill sites recovered from 2010 to 2019. Grey dots are pending/approved IODP proposals developed during PAIS.
Left panel:
Adapted from
Spada, 2017
,(
Spada and Melini, 2019
), Central panel: Adapted from figure 2.6 of (
Bickle et al., 2011
); Right panel: Adapted from
Pollard and
DeConto (2009)
.

Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (IPCC, 2019)
and the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (AR6), (IPCC, 2021), which will be
published in full during 2022.
The deep-sea oxygen isotope and atmospheric CO2records (Fig. 1.2)
show an overall climate cooling combined with ice volume increase and
CO
2decline during the Cenozoic, punctuated by events recognised in both
seismic and sedimentary records. The reconstructions of environmental con-
ditions, and ice-sheet response, during such events have been a focus of
PAIS, with the aim to provide the IPCC with such knowledge to better
understand future changes we are locked into and those we can still avoid.
This book is a culmination of findings from both ACE and PAIS, and still
benefiting from the legacy of ANTOSTRAT. It documents the state of
knowledge concerning the ice and climate evolution of the Antarctic continent
and its surrounding seas through the Cenozoic era.
1.2 Structure and content of the book
The book opens with a chapter (Chapter 2) (Florindo et al., 2021a)thatpro-
vides a background to the role of SCAR in over 60 years of coordination and
support of high-quality scientific research in the Antarctic and Southern Ocean.
Chapter 3 (McKay et al., 2021) summarises the current state of knowledge of
Cenozoic climate history in Antarctica in the context of near- and far-field
records, followed by a detailed discussion of the seismic stratigraphy, and drill
core constraints and palaeoclimatic records preserved within this stratigraphy,
from around the continental margin. Chapter 4 (Carter et al., 2021)focuseson
MesT
or
SerLanBurAquChaRup
PriBarLutYprThaSelDa n
C3C4C5C6C7C8C9C10C11C12C13
C15
C16C17C18C19C20C21C22C23C24C25C26C27C28C29C30
MioceneOligoceneEocenePaleocene
Ma a
Cret .
Magneto-
chron
Stage
Epoch
Ionian
CalGelPiaZan
C1C2
Pliocene
Tarantian
Pleistocene
Tarantian
C3
Holocene
las t 1000 0 las t 150
yearsyears
30 0 years
into the future
Anthropocene
65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10
MillionYearsBeforePresent)
5 4 3 2 1 400 200 20 10
kyrBefore Present
2300215020001850
Year
16
12
8
4
0
-4
16
12
8
4
0
-4
HadCRUT4
NGRIP
EPIC A Dom e C
benthic deep-sea
record
Earl y Eocene
Climat e Optimum
Middle Eocene
Climat e Optimum
Eocene/Oligocene
Transition
Oi-1
Glaciation
Oligocene/Miocene
Transition
Miocene
Climat e Optimum
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
-1.0
0.0
Mea
n
deep-se
a
temperature
differenc
e
to
toda y (°C)
Benthic
δ
1
8
O(‰)
Las t Glacial
Maximum
Middle Miocene
Transition
Middle-Pliocene
War m Period
Plio-Pleistocene
Transition
mid-Brunhes
Event
Middle-Pleistocene
Transition
Chapte r 7
Chapte r 13 Chapte r 13Chapte r 13
Chapte r 8
Chapte r 9Chapte r 10
Chapte r 11
Chapte r 13
East Antarctica
West Antarctica
Northern Hemisphere
polar ice
sheets
Southern Hemisphere
RCP8.5
RCP4.5
RCP2.6
FIGURE 1.2Global climate spanning the last 67 million years and future projections of cli-
mate change. Specific time periods in Antarctic history that are discussed in this book (Chapters
711 and 13) are indicated at the top.Published with permission by Thomas Westerhold.
4Antarctic Climate Evolution

the modern oceanography to provide a physical basis for realistic reconstructions
of past environments inAntarctica. Chapter 5 (Siegert and Golledge, 2021)
synthesises developments in ice sheet modelling over the last decade, and how
they have helped to understand the growth and decay of ice sheets during the
glaciated history of Antarctica. Chapter 6 (Talarico et al., 2021)providesan
overview of the Antarctic continent evolution from its inclusion as part of the
Gondwana supercontinent to the break-upof this landmass and the repositioning
of Antarctica at southern polar latitudes since the Early Cretaceous.
From Chapters 7 to 11, the book presents a series of reviews dealing with
specific time periods in Antarctic history: Eocene/Oligocene (Chapter 7)
(Galeotti et al., 2021), Oligocene/Miocene (Chapter 8) (Naish et al., 2021),
Miocene to Pliocene (Chapter 9) (Levy et al., 2021), Pleistocene
(Chapter 10) (Wilson et al., 2021) and the Last Glacial Maximum and
Holocene (Chapter 11) (Siegert et al., 2021a). Chapter 12 (Colleoni et al.,
2021) focuses on how PAIS research has improved our understanding about
the ice and climate evolution of the Antarctic continent and its surrounding
seas through the last 65 million years. The final Chapter 13 (Siegert et al.,
2021b) briefly summarises the PAIS legacy and highlights research priorities
needed for over the next decade to answer key scientific questions on the
role of the Antarctic continent in global climate change.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to our many friends and colleagues for advice and encouragement through
the production of this volume. We thank Andrea Dulberger, Editorial Project Manager of
Elsevier Science, for the support in the production of this book. During the preparation of
this book, our colleague and friend Franco Talarico, lead author of Chapter 6 (The
Antarctic Continent in Gondwana: A perspective from the Ross Embayment and Potential
Research Targets for Future Investigations) died unexpectedly on 15th December 2020.
This book is dedicated to his memory.
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(Eds.), Antarctic Climate Evolution, Second ed. Elsevier.
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Elsevier.
Antarctic Climate Evolutionsecond editionChapter | 17

Chapter 2
Sixty years of coordination and
support for Antarctic science
theroleofSCAR
Fabio Florindo
1
, Antonio Meloni
1
and Martin Siegert
2
1
National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology, Rome, Italy,
2
Grantham Institute and
Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, London,
United Kingdom
2.1 Introduction
International scientific collaboration in Antarctica and the Southern Ocean is
essential if we are to answer key questions on how the region is changing in
relation to anthropogenic warming and on the global impacts that will result,
as they can only be tackled seriously by sharing resources, logistics, skills,
experience and infrastructure across the region (e.g.,Kennicutt et al., 2016).
Aside from its contribution to scientific research per se, the Scientific
Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) is widely accepted as the most
influential non-governmental organisation contributing to international
Antarctic governance through the provision of impartial expert scientific
advice (Walton, 2009). SCAR aims to aid international scientific collabora-
tion, while facilitating the science that occurs in the Antarctic region through
a variety of initiatives. One scheme that SCAR operates is its formal
Scientific Research Programmes (SRPs), which are bold, thematic, interdisci-
plinary, multi-year efforts to advance fundamental knowledge on specific
issues. Two SRPs that relate to past changes in Antarctica have been
Antarctic Climate Evolution (ACE) and its successor Past Antarctic Ice
Sheet dynamics (PAIS). The main achievements from ACE were summarised
in the first edition of this book (Florindo and Siegert, 2008). In 2013 SCAR
awarded funding to PAIS, which has led to a number of research achieve-
ments relating to constraining Antarctica’s contribution to sea level that
resulted from past changes in ice sheet mass loss, and its general impacts on
the environment, and atmospheric and oceanic circulation. In the following
9
Antarctic Climate Evolution. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819109-5.00011-6
©2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

sections, we note how SCAR has achieved its goals, especially with regard
to understanding past climate, ocean and ice-sheet change.
2.2 Scientific value of research in Antarctica and the
Southern Ocean
Antarctica is the least explored continent on our planet. Similarly, its sur-
rounding ocean is poorly charted and understood. Because of its geographi-
cal position, and extreme physical characteristics, Antarctica is home to a
unique flora and fauna, whose study enlightens understanding of the complex
relationships between living organisms and the environment. Due to its dis-
tance from the main sources of pollution and, on land at least, the almost
total absence of anthropogenic disturbance, Antarctica provides us with the
opportunity to obtain knowledge about the function of the planet from a
remote, largely unpolluted observation point.
The thick ice sheet of Antarctica (over 4.5 km in some places) contains
records of snow precipitation over several hundred thousand years. Air bub-
bles trapped in the ice are time capsules of previous atmospheric composi-
tion, providing unique insights on past climate change and its drivers (e.g.,
Brook and Buizert, 2018). Because of its location with respect to the geo-
magnetic field, Antarctica (like the Arctic) enables us to study phenomena
ensuing from the interactions between the Sun and the Earth (Weller et al.,
1987). The transparency of the high-altitude Antarctic atmosphere makes it
ideal for astronomic observations and, consequently, for cosmological
research (e.g.,Kim et al., 2018).
The harsh conditions and isolation of Antarctic research stations also make
the region ideal as a training field for future space missions. The uniqueness of
the Antarctic continent has driven scientists to become used to dealing with spe-
cific scientific problems with bespoke technological solutions and, often through
trial and error, perfecting the technologies necessary to complete and repeat
such science, like those necessary for deep-ice drilling (Talalay, 2020).
Antarctic scientists have been providing information about the state of
the continent and its surrounding seas since polar exploration began back in
the early 19th century and, increasingly, as that exploration became more
scientific and sophisticated in the latter part of the last century. Antarctic
research endeavour was galvanised in the International Geophysical Year
(IGY), also known as the third International Polar Year (IPY), which
spanned an 18-month period from 1 July 1957 to 31 December 1958 and
represented the first coordinated study to measure the continent of Antarctica
(Florindo et al., 2008; Summerhayes, 2008; Walton, 2009)(Fig. 2.1).
The IGY was one of the largest organised international scientific endeavours
of the 20th century and led to significant advances in meteorology, atmospheric
sciences and glaciology. World Data Centers were established in order for the
new measurements to be stored and shared. During the IGY, 12 nations
10Antarctic Climate Evolution

