Attracting Gold Collar Workers

This study aims to develop our understanding of how generational differences in work related values interact with those attributed to a national culture by investigating workers’ perception of organizational attractiveness in India, China and Thailand. The results show significant differences both between different generations within cultures as well as between the same generations across cultures. By developing an impression of cultural and generational value sets from the ground up we hope to have captured the current state of the acculturation processes in those countries, which may be useful for similar studies as well as to help HR managers in making specific recommendations regarding their recruitment and talent development initiatives in that part of the world.

Key words: cross-cultural; cross-generational; gold collar workers; organizational attractiveness; motivation; talent recruitment.

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Attracting Gold Collar
Workers: Comparing
Organizational
Attractiveness and Work
Related Values across
Generations in China, India
and Thailand
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Abstract
This study aims to develop our understanding of how generational differences in work related values
interact with those attributed to a national culture by investigating workers’ perception of
organizational attractiveness in India, China and Thailand. The results show significant differences
both between different generations within cultures as well as between the same generations across
cultures. By developing an impression of cultural and generational value sets from the ground up we
hope to have captured the current state of the acculturation processes in those countries, which may be
useful for similar studies as well as to help HR managers in making specific recommendations
regarding their recruitment and talent development initiatives in that part of the world.
Key words: cross-cultural; cross-generational; gold collar workers; organizational
attractiveness; motivation; talent recruitment.
Word Count: 7593
Introduction
In an increasingly connected world, there is a greater need for international
organizations to understand multi-cultural and multi-generational environments in which
they operate. Despite globalisation’s recent setbacks and another round of bad press,
organizations’ belief in the efficiencies of globalized production and supply chain has
remained strong (Wijen, Zoeteman, Pieters and van Seters, 2012).
With a new trend to move more knowledge intensive processes abroad and the
growth of knowledge intensive industries in the developing world there is pressure on HR
departments of Multinational Corporations (MNCs) to come up with effective strategies to
secure access to valuable sources of new talent on foreign soil. According to Wijen et al.
(2012), this search for human assets is confronted with three new social and cultural
developments: first, the rise of a well-educated, aspiring middle class in most countries of the
developing world whose members are becoming more discerning in regards to how they see
their working life and who they want to work for. Second, growing cross-cultural
interchange of fashions, values and ideas facilitated by the spread of the free-market, global
media and the internet has created a complex set of hybrid cultural identities within what was
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once thought distinct and homogenous national cultures. Finally, besides the increasing
multi-cultural work environment, our global workforce is ageing. By the year 2030, the
elderly in the developed world will amount to almost 25 percent of the population (Watson
Wyatt 2010). Overall, the developing world will remain much younger for the foreseeable
future. However, it too is ageing as many major countries in East Asia – including China,
Taiwan, Singapore and both Koreas – are projected to approach the developed world’s levels
of old-age dependency by the middle of the next century (Watson Wyatt 2010). Multi-
cultural environments combined with multi-generational workforce represent and, of course,
multiply the difficulties facing tomorrow’s global leaders and human resource managers.
This is why it is becoming of critical importance for HR managers of MNCs to
appreciate the local cultural environment within which they have come to operate as well as
to understand differences between demographic groups within the host communities. This is
necessary for the development of appropriate recruitment and career management practices
which, by addressing the current values, attitudes and concerns of their prospective and
existing employees, will make an organization’s appeal as an employer of choice much
stronger, leading to its higher share of the limited talent pool and a lower turnover (Ma and
Allen 2009, Cerdin and Bird 2007). To make such strategies and practices effective they need
to be based on evidence relevant to the organization’s current theatre of operation. This calls
for cross-cultural research which is attuned to ever changing cultural and demographic
make-up of particular countries and regions, and is more grounded in the actual emergent
and culturally situated set of value based judgements, attitudes and perceptions rather than
importing categorising schemes and conceptualizations developed elsewhere or relying on
results of studies whose transferability to other cultures have not been investigated (Herriot
and Anderson 1997).
Under these circumstances, the relevance and purposes of this research lies in trying
to tap into a cultural and generational make up of India, China and Thailand in order to
explore some of the underlying work related values that may currently play a role in
employee’s choice of the organization they wish to work for. While acknowledging internal
diversity within those distinct cultures and generational groups we aim for a level of
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generalization that affords a level of practical utility for those within HR community that can
find such findings meaningful and useful.
This study will first identify the most attractive organizational characteristics as
viewed by employees of different generations, known as: Baby Boomers (born between
1946-1965), Generation X (born between 1966-1979), and Generation Y (born between
1980-1999) in three different countries, China, India, and Thailand. Second, we will explore
similarities and differences in terms of desired work attributes between these generations
within and across the three countries. To achieve those two objectives, the study will, first,
review previous research on the relevance of employees’ values, cross-cultural categorization
and comparison, and on generations. A summary of the selected generations’ characteristics,
beliefs, and values for the three countries will be presented.
Literature Review
Gold-collar workers
Coined by Kelley in 1985, the term gold collar worker (GCW) was first used to
describe knowledge workers at peak performance, who demand special perks along with
high pay. Wonacott (2007) describes GCWs as being high in problem-solving abilities,
creativity, talent, and intelligence; who perform non-repetitive and complex work that is
difficult to evaluate; and who prefer self-management. Contrasting them to the older
blue/white collar distinction, Kelley (1990) made the distinction on the basis that the nature
of work itself has changed. Following this, the expectations of work have also changed.
Wickman (2012) notes that in the seventies, pink collar workers emerged to denote certain
jobs as regarded specifically for women, with the eighties yielding a class of environmentally
focused green collar workers. It is therefore questionable whether scientific management
theories developed with blue and white collar workers are still relevant with different types
of work done by different types of people, according to Wickman (2012).
Harvard Business Review emphasized the problem, when Roe (2001) challenged an
antiquated corporate mind-set that divides the workforce into white-collar knowledge
workers and blue-collar manual workers. Instead, Roe (2001) warned employers to take
note, as these gold collar workers have benefitted greatly from technological change,
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economic deregulation, and a shifting psychological contract between employer and
employee. As Holland, Hacker and Steen (2002) point out, GCWs loyalty is more with their
career than their employer. Because of their desirable skills, they are highly employable, and
their lack of organizational commitment has caused major concern for employers. Of
particular concern, according to Holland et al (2002), is that conventional reward structures
may not be sufficient – rather than solely searching for ever larger salaries, this new
generation is just as attracted to new technological challenges and self development. Indeed,
ChinaNews.com in January 2012 reported that GCWs are withdrawing en masse from cities
such as Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou in search for higher work-life balances. As such,
the economy is losing a vitally important section of the workforce because they want a more
spiritual and tranquil life style, and leave high-paying jobs in economic hubs. Holland et al
(2002) point out that this is particularly pertinent, as the sectors in which this occurs are IT
and Finance, typically drivers for change, innovation and growth.
Wonacott (2007) contrasted William H. Whyte's Organization Man, under the old
employment contract of "loyalty in exchange for lifetime employment and a gold watch",
with younger GCWs who are "educated, smart, creative, computer literate, equipped with
portable skills--and demanding and who view work "as a hobby that you happen to get paid
for" (p 356). Initially, GCWs were generationally regarded as being part of the X Generation,
employed in sectors of business where they can find other employ easily should they so
choose. Pardue and Morgan (2008) propose that if the X Generation high-flyers are fast
horses, the Y Generation GCW is a Thoroughbred. As such, they question whether
companies are prepared to handle these gold collar racehorses in a way that supports their
needs and the long-term goals of the company. As Y Generation, she argues, their
motivational requirements will be different. This is echoed by Wang (1998), who in his book
The New Gold Mountain discusses the American-Chinese professionals returning to a
booming China, and the companies that try and get hold of them fast. Wang (1998) argues
that GWCs need to be recruited and managed by techniques that take their special
requirements into account. In particular, there is a need to recognize that traditional perks
may not motivate gold collar employees (Pardue and Morgan 2008). Instead, they suggest
asking these workers what they want, rather than the organization delivering to them what
they think is good for them. It is the latter that informed the design of this study.
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Generational Organizational Studies
According to Murphy et al. (2004), a generation is a group of people who are
programmed at the same time in history. Generations are defined by their common birth
years, age, location, experiences, shared values and significant life events in their formative
years (Kupperschmidt, 2000). The main areas of the formative years include social, cultural,
economic, and technological environments. Murphy et al. (2004) stated that, because of
global trends that have dominated mass media, particularly in urban, developed areas, the
younger persons are more likely to fit the generational profile.