established Antarctic research stations including those at the South Pole
(Amundsen-Scott, USA), temporarily atthe Pole of Inaccessibility (Polyus
Nedostupnosti, USSR) and, importantly for past climate studies, at Vostok
Station.
The IGY paved the way for an international agreement like no otherthe
Antarctic Treatywhich reserves the entire continent for peace and science.
In Washington DC on the 1st of December 1959 (Fig. 2.2), government repre-
sentatives of Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New
Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the then USSR, the UK and the USA became
the first signatories of the Antarctic Treaty (Berkman, 2011)(seeAppendix).
FIGURE 2.1One of the many postage stamps issued for the International Geophysical Year
19571958.By Bureau of Engraving and Printing. Designed by Ervine Metzl. (Public domain),
via Wikimedia Commons.
FIGURE 2.2Signature of the Antarctic Treaty on 1 December 1959 in Washington, DC, by
Ambassador Herman Phleger from the United States, who chaired the Conference on Antarctica
from 15 October to 1 December 1959 (Department of State, 1960).Courtesy of the Carleton
College Archives.
Sixty years of coordination and support for Antarctic scienceChapter | 211

The Treaty entered into force on 23 June 1961. Today, 54 nations have signed
the Treaty29 of which have voting rights (seehttp://www.scar.org/policy/
antarctic-treaty-system/). The Antarctic Treaty contains 14 articles (see
Appendix), which enshrine the following three principles:
Antarctica (meaning the entire region south of latitude 60

South) is to
be used for peaceful purposes only and military bases, manoeuvres and
weapons testing are prohibited. The prohibition also extends to nuclear
explosions and the disposal of nuclear waste.
The promotion of scientific investigation and cooperation, with the
exchange of information, plans, results and personnel to be actively
encouraged. This also includes freedom of access for the purpose of sci-
entific investigation.
Territorial claims are not recognised, disputed or established by the
Treaty, and no new claims are to be asserted.
Realising the importance of continuing international Antarctic collaboration at
the end of the IGY, it was decided that there was a need for further international
organisation of scientific activity in Antarctica and that a committee should be set
up for this purpose. The 4th Special Committee for the International Geophysical
Year (CSAGI) Antarctic Conference inParis in June 1957 passed a resolution
recommending that the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) should
appoint a committeead hoc with Professor C.-G. Rossby as convener (Fig. 2.3)to
FIGURE 2.3Professor Carl-Gustaf Arvid Rossby (Stockholm, 28 December 1898Stockholm, 19
August 1957).Harris & Ewing Collection (Public domain), via Wikimedia Commons.
12Antarctic Climate Evolution

examine the merits of further investigation in the Antarctic after the end of the
IGY, covering the entire field of science. The committee met at the ICSU Antarctic
meeting held in Stockholm between 9 and 11 September 1957, with members from
Argentina, Chile, France, Japan, Norway, UK, USA and USSR being present.
Later in September a Special Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR)
was established as an inter-disciplinary committee of ICSU to facilitate and
coordinate activities; twelve nations and four Unions (International Union of
Geodesy and GeophysicsIUGG; International Geographical Union
IGU; International Union of Biological SciencesIUBS; and Union Radio
Scientifique InternationalURSI) were invited to nominate delegates.
SCAR held its first meeting in the Administrative Office of ICSU in The
Hague(theNetherlands)on36 February 1958; the 12 participating nations of
the IGY were invited to attend, as well as representatives from five scientific
unions (Fig. 2.4). Subsequently SCAR was renamed the ‘Scientific’ Committee
on Antarctic Research. In 1987 SCAR was appointed as an observer to the
Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM) to ensure political and gover-
nance decisions are informed by the best available science.
FIGURE 2.4Participants at the first SCAR meeting in The Hague (the Netherlands) on 36
February 1958. (1) Dr. L.M. Gould, USA; (2) Dr.Ronald Fraser, ICSU;(3) Dr. N. Herlofson,
Convenor; (4) Col. E. Herbays, ICSU; (5) Prof. T. Rikitake, Japan; (6) Prof. Leiv Harang, Norway; (7)
Dr. Valter Schytt, IGU; (8) Dr. Anton F. Bruun, IUBS; (9) Mr. J.J. Taljaard, South Africa; (10) Capt.
F. Bastin, Belgium; (11) Capt. Luis de la Canal, Argentina; (12) Sir James Wordie, UK; (13) Prof. K.
E. Bullen, Australia; (14) Dr. H. Wexler, USA; (15) Ing. Ge´n. Georges Laclave`re, IUGG; (16) Ing.
Ge´n. M.A. Gougenheim, France; (17) Mr. Luis Renard, Chile; (18) Dr. M.M. Somov, USSR; (19)
Prof. J. van Mieghen, Belgium.FromWolff, T., 2010. The Birth and First Years of the Scientific
Committee on Oceanic Research, SCOR History Report #1. Scientific Committee on Oceanic
Research, Newark, DE, photograph courtesy of the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research.
Sixty years of coordination and support for Antarctic scienceChapter | 213

SCAR is responsible for initiating, developing and coordinating high-
quality international research in the Antarctic region within three scientific
standing groups: physical sciences, geosciences and life sciences. Its scien-
tific business is conducted in over 30 Science Groups including SRPs, stand-
ing committees, and action and expert groups. SCAR not only provides
objective, independent scientific advice to the ATCM but also to other orga-
nisations such as the UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change) and the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change) on matters relating to the science and conservation affecting the
management of Antarctica and the Southern Ocean, and on the role of the
Antarctic region in the wider connected and multi-process Earth system.
SCAR’s Standing Committee on the Antarctic Treaty System (SCATS) is
responsible for coordinating the advice presented to the ATCMs. This is
mainly done through: (1) the presentation of Information Papers and
Working Papers, most commonly involving contributions from scientists
from around the world helping to convey the up-to-date status of research in
any particular area; and (2) the Antarctic Environments Portal, which pro-
vides an important link between Antarctic science and Antarctic policy. The
portal makes science-based information available to the Antarctic Treaty
System’s Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP) and all the
Antarctic Treaty nations.
A modern view of ‘Antarctic Science’ comes not only from the knowl-
edge of the continent’s life, structure and history but also from an under-
standing of the wide-ranging regional and global changes taking place in
Antarctica and the Southern Ocean. SCAR’s scientific work is achieved
through the engagement and support of thousands of researchers from around
the world who together comprise the SCAR community, supported by
SCAR’s 44 national committees, which report to their respective academies
of science or equivalent bodies. SCAR adds value to national scientific activ-
ities by addressing topics covering the whole of Antarctica and/or the sur-
rounding Southern Ocean in ways impossible for any one nation to achieve
alone. SCAR’s governing body, ICSU, recently merged with the
International Social Science Council to form the International Science
Council (ISC). For this reason, amendments to the SCAR organisation and
website are in progress and the SCAR logo has been updated to reflect this
change of name (Fig. 2.5).
SCAR’s mission remains to be engaged, active and forward-looking in an
organisation that promotes, facilitates and delivers scientific excellence and
evidence-based policy advice on globally significant issues in and about
Antarctica. SCAR has also taken a leading role in supporting early career
scientists and in recognising the importance and value of inclusion and diver-
sity in fulfilling its mission. The 32 full members in SCAR’s family are as
follows: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile,
China, Ecuador, Finland, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Korea (Rep.
14Antarctic Climate Evolution

of), Malaysia, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Peru, Poland,
Portugal, Russia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine, the
UK, Uruguay and the USA. Twelve associate members are: Austria, Belarus,
Colombia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Iran, Monaco, Pakistan, Romania,
Thailand, Turkey and Venezuela. Nine ISC union members participate in the
work of SCAR: IUGG; IGU; IUBS; URSI; the International Astronomical
UnionIAU; International Union for Quaternary ResearchINQUA;
International Union of Geological SciencesIUGS; International Union of
Physiological SciencesIUPS; and the International Union of Pure and
Applied ChemistryIUPAC.
SCAR is governed by its Memorandum of Association (the legal state-
ment agreed when the organisation became a registered company and char-
ity) and its Articles of Association (the legal rules about how the
organisation is run), and these two documents form SCAR’s Constitution.
More detailed rules about the duties and responsibilities of SCAR’s members
are laid out in SCAR’s Rules of Procedure, describing how SCAR’s working
groups are established and governed.
2.3 The international framework in which SCAR operates
Although SCAR is primarily focused on science, it has close connections to
the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), which incorporates a whole complex of
arrangements made for the purpose of regulating relations among States
working in the Antarctic. The primary purpose of the Antarctic Treaty is to
ensure "in the interests of all mankind, that Antarctica shall continue forever
to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and shall not become the scene
or object of international discord". To this end, the ATS prohibits military
activity (except in direct support of science), prohibits nuclear explosions
and the disposal of nuclear waste, promotes scientific research and the
exchange of data, and holds all territorial claims in abeyance. The Treaty
FIGURE 2.5The SCAR logo.With permission from SCAR.
Sixty years of coordination and support for Antarctic scienceChapter | 215

applies to the area south of 60

South latitude, including all floating ice
shelves and islands.
The Treaty is augmented by recommendations adopted at Consultative
Meetings, by the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic
Treaty (Madrid, 1991), and by two separate conventions dealing with the
Conservation of Antarctic Seals (London, 1972) and the Conservation of
Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR, Canberra, 1980). The
Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities
(Wellington, 1988), negotiated between 1982 and 1988, has so far not
entered into force.
In October 2016 the world’s largest marine reserve was created in the
Ross Sea by a unanimous decision of CCAMLR’s 24 member states.
The Ross Sea Marine Protected Area (MPA) came into force in December
2017. The 598,000 square-mile MPA (more than twice the size of Texas)
consists of:
A ‘no take’ General Protection Zone (a fully protected area where no
commercial fishing is permitted) split into three separate areas;
A Special Research Zone which allows for limited research fishing for
krill and toothfishsee below; and
A Krill Research Zone which allows for controlled research fishing for
krill, in accordance with the objectives of the MPA.
The Antarctic’s nutrient-rich waters are highly productive, leading to
huge plankton and krill blooms that support vast numbers of fish, seals, pen-
guins and whales. Importantly, and inspite of whaling that nearly drove
extinction of some species, the Ross Sea is ‘the least altered marine ecosys-
tem on Earth’, containing intact communities of emperor and Adelie pen-
guins, crabeater seals, orcas and minke whales (that are recovering in
numbers).
2.4 The organisation of SCAR
SCAR’s three scientific groups (discussed earlier) are responsible for shar-
inginformationondisciplinaryscientific research, identifying research
areas or fields where current research is lacking, coordinating and stimulat-
ing proposals for future research, and establishing scientific Programme
Planning Groups (PPGs) to develop formal proposals on future work to the
Delegates, who meet every 2 years. At the heart of this coordination are
SCAR’s SRPs, which address major cutting-edge research questions. To
develop an SRP requires first a 2-year PPG. Proposals are fully peer-
reviewed and exist in the first instance for a 4-year term. Data management
policies and outreach plans are requiredtoensurethereisalastinglegacy
of dissemination and knowledge exchange. In 2004 SCAR Delegates
approved the following SRPs:
16Antarctic Climate Evolution

Antarctica and the Global Climate System (AGCS);
Antarctic Climate Evolution (ACE) (Fig. 2.6);
Evolution and Biodiversity in the Antarctic (EBA);
Subglacial Antarctic Lake Exploration (SALE); and
Interhemispheric Conjugacy Effects in Solar-Terrestrial and Aeronomy
Research (ICESTAR).
The subsequent generation of SCAR SRPs (20132020) included
(Fig. 2.7):
State of the Antarctic Ecosystem (AntEco), which aimed to increase the
scientific knowledge of biodiversity, from genes to ecosystems that, cou-
pled with increased knowledge of species biology, can be used for the
conservation and management of Antarctic ecosystems;
Antarctic Ecosystems: Adaptations, Thresholds and Resilience (Ant-
ERA), which aimed to provide a platform for the exchange of knowledge
and for the support of research on biological processes at ecological time
scales especially related to environmental change;
Solid Earth Responses and Influences on Cryospheric Evolution
(SERCE), which aimed to advance understanding of the interactions
between the solid earth and the cryosphere to better constrain ice mass
balance, ice dynamics and sea level change in a warming world;
Antarctic Climate Change in the 21st Century (AntClim21), which aimed
to deliver improved regional projections of key elements of the Antarctic
atmosphere, ocean and cryosphere for the next 20200 years and to under-
stand the responses of the physical and biological systems (through multi-
disciplinary collaboration) to natural and anthropogenic climate drivers;
Astronomy and Astrophysics from Antarctica (AAA), which aimed to
coordinate astronomical activities in Antarctica in a way that ensures the
FIGURE 2.6Antarctic Climate Evolution (ACE) logo.
Sixty years of coordination and support for Antarctic scienceChapter | 217

best possible outcomes from international investment in Antarctic astron-
omy and maximises the opportunities for productive interaction with
other disciplines; and
Past Antarctic Ice Sheet dynamics (PAIS), which built on the ACE legacy
in constraining Antarctica’s contribution to sea level, resulting from past
changes in ice sheet mass loss and its impacts on the environment, and
atmospheric and oceanic circulation (Fig. 2.8).
Based on the analysis of Antarctica’s past, PAIS aimed to bound esti-
mates of future ice loss in key areas of the Antarctic margin with a multi-
disciplinary approach and by integrating geological data with computer
models. PAIS research has been influential in the IPCC’s fifth assessment
report (AR5) and its current sixth cycle climate assessments (AR6).
Extensive PAIS-facilitated fieldwork on land and at sea has been carried
out within the framework of national and multi-national projects,
FIGURE 2.8Past Antarctic Ice Sheet Dynamics (PAIS) logo.
FIGURE 2.7Organisation of SCAR.http://www.scar.org(retrieved February 2019).
18Antarctic Climate Evolution

including the International OceanDiscovery Program (IODP) expeditions
374 in 2018, and 389 and 382 in 2019.
The IODP is among the main organisations external to SCAR, in addition
to National Antarctic Programs, providing enormous support for the PAIS
drilling expeditions in Antarctica, both in terms of offshore and shore-based
science, education and communication-outreach programmes and for pre-
cruise work and meetings. A recent paper highlighting progress made in
the past 45 years between the SCAR geoscience paleoclimate projects
and IODP has been published in the special issue on Scientific Ocean
Drilling‘Keeping an Eye on Antarctic Ice Sheet Stability’ (Escutia
et al., 2019).
Importantly, numerical ice sheet modelling has developed significantly
since the first edition of the ACE book (Siegert and Golledge, 2021), and
these developments have led to important advances in our understanding of
how ice sheets have changed with past climate, and how they will likely
change in future under global warming.
In line with its predecessors ANTOSTRAT and ACE, PAIS fulfilled
an important role in informing and coordinating the scientific commu-
nity by organising scientific conferences, workshops, schools (Fig. 2.9),
facilitating the planning of new data-acquisition missions using emerg-
ing technologies, encouraging data sharing (e.g., the update and use of
FIGURE 2.9The different activities carried out by the PAIS programme in support of scien-
tific advances, training, collaboration, knowledge exchange and data sharing.
Sixty years of coordination and support for Antarctic scienceChapter | 219

the Antarctic Seismic Data Library System, seeMcKay et al., 2021)
and initiating/expanding cross-linkages among Antarctic research
communities.
All the SRPs ended in December 2020 and a new set of SCAR pro-
grammes have come into play for the next 8 years (https://www.scar.org/sci-
ence/srp/):
Integrated Science to Inform Antarctic and Southern Ocean Conservation
(Ant-ICON), which aims to answer fundamental science questions (as
identified by the SCAR Horizon Scan,Kennicutt et al., 2015) relating to
the conservation and management of Antarctica and the Southern Ocean
with a focus on research to drive and inform international decision-
making and policy change;
Near-term Variability and Prediction of the Antarctic Climate System
(AntClim
now
) that aims to investigate the prediction of near-term condi-
tions in the Antarctic climate system on timescales of years to multiple
decades;
INStabilities and Thresholds in ANTarctica (INSTANT) will address the
first-order question about Antarctica’s contribution to sea level. It encom-
passes geoscience, physical sciences and biological sciences, to investigate
the ways in which interactions between the ocean, atmosphere and cryo-
sphere have influenced ice sheets in the past, and how such interplay may
occur in the future, with a special focus on quantifying the contributions to
global sea level change. INSTANT builds on a white paper developed dur-
ing the PAIS conference held in Italy in 2017, involving over 200 scientists
from 18 nations and spanning differentdisciplines and with representatives
from the other SCAR SRPs (see details in the PAIS web sitehttp://www.
scar-pais.org/index.php/highlights/past-antarctic-ice-sheet-dynamics-pais-con-
ference-2017-trieste-italy). The white paper recognised the importance of a
transdisciplinary approach in understanding and quantifying the Antarctic ice
sheet contribution to past and future global sea-level change, from improved
understanding of climate, ocean and solid Earth interactions and feedbacks
with the ice. The white paper also acknowledged the importance of under-
standing the global consequences and impacts of Antarctic change so that
decision-makers can better anticipate and assess the risk of sea level rise in
order to evaluate adaptation and mitigation pathways.
2.5 Sixty years of significant Antarctic science discoveries
Antarctic scientists working with SCAR have been involved in many leading
scientific discoveries, such as:
The discovery of the ozone hole and elucidation of its chemistry;
The history of the ice sheet and its implications for changing sea level;
20Antarctic Climate Evolution