Are generations more alike than different? Sujdak (2003) found no significant
differences between generations of Boomers and Xers on their perception of job
satisfaction, organizational commitment, job opportunity, organizational communications,
job search behavior, and the intent to quit. Indeed, a recent meta-analysis by Constanza et al.
(2012) found that on a range of work-related outcomes, generation has a very limited or no
effect at all. On the other hand, Kupperschmidt (2000) proposed that different generations
have different work characteristics and preferences and organizations need to develop
different employee recruitment and management strategies. This study aims to provide
some evidence in this debate.
Still, the way these issues are theorized reflects some of the directions from cross-
cultural research, in particular the convergence and divergence approaches (Parry and Urwin
2011). So, on the one hand we could apply similar reservation as above. However, we are
aware that the processes underlying generational differences may have a different dynamic as
we are dealing with social groups differentiated by time rather than space. Much more
exploratory research is needed in this area to illuminate it further.
A more serious problem is the fact that the majority of generational research and
theorizing has been based on the middle classes in developed countries (Smola and Sutton
2002, Wade-Benzoni et al. 2002; Joshi et al. 2010). This raises suspicions about applicability
of generational frameworks developed in the West to other non Western cultures as well as
about the transferability of such findings to other national context. For example Miller and
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Yu’s (2003) investigation of whether Western research concerning values can be applied to
generational groups in Taiwan found some conflicting evidence depending on the sector of
the economy. This indicates the need for studies to investigate the effects of generational
factors in the non-western cultural context by using generational profiles based on these
countries own historical and other formative events.
While generational terms are problematic, particularly in cross-cultural research (they
are, after all, Western terms), they are nevertheless useful as a short-hand heuristic (Parry and
Urwin 2011). In this paper, we do not use these terms specifically as denoting a particular
time period, but more a phase in an economic cycle. Following Schofield and Honore
(2012), we treat these categories more generally as denoting a set of attitudes or values to
work and its functions in life. They argue that these generational terms have got cross-
cultural value, as all multinationals invariable import these concepts along with everything
else they bring.
Cross-cultural organizational studies
There is some evidence in the research literature that demonstrates the importance
of employer branding for employee recruitment and retention (Backhaus and Tikoo 2004).
Within the international HR research there is some support for the idea that national cultural
values have an effect on a number of HR practices and processes, such as selection,
compensation, management control and turnover (Johnson and Droege 2004, Posthuma,
Joplin and Maertz 2005, Ramamoorthy and Carroll 1998, Schuler and Rogovsky 1998).
There is, however, little empirical research about the effects of different employees’ value
sets in the context of international recruitment (Ployhart 2006, Ma and Allen 2009).
Somewhat separated from this type of studies, there is an ongoing debate about the exact
nature and outcomes of the acculturation process in the international organizational context
(Tan 2002). This debate is important for our research as it influences the way cultural values
can be studied and determines the generalizability and transferability of any findings from
cross-cultural research. Acculturation in this context is defined as interplay of homogenising
global influences and heterogeneous counter-effects of national cultures on organizational
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members. Much of the literature in this field can be categorised on the basis of how they see
the outcome of this process.
Accordingly, a large body of cross-cultural studies demonstrates the dominant
influence of national values on organizational attitudes and work related behaviours
(Hofsted 1984, Trompenaars 1993, Schwartz 1994, Ronen and Shenkar 1985). On the other
hand, other researchers have argued that the effects of managerial logic and multinational
organizational culture have been eroding or marginalising such differences in favour of
establishing a ‘global village’ of shared meanings and practices (Jamieson 1983, Sparrow et
al. 1994, Dunphy 1987, Kelly and Worthley 1981). Coming between these two contrasting
approaches is a growing body of research showing that this type of influences escapes
simplistic dichotomy of convergence versus divergence arguments. Rather what is taking
place is a culture specific integration and transformation process producing a hybrid mix of
values and practices (Ralston et al 1997, Ralston et al. 2006, Khilji et al 2010, Witt 2008).
Although we are more inclined towards this last approach we still think there are some
problems with it.