The circulation of the Southern Ocean and its role in the storage and
emission of CO2and heat;
The fossilised flora of Antarctica, which was covered by flourishing veg-
etation 100 million years ago, and of Antarctic dinosaurs;
The 600 million years journey of Antarctica from North Pole to South
Pole, under the influence of plate tectonics;
The sub-ice topography, including the existence of subglacial lakes and
rivers;
The amazing circum-Antarctic land-free travel of albatrosses;
The extraordinary diversity of marine life;
The detection of neutrinos originating in outer space; and
Antarctica as an analogue for extra-terrestrial life and other aspects of
planetary exploration.
Assemblies of Delegates and Open Science Conferences are key events in
the life of SCAR. The last two were POLAR2018 and SCAR 2020 Online.
The former took place in Davos, Switzerland (1526 June 2018), and was
also home to the XXXV SCAR Biennial Meeting, the Arctic Science Summit
Week (ASSW) and a joint SCAR/IASC Open Science Conference. The SCAR
meetings, the ASSW and the Open Science Conference were hosted by the
Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research (WSL) under
the patronage of the Swiss Committee on Polar and High-Altitude Research.
Over 2500 attendees presentedB1600 posters andB1000 oral papers as
well as plenary sessions, panel discussions, side meetings and social events. At
POLAR2018 SCAR agreed to support the following action groups: Earth
Observation (Physical Sciences), ANGWINANtarctic Gravity Wave
Instrument Network (Physical Sciences), AntArchitecture (Geosciences and
Physical Sciences), IMPACTInput Pathways of Persistent Organic
Pollutants to Antarctica (Life Sciences), SKAGSCAR Krill action group
(Life Sciences) and Plastic in Polar Environment (Life Sciences). At the
Delegates Meeting, three new PPGs were proposed in order to develop future
SRPs: Integrated science to support Antarctic and Southern Ocean conservation
(ANT-ICON); Near-term Variability and Prediction of the Antarctic Climate
System (AntClim
now
); and INSTANT (initially called AISSL, e.g.,Fig. 2.7).
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the SCAR-OSC 2020 was held online
and remotely (0307 August 2020). The registration was free, and there
were over 2700 people in attendance. The SCAR-OSC 2020 Portal will
remain open indefinitely, so everyone who registers will be able to view ses-
sions and also plenaries, workshops and mini-symposia recordings at any
time and browse the Contributing Authors Gallery (almost 600 virtual dis-
plays). All videos uploaded to the event portal are available on the SCAR
2020 Online YouTube channel and event websitescar2020.org, which that
will also remain open indefinitely.
Sixty years of coordination and support for Antarctic scienceChapter | 221

Excellence in research and leadership has been recognised by prestigious
awards to ACE/PAIS leaders. Dr. Carlota Escutia, who successfully led the
PAIS programme, was awarded the SCAR 2020 Medal for International
Scientific Coordination, during theweekofSCAR2020Online.PastACE/
PAIS Co-Chief Officers Dr. Martin Seigert, Dr. Tim Naish, and Dr. Rob
DeConto have been awarded the prestigious Tinker-Muse Prize for their contri-
bution to Antarctic Science and Policy.In 2016, the SCAR Research Medal was
awarded to Dr Rob Dunbar who was an inaugural Co-Chief Officer of ACE.
2.6 Scientific Horizon Scan
In 2014 SCAR organised a formal Scientific Horizon Scanning exercise to deter-
mine the most pressing eighty scientificquestions that require answers within the
next two decades. The Horizon Scan was conducted through a formal online pro-
cess involving the entire Antarctic research community, followed up by a residen-
tial retreat in Queenstown, New Zealand from 20 to 23 April 2014 (Kennicutt
et al., 2014, 2015). The questions were agreed under six main themes: (1) define
the global reach of the Antarctic atmosphere and Southern Ocean; (2) understand
how, where and why ice sheets lose mass; (3) reveal Antarctica’s history; (4) learn
how Antarctic life evolved and survived;(5) observe space and the Universe; and
(6) recognise and mitigate human influences. At least 17 of the 80 scientific ques-
tions relate to past changes in Antarctica and the Southern Ocean (seeTable 2.1).
In 2016 COMNAP (the Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs)
responded to the results of the horizon scan in its Antarctic Roadmap Challenge
(2224 August, Tromsø, Norway), by ascertaining the logistics and equipment
necessary to provide answers to the scientific questions (Kennicutt et al., 2016).
Again, a formal process was used involving scientists, managers and logistics agen-
cies from around the world. Most recently, 5 years since the Horizon Scan,
Kennicutt et al. (2019)explored the progress the SCAR community has made in
answering the scientific questions. While some key questions have received atten-
tion and progress, othersespecially those requiringnew equipment or fieldwork
in remote regionsrequire significant attention if the promise of the Horizon
Scan is to be fulfilled within its 20-year vision (Table 2.1). For research into past
conditions in the Antarctic, most questions score ‘2’, meaning that progress has
been limited. However, for a few questions, a score of 1 was awarded, indicating
that very little if any progress has beenmade in 5 years. Questions such as:How
did the climate and atmospheric composition vary prior to the oldest ice records?;
How will the sedimentary record beneath the ice sheet inform our knowledge of
the presence or absence of continental ice?;Do variations in geothermal heat flux
in Antarctica provide a diagnostic signature of sub-ice geology?;andHow have
ecosystems in the Antarctic and the Southern Ocean responded to warmer climate
conditions in the past?make up some of the most important scientific questions
concerning past changes in Antarctica. These are now internationally-agreed as
essential scientific imperatives to which SCAR and its community hope to focus
22Antarctic Climate Evolution

TABLE 2.1Table of SCAR horizon scan questions related to past
conditions in Antarctica.
Question Progress made since 2014
#3 How have teleconnections, feedbacks
and thresholds in decadal and longer
term climate variability affected ice sheet
response since the Last Glacial
Maximum, and how can this inform
future climate projections?
The absence of annually resolved
records limits progress on this question.
Rating512
#5 How did the climate and atmospheric
composition vary prior to the oldest ice
records?
More studies of the Pliocene in the
Antarctic are needed, and collection of
sediment and rock records is required.
Rating512
#8 Does past amplified warming of
Antarctica provide insight into the effects
of future warming on climate and ice
sheets?
Research on this question is at its
beginnings. Incorporating ozone
variability could improve seasonal
predictions. Rating52
# 9 Are there CO
2equivalent thresholds
that foretell collapse of all or part of the
Antarctic ice sheet?
It has been 3 million years Before
Present since CO
2values reached those
of the present day. Additional geological
records are needed. Rating52
#17 How has Antarctic sea ice extent
and volume varied over decadal to
millennial timescales?
A multi-decadal trend of slow expansion
of Antarctic sea ice was interrupted by a
sharp decline to record low levels in
2016 and has remained low, while
regional trends in sea ice extent have
been linked to well-known modes of
climate variability. Rating52
#21 How did the Antarctic cryosphere
and the Southern Ocean contribute to
glacial/inter-glacial cycles?
There are new insights into the
contribution of changes in Southern
Ocean overturning circulation to glacial/
inter-glacial cycles. Rating53
#28 What are the thresholds that lead to
irreversible loss of all or part of the
Antarctic ice sheet?
The existence of various tipping points
has been proposed. Rating52
#32 How fast has the Antarctic ice sheet
changed in the past and what does that
tell us about the future?
Improved understanding of how the
Antarctic Ice Sheet responded to forcings
in the past is crucial to improving the
reliability of forecasts. Most studies to
date are for the last deglaciation.
Rating52
(Continued)
Sixty years of coordination and support for Antarctic science
Chapter | 223

TABLE 2.1(Continued)
Question Progress made since 2014
#33 How did marine-based Antarctic ice
sheets change during previous inter-
glacial periods?
Information on past interglacial periods
is mainly based on sea-level records in
both the north and south. In these
records it is difficult to disentangle
contributions from the Greenland and
Antarctic ice sheets. Rating52
#34 How will the sedimentary record
beneath the ice sheet inform our
knowledge of the presence or absence of
continental ice?
Even if robust indicators of ice-free
conditions can be extracted from
sedimentary records, the difficulties of
subglacial access means that only sparse
point data could be recovered, making
large-scale inferences about ice sheet
presence/absence challenging.
Rating51
#35 How does the bedrock geology
under the Antarctic ice sheet inform our
understanding of supercontinent
assembly and break-up through Earth’s
history?
Machine learning approaches have not
been adapted. Samples from the bed are
keyhence fast drill/Rapid Access Ice
Drill are important technologies, but
little progress has been made in
perfecting these tools. Rating52
#36 Do variations in geothermal heat
flux in Antarctica provide a diagnostic
signature of subice geology?
Available geothermal maps differ from
each other making it difficult to resolve
geology. In situ samples are key.
Rating512
#37 How does volcanism affect the
evolution of the Antarctic lithosphere,
ice sheet dynamics, and global climate?
Significant progress on this question but
gaps in knowledge persist. Major
advances have been accomplished by
the Polar Observing Network
(POLENET). Detailed models exist for
lithospheric thickness and other
variables, but data are needed for
validations. Rating523
#39 What are and have been the rates of
geomorphic change in different Antarctic
regions, and what are the ages of
preserved landscapes?
There are ideas on how to do this, but
they need to be expanded continent-
wide. Links to modelling need
improvements. Rating52
#40 How do tectonics, dynamic
topography, ice loading and isostatic
adjustment affect the spatial pattern of
sea level change on all timescales?
Dynamic topography may be important.
Pore pressures may contribute to a better
understanding of aseismicity. Rating52
(Continued)
24Antarctic Climate Evolution

on for at least the next decade. Answers will increasingly depend on drilling on
land for the oldest ice (expected to be about 1.5 million years old), and deep ocean
drilling to explore the sedimentary record ofthe discharge of ice from the continent
and the thermal history of the Southern Ocean (from the physical and chemical
remains of fossil plankton).
2.7 Summary
Antarctic research is conducted with the assistance and support of SCAR, the
most important non-governmental body overseeing coordination and collabora-
tion of science in Antarctica and the Southern Ocean. SCAR has been in exis-
tence since 1958 and has offered a unique forum through which international
dialogue, exchange and cooperation can take place regarding forming answers
to scientific questions relevant to understanding processes in the most remote
and extreme place on Earth. This approach was demonstrated in 19571958
as part of the IGY (which in effect was the third International Polar Year or
IPY), and in 20072009, when SCAR played a leading role in the fourth IPY.
SCAR has been instrumental in recent years in focusing resources on major
research priorities, and research into past environments has benefitted signifi-
cantly from this approachfirst through the ACE SRP and in the last few
years in the PAIS SRP. In 2014, a formal international Horizon Scan of
Antarctic research was undertaken, which led to the emergence of an agreed
TABLE 2.1(Continued)
Question Progress made since 2014
#45 How have ecosystems in the
Antarctic and the Southern Ocean
responded to warmer climate conditions
in the past?
There is progress regarding the last Mya
(glacial cycles of warming and cooling)
with identification of refugia (both
marine and terrestrial habitats).
Knowledge is starting to be developed
for some marine and terrestrial systems,
but ecosystem responses remain largely
unknown. Rating51
#46 How has life evolved in the
Antarctic in response to dramatic events
in the Earth’s history?
1, 2 or 3 depending on the adaptation
and event. Significant adaptations are
known in relation to cooling (antifreeze,
haemoglobin loss etc.) and in other areas
(e.g., refugia) good progress has been
made. Rating513
The ratings are between 1 and 4; 1 being unaddressed, 4 being answered.
Source: Question numbers as inKennicutt et al. (2014); progress report fromKennicutt et al.
(2019).
Sixty years of coordination and support for Antarctic scienceChapter | 225

set of the most important 80 scientific questions for understanding Antarctic
and Southern Ocean processes. At least 17 of these questions are directly ger-
mane to understanding past changes. A recent inspection of the progress made
on each question tells us that much work still remains to be done on most of
the Horizon Scan questions, and especially on those relating to the past.
Future drilling offshore and through the ice sheet is essential for further prog-
ress. Through SCAR, the work of ACE and PAIS has led to significant
improvements in our appreciation of past conditions in Antarctica and their
global significance, but much work remains to be done.
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Appendix
The Antarctic Treaty signed at Washington on 1 December 1959, by plenipo-
tentiaries of the United States of America and 11 other countries.
Sixty years of coordination and support for Antarctic scienceChapter | 227

28Antarctic Climate Evolution

Sixty years of coordination and support for Antarctic scienceChapter | 229

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30Antarctic Climate Evolution

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32Antarctic Climate Evolution

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a resolved choice, and a sincere endeavour, are the life of grace and
duty, when feeling passions are but lower, uncertain things. You
know not what you do, when you lay so much on the passionate
part; nor when you strive so much for deep and transporting
apprehensions; these are not the great things, nor essentials of
holiness. Too much of this feeling may distract you. God knoweth
how much you are able to bear. Passionate feelings depend much
upon nature. Some persons are more sensible than others; a little
thing goeth deep with some: the wisest and weightiest persons are
usually least passionate; and the weakest hardly moderate their
passions. God is not an object of sense, and therefore more fit for
the understanding and will, than the passions, to work upon. That is
the holiest soul which is most inclined to God, and resolved for him,
and conformed to his will; and not that which is affected with the
deepest griefs, and fears, and joys, and other such transporting
passions; though it were best, if even holy passions could be raised
at the will's command, in that measure which fitteth us best for duty.
But I have known many complain for want of deeper feeling, who if
their feeling (as they called their passion) had been more, it might
have distracted them. I had rather be that christian that loathes
himself for sin, resolveth against it, and forsaketh it, though he
cannot weep for it; than one of those that can weep to-day, and sin
again to-morrow, and whose sinful passions are quickly stirred, as
well as their better passions.
Direct. XIV. Make not too great a matter of your own thoughts; and
take not too much notice of them; but if Satan cast in molesting
thoughts, if you cannot cast them out, set light by them, and take
less notice of them. Making a great matter of every thought that is
cast into your mind, will keep those thoughts in your mind the
longer. For that which we are most sensible of, we most think on;
and that which we least regard, we least remember. If you would
never be rid of them, the way is to be still noting them, and making
too great a matter of them. These troublesome thoughts are like
troublesome scolds, that if you regard them, and answer them, will
never have done with you; but if you let them talk, and take no

notice of them, nor make any answer to them, they will be weary
and give over. The devil's design is to vex and disquiet you; and if he
see you will not be vexed and disquieted, he will give over
attempting it. I know you will say, Should I be so ungodly as to
make light of such sinful thoughts? I answer, Make not so light of
them as to be indifferent what thoughts are in your mind, nor so as
to take the small sin to be none; but make so light of them as not to
take them for greater nor more dangerous sins than they are; and
so light of them as not to take distinct, particular notice of them, nor
to disquiet yourselves about them; for if you do, you will have no
room in your thoughts for Christ and heaven, and that which should
take up your thoughts; but the devil will rejoice to see how he
employeth you in thinking over your own thoughts, or rather his
temptations; and that he can employ you all the day in hearkening
to all that he will say to you, and in thinking of his motions instead
of thinking on the works of God. There are none of God's servants
without irregularities and sin of thoughts, which they must daily ask
forgiveness of, and rejoice to think that they have a sufficient
Saviour and remedy, and that sin shall but occasion the magnifying
of grace; but if they should excessively observe and be troubled at
every unwarrantable thought, it would be a snare to take them off
almost all their greater duties. Would you like it in your servant, if he
should stop in observing and troubling himself about every ordinary
imperfection in his work, instead of going on to do it?
Direct. XV. Remember that it is no sin to be tempted, but only to
yield to the temptation; and that Christ himself was carried about
and tempted blasphemously by the devil, even to fall down and
worship him; and yet he made these temptations but an advantage
to the glory of his victory. Take not the devil's sin to be yours. Are
your temptations more horrid and odious than Christ's were? What if
the devil had carried you to the pinnacle of the temple as he did
Christ? Would you not have thought that God had forsaken you, and
given you up to the power of Satan? But you will say, that you yield
to the temptation, and so did not Christ. I answer, It cannot be
expected that sinful man should bear a temptation as innocently as

Christ did? Satan found nothing in Christ to comply with him; but in
us he findeth a sinful nature! Wax will receive an impression when
marble will not. But it is not every sinful taint that is a consent to the
sin to which we are tempted.
Direct. XVI. Consider how far you are from loving, delighting in, or
being loth to leave these sinful thoughts; and that no sin
condemneth, but that which is so loved and delighted in, as that you
had rather keep than leave it. Would you not fain be delivered from
all these horrid thoughts and sins? Could you not be willing to live in
disgrace, or want, or banishment, so you might but be free from sin?
If so, why doubt you of the pardon of it? Can you have any surer
sign of repentance, or that your sin is not a reigning, unpardoned
sin, than that it is not loved and desired by you? The less will, the
less sin, and the more will, the more sin. The covetous man loveth
his money, and the fornicator loveth his lust, and the proud man
loveth his honour, and the drunkard loveth his cups, and the glutton
loveth to satisfy his appetite; and so love these that they will not
leave them. But do you love your disturbing, confused, or
blasphemous thoughts? Are you not so weary of them, as to be even
weary of your lives because of them? would you not be glad and
thankful never to be troubled with them more? And yet do you doubt
of pardon?
Direct. XVII. Charge not your souls any deeper than there is cause
with the effects of your disease. Indeed remotely a man that in
distraction thinks or speaks amiss, may be said to be faulty, so far as
his sin did cause his disease; but directly and of itself, the
involuntary effects of sickness are no sin. Melancholy is a mere
disease in the spirits and imagination, though you feel no sickness;
and it is as natural for a melancholy person to be hurried and
molested with doubts, and fears, and despairing thoughts, and
blasphemous temptations, as it is for a man to talk idly in a fever
when his understanding faileth; or to think of and desire drink, when
his fever kindleth vehement thirst. And how much would you have a
man in a fever accuse himself for such a thirst, or such thoughts,

desire, or talk? If you had those hideous thoughts in your dreams,
which you have when you are awake, would you think them
unpardoned sins, or rather unavoidable infirmities? why your
distemper makes them to be to you but almost as dreams.
Direct. XVIII. Be sure that you keep yourself constantly employed
(as far as your strength will bear) in the diligent labours of a lawful
calling; and spend none of your precious time in idleness. Idleness is
the tide-time of the tempter: when you are idle, you invite the devil
to come and vex you. Then you can have while to hearken to him,
and think on all that he will put into your minds, and then to think
over all those thoughts again! When you have nothing else to do,
the devil will find you such work. Then you must sit still and muse;
and your thoughts must be stirring in the mud of your own
distempers, as children lie paddling in the dirt. And idleness is a sin,
which God will not favour. He hath commanded you to "labour six
days, and in the sweat of your brows to eat you bread; and he that
will not labour is unworthy to eat," 2 Thess. iii. Remember that time
is precious, and doth haste away, and God hath given you none in
vain. Therefore, as you are troubled for other sins, make conscience
of this sin, and waste not one quarter of an hour's time in your idle,
unprofitable musings. It is just with God to make your sin itself to be
your punishment, and your own idle thoughts to chastise you daily,
when you will not get up and go about your lawful business. Nor will
pretences of prayer, or any devotion, excuse your idleness, for it is
against the law of God. Above all that I have said to you, let me
entreat you therefore to obey this one direction. I have known
despairing, melancholy persons cured by setting themselves
resolutely and diligently about their callings (and changing air and
company, and riding abroad.) If you will sit musing in a corner, and
sin against God by idleness and loss of time, and increase your own
miseries withal, rather than you will rouse up yourself, and ply your
business, your calamity is just. Say not, that you have little or
nothing to do; for God hath made it the duty of all, be they never so
rich, to labour in such employment as is suitable to their place and
strength.

Direct. XIX. Do but mark well how much the devil gets by keeping
you in sad, despondent thoughts; and then you may easily see that
it cannot be your duty, nor best for you, which is so gainful and
pleasing to the devil. By keeping you in these self-perplexing doubts
and fears, he robs God of the thanks and praise which you owe him
for all his mercies. These highest duties you cast aside, as if they did
not belong to you. You give not God the honour of his most
miraculous mercy, in our redemption; nor do you study, or relish, or
admire, or magnify the riches of grace in Jesus Christ! You have
poor, low thoughts of the infinite love of God, and are unfit to judge
of it or perceive it, being like a choleric stomach, which puts a
continual bitterness in the mouth, which hinders it from tasting any
sweetness in their meat. It hereby unfitteth you for the love of God,
and more inclineth you to hate him, or fly from him as an enemy,
while the devil representeth him to you as one that hateth you; it
loseth your time; it depriveth you of all your willingness to duty, and
delight in duty, and maketh all God's service a burden and vexation
to you. It is very contrary to the spirit of adoption, and to the whole
frame of evangelical worship and obedience. And will you, under
pretence of being more humbled, and sorrowful, and sensible, thus
gratify Satan, and wrong God and yourselves.
Direct. XX. Trust not to your own judgment, in your melancholy
state, either as to the condition of your souls, or the choice and
conduct of your thoughts or ways; but commit yourselves to the
judgment and direction of some experienced, faithful guide. You are
no fit judges of your own condition, nor of the way of your duty, in
this dark, distempered condition that you are in. Either your mind
and imagination is well or ill: if it be well, why complain you of all
those disturbances, and confusions, and disability to meditate and
pray? If it be ill, why will you be so self-conceited as to think
yourselves able to judge of yourselves, with such a distempered
fantasy of mind? It is one of the worst things in melancholy persons,
that commonly they are most wise in their own eyes, and stiff in
their own conceits, when their brains are sickest, and their
understanding weakest; and that they are confident, and unruly, and

unpersuadable, as if they were proud of those pitiful understandings,
and thought nobody knows so well as they. Oh! say they, you know
not my case! Am not I liker to know your case, who have seen so
many score in that case, than you are that never knew it in any but
yourself? A man that stands by may better know the case of a man
that is in a dream, than he can know his own. You say that others
feel not what you feel! no more doth the physician feel what a man
in a fever, or falling-sickness, or distraction feeleth; and yet by the
report of what you say you feel, and by what he seeth, he far better
knoweth your disease, the nature and the cure of it, than you that
feel it. Therefore as a wise man, when he is sick, will trust himself,
under God, to the direction of his physician and the help of his
friends about him, and not lie wrangling against their help and
counsel, and wilfully refuse it, because they advise him contrary to
his feeling; so will you do, if you are wise; trust yourself with some
fit director; and despise not his judgment either about your state, or
about your duty. You think you are lost, and there is no hope: hear
what he saith that is now fitter to judge. Set not your weak wit too
wilfully against him. Do you think he is so foolish as to mistake?
should not humility make you rather think so of yourself? Be advised
by him about the matter of your thoughts, the manner and length of
your secret duties, and all your scruples that you need advice in. Will
you answer me this one question? Do you know any body that is
wiser than yourself? and fitter to judge of your condition and advise
you? If you say, no; how proud are you of such a crazed wit! If you
say, yea; then believe and trust that person, and resolve to follow
his direction. And I would ask you, were you not once of another
judgment concerning yourself? If so, then were you not as sound
and able to judge, and liker to be in the right than you are now.
Direct. XXI. My last advice is, to look out for the cure of your
disease, and commit yourself to the care of your physician, and obey
him; and do not as most melancholy persons do, that will not believe
that physic will do them good, but that it is only their soul that is
afflicted; for it is the spirits, imagination, and passions, that are
diseased, and so the soul is like an eye that looketh through a

coloured glass, and thinks all things are of the same colour as the
glass is. I have seen abundance cured by physic; and till the body be
cured, the mind will hardly ever be cured, but the clearest reasons
will be all in vain.
Tit. 6. Directions for young Students, for the most profitable ordering of
their studying Thoughts.
Direct. I. Let it be your first and most serious study to make sure
that you are regenerate, and sanctified by the Holy Ghost, and
justified by faith in Christ, and love God above all, as your reconciled
Father, and so have right to the heavenly inheritance.
For, 1. You are nearest to yourselves, and your everlasting happiness
is your nearest and your highest interest: what will it profit you to
know all the world, and to lose your own souls? to know as much as
devils, and be for ever miserable with devils?
2. It is a most doleful employment to be all day at work in Satan's
chains! to sit studying God and the holy Scriptures, while you are in
the power of the devil, and have hearts that are at enmity to the
holiness of that God and that Scripture which you are studying! It is
a most preposterous and incongruous course of study, if you first
study not your own deliverance. And if you knew your case, and saw
your chains, your trembling would disturb your studies.
3. Till you are renewed you study in the dark, and without that
internal sight and sense, by which the life, and spirit, and kernel of
all that you study must be known. All that the Scripture saith of the
darkness of a state of sin, and of the illumination of the Spirit, and
of the marvellous light of regenerate souls, and of the natural man's
not receiving the things of the Spirit, and of the carnal mind that is
enmity against God, and is not subject to his law, nor can be;
[316]
all
these and such other passages are not insignificant, but most
considerable truths from the Spirit of truth. You have only that light
that will show you the shell, and the dead letter, but not the soul,

and quickening sense, of any practical holy truth. As the eye
knoweth meat which we never tasted, or as a mere grammarian, or
logician, readeth a law book, or physic book, (who gather nothing
out of them that will save a man's estate or life,) so will you
prosecute all your studies.
4. You are like to have but ill success in your studies, when the devil
is your master, who hateth both you, and the holy things which you
are studying. He will blind you, and pervert you, and possess your
minds with false conceits, and put diverting, sensual thoughts into
you, and will keep your own souls from being ever the better for it
all.
5. You will want the true end of all right studies, and set up wrong
ends; and therefore whatever be the matter of your studies, you are
still out of your way, and know nothing rightly, because you know it
not as a means to the true end. (But of this anon.)
Direct. II. When you have first laid this foundation, and have the
true principle and end of all right studies, be sure that you intend
this end in all, even the everlasting sight and love of God, and the
promoting his glory, and pleasing his holy will; and that you never
meddle with any studies separated from this end, but as means
thereto, and as animated thereby.
If every step in your journey is but loss of time and labour, which is
not directed to your journey's end; and if all that you have to mind
or do in the world, be only about your end or the means; and all
creatures and actions can have no other moral goodness, than to be
the means of God your ultimate end; then you may easily see, that
whenever you leave out God as the end of any of your studies, you
are but sinning, or doting; for in those studies there can be no moral
good, though they may tend to your knowledge of natural good and
evil. And when you think you grow wise and learned men, and can
dispute and talk of many things, which make to your renown, while
your "wills consent not to the wholesome words of our Lord Jesus
Christ, and the doctrine which is according to godliness; you are

proud, knowing nothing, but doting about questions and strifes of
words, whereof cometh envy, strife, railing, evil surmisings, perverse
disputings of men of corrupt minds, supposing that gain is godliness:
from such turn away," 1 Tim. vi. 3-6. As there is no knowledge but
from God, so it is not knowledge but dotage if it lead not unto God.
Direct. III. See therefore that you choose all your studies according
to their tendency to God your end, and use them still under the
notion of means, and that you estimate your knowledge by this end,
and judge yourselves to know no more indeed, than you know of
God and for God: and so let practical divinity be the soul of all your
studies.
Therefore, when life is too short for the studies of all things which
we desire to know, make sure of the chief things, and prefer those
studies which make most to your end; spend not your time on things
unprofitable to this end; spend not your first and chiefest time on
things unnecessary to it; for the near connexion to God the end, is it
that ennobleth the matter of your studies. All true knowledge leads
to God; but not all alike: the nearest to him is the best.
[317]
Direct. IV. Remember that the chief part of your growth in
knowledge, is not in knowing many smaller things, of no necessity;
but in a growing downwards in a clearer insight into the foundation
of the christian faith, and in taking better rooting than you had at
your first believing; and in growing upward into a greater knowledge
of God, and into a greater love of him, and heavenly-mindedness,
and then in growing up to greater skill, and ability, and readiness to
do him service in the world.
Know as much as you can know of the works of God, and of the
languages and customs of the world; but still remember, that to
know God in Christ better, is the growth which you must daily study:
and when you know them most, you have still much more need to
know better these great things which you know already, than to
know more things which you never knew. The roots of faith may still
increase, and the branches and fruits of love may be still greater and

sweeter! As long as you live, you may still know better the reasons
of your religion, (though not better reasons,) and you may know
better how to use your knowledge. And whatever you know, let it be
that you may be led up to know God more, or love him more, or
serve him better.
Direct. V. With fear and detestation watch and resolve against all
carnal, worldly ends; and see that your hearts be not captivated by
your fleshly interest; nor grow to a high esteem of the pleasures, or
profits, or honours of this world, nor to relish any fleshly
accommodations, as very pleasant and desirable: but that you take
up with God and the hopes of glory as your satisfying portion, and
follow Christ as cross-bearers, denying yourselves, and dead to the
world, and resolved and prepared to forsake all for his sake.
These are words that you can easily say yourselves; but these are
things that are so hardly learned, that many of the most learned and
reverend perish for want of being better acquainted with them (and
I shall never take that man to be wisely learned, that hath not
learned to escape damnation). Christ's cross is to be learned before
your alphabet. To impose the cross is quickly learned, but to learn to
bear it is the difficulty. To lay the cross on others is to be the
followers of Pilate; but to bear it when it is laid on us, is to be the
followers of Christ. If you grow corrupted with a love of honour, and
riches, and preferment, and come to the study of divinity with a
fleshly, worldly mind and end, you will but serve Satan while you
seem to be seeking after God, and damn your souls among the
doctrines and means of salvation, and go to God for materials to
chain you faster to the devil, and steal a nail from divinity to fasten
your ears unto his door. And you little know how Judas's gain will
gripe and torment the awakened conscience! and how the rust will
witness against you, and how it will eat your flesh as fire, James v.
3.
Direct. VI. Digest all that you know, and turn it into holy habits, and
expect that success first on yourselves, which if you were to preach
you would expect in others. Remembering that knowing is not the

end of knowing; but it is as eating to the body, where health, and
strength, and service are the end.
[318]
Every truth of God is his candle which he sets up for you to work by;
it is as food that is for life and action. You lose all the knowledge
which ends in knowing. To fill your head and common-place book is
not all that you have to do. But to fortify, and quicken, and inflame
your hearts. Good habits are the best provision for a preacher. The
habits of mind are better than the best library. But if the habits of
heavenly love, and life in the heart, do not concur, the heart and life
of a preacher and a scholar are wanting still, for all your knowledge.
Study Paul's words, 1 Cor. viii. 1, "Knowledge puffeth up, but charity
edifieth." If he had said that knowledge edifieth others, and charity
saveth ourselves, he would have said nothing that is strange. But
even as to edification charity hath the precedency.
Direct. VII. Yea, see that you excel the unlearned as much in
holiness as you do in knowledge: unless you will persuade them that
your knowledge is a useless, worthless thing; and unless you would
be judged as unprofitable servants.
Every degree of knowledge is for a further degree of holiness: ten
talents must be improved to ten more. They that know and do not,
are beaten with many stripes. The devil's scholars look on the godly
that are unlearned with hatred and disdain, and preach to their
discouragement and disgrace, and strive to set and keep true
godliness in the stocks. But Christ's ministers love holiness wherever
they see it, and are ashamed to think that the unlearned should be
more holy and heavenly than they; and strive to go beyond them as
much in the use and ends of knowledge, as in knowledge itself; and
with Austin lament, that while the unlearned take heaven by
violence, the learned are thrust out into hell, as thinking it is their
part to know and teach, and other men's to practise.
Direct. VIII. Cast not away a moment of your precious time in
idleness, or impertinencies; but follow your work diligently, and with
all your might.

I mean not that you should overdo, and overthrow your brains and
bodies, nor forbear such sober exercise as is most necessary to your
health; for a sick body is an ill companion for a student, and much
more a crazed brain. But time-wasters are lovers of pleasure or
idleness, more than of knowledge and holiness: and wisdom falleth
not into idle, sluggish, dreaming souls. If you think it not worth your
painfullest and closest studies, you must take up with idle ignorance,
and go abroad with swelling titles and empty brains, as the
deceivers and the scourgers of the church.
Direct. IX. Keep up a delight in all your studies, and carry them on
not in an unwilling weariness: and, if it be not by notable error in
matter or method, gratify your delight with such things as you are
best pleased with, though they bring some smaller inconvenience;
because else your weariness may bring much more.
I know that a delight in sin and vanity is not to be gratified; and
force must be used with a backward mind in case of necessity and
weight. But if it be but in the variety of subjects, and the choice of
pleasing studies which are profitable, though simply some other
might be fitter, something is to be yielded to delight. But especially
the heart must be got to a delight in holy things: and then, time will
be improved; the memory will be helped; much will be done; and
you will persevere; and it will preserve the mind from temptations to
needless recreations, and from the deadly plague of youthful lusts,
when your daily labour is a greater pleasure to you.
Direct. X. Get some judicious man to draw you up the titles of a
threefold common-place book: one part for definitions, axioms, and
necessary doctrines; another part for what is useful for ornament
and oratory; and another for references as a common index to all
the books of that science which you read: for memory will not serve
for all.
Ordinarily students have not judgment enough to form their own
common-place books till they are old in studies, and have read most
of the authors which they would remember; and therefore the young

must here have a judicious helper. And when they have done,
injudiciousness will be apt to fill it with less necessary things, and to
make an unmeet choice of matter, if they have not care and an
instructor.
Direct. XI. Highly esteem a just method in divinity, and in all your
studies; and labour to get an accurate scheme or skeleton, where at
once you may see every part in its proper place. But remember that
if it be not sound, it will be a snare; and one error in your scheme or
method will be apt to introduce abundance more.
[319]
It is a poor and pitiful kind of knowledge, to know many loose
parcels, and broken members of truth, without knowing the whole,
or the place and the relation which they have to the rest. To know
letters and not syllables, or syllables and not words, or words and
not sentences, or sentences and not the scope of the discourse, are
all but an unprofitable knowledge. He knoweth no science rightly
that hath not anatomized it, and carrieth not a true scheme or
method of it in his mind. But among the many that are extant, to
commend any one to you which I most esteem, or take to be
without error, is more than I dare do.
Direct. XII. Still keep the primitive, fundamental verities in your
mind, and see every other truth which you learn as springing out of
them, and receiving their life and nourishment from them: and still
keep in your minds a clear distinction between the truths of several
degrees, both of necessity, and certainty, always reducing the less
necessary to the more necessary, and the less certain to the more
certain, and not contrarily.
[320]
If God had made all points of faith, or Scripture revelation, of equal
necessity, our baptism would not only have mentioned our belief in
the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost; nor should we ever have
seen the ancient creed, nor the ten commandments. And if all points
were of equal evidence, and plainness, and certainty to us, we
should not have some so much controverted above others: "Some
things" in Scripture are "hard to be understood," but not "all things,"

2 Pet. iii. 16. To pretend that any truth is more necessary than it is,
doth tend to uncharitableness and contention: and to say that any is
less necessary than it is, doth tend to the neglect of it, and to the
danger of souls. To pretend any point to be more plain and certain
than it is, doth but show our pride and ignorance. But to set up
uncertain and unnecessary points, and make a religion of them, and
reduce things certain or necessary to them, this is the method of
turbulent heretics.
Direct. XIII. Take nothing as universally necessary in religion, which
was not so taken in the days of the apostles, and primitive church;
and take that for the safest way to heaven which the apostles went
who certainly are there: value the apostolical purity, simplicity,
charity, and unity; and follow not them that by being wise and pious
overmuch, corrupt our sacred pattern by their additions, and fill the
church with uncharitableness and strife.
If it were not a thing too evident that dominion and riches go for
religion with them, and gain for godliness, and honour and money
instead of argument, it would be a most stupendous wonder that so
many learned men should be found among christians in the world, to
hinder the peace and unity of the church, as do it vehemently and
implacably in the church of Rome; when so easy a thing, and so
reasonable, would unite almost all the christian world, as is the
requiring no more as necessary to our union, than what was made
necessary in the days of the apostles, and the obtruding nothing as
necessary to salvation, which the apostles and primitive church were
saved without. This easy, reasonable thing, which no man hath any
thing of seeming sense and weight to speak against, would end all
the ruinating differences among christians.
Direct. XIV. Be desirous to know all that God would have you know,
and be willing to be ignorant of all that God would have you ignorant
of; and pry not into unrevealed things; and much less make them
the matter of any uncharitable strife.

Abundance of contentious volumes between the Dominicans, and
Jesuits, and many others, are stuffed with bold inquiries, wranglings,
or determinations of unsearchable mysteries, utterly unknown to
those that voluminously debate them, and never revealed in the
word or works of God. Keep off with reverence from concealed
mysteries. Talk not as boldly of the divine influx, and the priority,
posteriority, dependence or reason of God's decrees, as if you were
talking of your common affairs. Come with great reverence when
you are called of God to search into those high and holy truths,
which he hath revealed. But pretend not to know that which is not to
be known. For you will but discover your ignorance and arrogance,
and know never the more, when you have doted about questions
never so long.
Direct. XV. Avoid both extremes, of them that study no more but to
know what others have written and held before them, and of them
that little regarded the discoveries of others. Learn all of your
teachers and authors that they can teach you; but make all your
own, and see things in their proper evidence; and improve their
discoveries by the utmost of your diligence; abhorring a proud desire
of singularity, or to seem wiser than you are.
Most students through slothfulness look no further for knowledge
than into their books; and their learning lieth but in knowing what
others have written, or said, or held before them; especially where
the least differing from the judgment of the party which is
uppermost or in reputation, doth tend to hazard a man's honour, or
preferments, there men think it dangerous to seem to know more
than is commonly known; and therefore think it needless to study to
know it. Men are backward to take much pains to know that which
tendeth to their ruin to be known, but doth them no harm while they
can but keep themselves ignorant of it: which makes the opposed
truth have so few entertainers or students among the papists, or any
that persecute or reproach it. And others discerning this extreme, do
run into the contrary; and under pretence of the loveliness of truth,
and the need of liberty of judging, do think the edifying way is first

to pull down all that others have built before them, and little regard
the judgment of their predecessors, but think they must take
nothing on trust from others, but begin all from the very ground
themselves. And usually their pride makes them so little regard the
most approved authors, that they have not patience to read them till
they thoroughly understand them; but reject that which is received,
before they understand it, merely because it was the received way:
and while they say, that nothing must be taken upon trust, they
presently take upon trust themselves that very opinion, and with it
the other opinions of those novelists that teach them this. And
believing what such say in disgrace of others, withal they believe
what they hold in opposition to those that they have disgraced. But
it is easy to see how sad a case mankind were in, if every man must
be a fabricator of all his knowledge himself, and posterity should be
never the better for the discoveries of their ancestors; and the
greatest labours of the wisest men, and their highest attainments,
must be no profit to any but themselves. Why do they use a teacher,
if they must do all themselves? If they believe not their tutors, and
take nothing on trust, it seems they must know every truth before
they will learn it: and what difference is there between believing a
tutor and an author? And is not that more credible which upon long
experience is approved by many nations and ages, than that which
is recommended to you but by one or few? These students should
have made themselves an alphabet or grammar, and not have taken
the common ones on trust. It is easier to add to other men's
inventions, than to begin and carry on all ourselves. By their course
of study, the world would never grow wiser; but every age and
person be still beginning, and none proceed beyond their rudiments.
Direct. XVI. Be sure you make choice of meet teachers and
companions for your studies and your lives; that they be such as will
assist you in the holy practice of what you know, as well as in your
knowledge: and shun as a plague the familiarity, 1. Of sensual, idle,
brutish persons. 2. And of carnal, ambitious ones, who know no
higher end than preferment and applause. 3. And of proud,
heretical, contentious wits, whose wisdom and religion are nothing

but censuring, reproaching, and vilifying them that are wiser and
better than themselves.
Bad company is the common ruin of both: their own sensuality is
easily stirred up by the temptations of the sensual; and their
consciences overborne by the examples of other men's voluptuous
lives. It imboldeneth them to sin, to see others sin before them; as
cowards themselves are drawn on in an army to run upon the face
of death, by seeing others do it, and to avoid the reproach of
cowardice; and the noise of mirth and ranting language, are the
drums and trumpets of the devils, by which their ears are kept from
hearing the cries of wounded, dying men, the lamentations of those
that have found the error of that way. And there is in corrupted
nature so strong an inclination to the prosperity and vain-glory of
the world, that makes them quickly take the bait, especially when
the devil doth offer it them by a fit instrument, which shall not deter
them, as it would do if he had offered it them himself. It is a
pleasant thing to flesh and blood to be rich and great, and generally
applauded; and a grievous thing to be poor, and despised, and
afflicted.
[321]
The rawness also and unsettledness of youth, who
want well furnished understandings and experience, is a great
advantage to heretics and deceivers, who still sweep many such
away, wherever they come and have but opportunity. Children are
"easily tossed up and down, and carried to and fro with every wind
of doctrine, by the cunning sleight and subtlety of them that lie in
wait to deceive," Eph. iv. 14. Deceivers have their methods; and
methods are the common instruments of deceit, which are not easily
detected by the unexperienced. On the contrary, the benefit of wise,
and staid, and sober, and peaceable, meek, humble, holy, heavenly
companions, is exceeding great, especially to youth! Such will lead
them in safe paths, and be still preserving them, and promoting the
most necessary parts of knowledge, and quickening them to holy
practice, which is the end of all.
Direct. XVII. In all your studies be jealous of both extremes; and
distinctly discern which are the extremes, that you run not into one

while you avoid the other. And be especially careful, that you
imagine not co-ordinates or subordinates to be opposites; and throw
not away every truth, which you cannot presently place rightly in the
frame, and see it fall in agreeably with the rest; for a further insight
into true method (attained but by very few) may reconcile you to
that which now offendeth you. What God hath joined together, be
sure that you never put asunder; though yet you cannot find their
proper places.
[322]
There is scarce any error more common among students, than
supposing those truths to be inconsistent, which indeed have a
necessary dependence on each other; and a casting truth away as
error, because they cannot reconcile it to some other truth. And
there is nothing so much causeth this, as want of a true method. But
that hath no method considerable, or after much curious labour hath
fallen upon a false method, or a method that in any one
considerable point is out of joint, will deal thus by many certain
truths: as an ignorant person that is to set all the scattered parts of
a clock or watch together, if he misplace one, will be unable rightly
to place all the rest; and then, when he finds that they fit not the
place which he thinks they must be in, he casteth them away, and
thinks they are not the right, and is searching for or maketh
something else to fit that place. False method rejecteth many a
truth.
And, unless it be in loving God, or other acts of the superior
faculties, about their ultimate end and highest object, there is scarce
any thing in mortality but hath its extremes. And where they are not
discerned, they are seldom well avoided. And usually narrow-sighted
persons are fearful only of one extreme, and see no danger but on
one side; and therefore are easily carried, by avoiding that, into the
contrary.
I think it not unprofitable to instance in several particular cautions,
that you imitate not them that put asunder what God hath

conjoined, and cast not away truth as oft as you are puzzled in the
right placing or methodizing it.
Instance I. The first and second causes are conjoined in their
operations, and therefore must not be put asunder. If the way of
influx, concourse, or co-operation be dark and unsearchable to you,
do not deny that it is, because you see not how it is. The honour of
the first and second cause also are conjunct, according to their
several interests in the effects: do not therefore imagine, that all the
honour ascribed to the second cause is denied or taken away from
the first; for then you understand not their order: otherwise you
would see, that as the second causeth independence on the first,
and insubordination to it, and hath no power but what is
communicated by it, so it hath no honour but what is received from
it; and that it is no less honour for the first cause to operate
mediately by the second, than immediately by itself: and that there
is no less of the power, wisdom, or goodness of God, in an effect
produced by means and second causes, than in that which he
produceth of himself only, without them: and that it is his goodness
to communicate a power of good to his creatures, and the honour of
working and causing under him: but he never loseth any thing by
communicating, nor hath the less himself by giving to his creatures:
for if all that honour that is given to the creature were taken
injuriously from God, then God would never have made the world,
nor made a saint; and then the worst creatures would least
dishonour God: then he would not shine by the sun, but by himself
immediately: and then he would never glorify either saint or angel.
But on the contrary, it is God's honour to work by adapted means;
and all their honour is truly his; as all the commendation of a clock
or watch is given to the workman. And though God do not all so
immediately, as to use no means or second causes; yet is he never
the further from the effect, but, immediatione virtutis et suppositi, is
himself as near as if he used none.
Instance II. The special providence of God, and his being the first
universal cause, are conjunct with the culpability of sinners; and no

man must put these asunder. Those that cannot see just how they
are conjoined, may be sure that they are conjoined. It is no
dishonour to an engineer that he can make a watch which shall go
longer than he is moving it with his finger. Nor is it a dishonour to
our Creator, that he can make a creature which can morally
determine itself to an action as commanded or forbidden, without
the predetermination of his Maker, though not without his universal
concourse necessary to action as action. If Adam could not do this
through the natural impossibility of it, then the law was, that he
should die the death if he did not overcome God, or do that which
was naturally impossible; and this was the nature of his sin. Few
dare say, that God cannot make a free, self-determining agent; and
if he can, we shall easily prove that he hath; and the force of their
opposition then is vanished.
Instance III. The omniscience of God, and his dominion,
government, and decrees, are conjunct with the liberty and sin of
man: yet these by many are put asunder: as if God must either be
ignorant or be the author of sin! As if he made one poor, by
decreeing to make another rich! As if he cannot be a perfect
governor, unless he procure all his subjects perfectly to keep his
laws! As if all the fault of those that break the law, were to be laid
upon the maker of the law! As if all God's will de debito were not
effective of its proper work, unless man fulfil it in the event! And as
if it were possible for any creature to comprehend the way of the
Creator's knowledge.
Instance IV. Many would separate nature and grace, which God the
author of both conjoineth. When grace supposeth nature, and in her
garden soweth all her seed, and exciteth and rectifieth all her
powers; yet these men talk as if nature had been annihilated, or
grace came to annihilate it, and not to cure it. As if the leprosy and
disease of nature were nature itself! And as if natural good had been
lost as much as moral good! As if man were not man till grace made
him a man!

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