A general limitation of all these three approaches is their simplistic, top-down
conceptualization of the national culture. Hofstede’s (1980) influential framework, which
demonstrate that people from different cultures are motivated by different values leading to
different behaviours, has been criticised for being too reductionist and ignorant of internal
diversity (Sivakumar and Nakata 2001). Some have called for taking into account various
contextual factors, such as the state of the economy, legal system, levels of industrialization
etc. that may affect comparability of cultural practices and beliefs (Child 1981, Kelly and
Worthley 1981, England and Harpaz 1983), others have stressed the moderating impact of
psychological factors on effects of cultural differences in perceptions of organizational
attractiveness (Brockner 2005, Leung and Bond 2004), but there has been little research
which incorporates the effects of demographic diversity on particular nation’s value based
choices and preferences (Kirkman et al. 2006).
Another major problem has been to treat cultures as static systems in equilibrium
(Brett et al.1997), thus undermining their possibilities for change. Ralston et al. (1999) for
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example have demonstrated the evolving nature of some cultural values of social groups
exposed to foreign influences across time. Similarly, Khilji et al. (2004) reveals in their studies
transition in work related values among employees and the difference in the scope of this
change between younger and older employees. McSweeney (2009) take this even further by
presenting an image of cultures as inherently ‘made and remade through exchange, imitation,
intersection, incorporation, reshuffling, through travel, trade, subordination’ (p.937).
Although crossvergence approaches stress the unpredictability of the acculturation processes
they still treat their outcomes as uncontested and durable.
A more specific problem with the use of Hofstede’s (1980) and other similar
frameworks has been to ignore the level of analysis for which they were develop by
assuming, for example, that findings at the country/culture level of analysis are transferable
to the lower (organizational, group or individual) level (Kirkman et al. 2006; McSweeney
2009). Another important point is stressed by Chen (2008) who argues that ‘to make valid
comparisons across different cultural or ethnic groups, we must address an important
question: Are we comparing the same constructs across different groups?’(p.1005). A simple
solution to this problems appears to be to give up ambitions to generate timeless findings
and focus instead on what is currently taking place starting at the level of people’s
perceptions and judgments.
GCWs, Generation and Culture
GCWs belong not only to an organizational, but also to a societal and cultural elite,
particularly in Asia. They are not representative of the culture as a whole. In Thailand, for
example, top GCWs tend to come from so-called High Society families: wealthy, by and
large Western (American/UK) educated, up to date with trends. While India has an
increasing middle class, the GCWs we identified belong to a similar elite. China, meanwhile,
draws its GCWs mainly from Chinese Americans returning home (Wong 2003).
This study attempts to follow some of the findings, directions and conclusions
reviewed above while addressing a few of the shortcomings that have been identified in
earlier studies. We also hope to fill some of the gaps in the research focus area related to this
particular geographical region. In particular, we argue, there is a greater need for
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incorporating generational differences within cross-cultural research to account for internal
diversity of national cultures. This would make cross-cultural organizational studies more
realistic in terms of the current make up of the labour market and therefore more relevant to
organizations in the developing world. It would also provide some more valuable data for
the acculturation debate by revealing the direction and the character of cultural differences
across larger chunks of time.
On this basis, the main ambition of this study is to capture the current aspect of
culturally and historically conditioned work related values among Chinese, Indian and Thai
samples within the shifting patterns of social, demographic and economic influences without
the imposition of any cross-cultural framework with its inherent assumptions and without
confronting the participants with constructs developed in a different context. This is to be
achieved by obtaining people’s own perceptions and judgments of organizational
attractiveness seen as the reflection of their underlying work and lifestyle related values.
Hofstede (2001) defines values as ‘feelings with arrows to them’ meaning ‘they have
both intensity and direction’ (p. 6). He explains that any issues can have different level of
relevance for us, (intensity), and some outcome can be identified as good or bad (direction).
Although we question Hofstede’s assertion that values develop and become stable over long
periods of time and that we become programmed by them in early childhood, we use his
operationalization of them for the purpose of our research. Following some of the research
review conclusion stated above we stress in our approach both the indeterminate and every
evolving nature of value sets and peoples changing value hierarchies. Accordingly, instead of
making our results stand the test of time we focuse on a snapshot picture of the current
spectrum of work related value judgements. The intensity of the obtained value sets is
indicated by ranking the list of desired organizational attributes in the order of importance;
the direction has been determine by the researcher by asking the participants to focus on the
positive end of the spectrum.
We accept that our operationalization of the values may still seem not quite
unproblematic. What we are more likely dealing with is the expression of judgment
containing both aspects of genuinely felt value based preferences as well as desirability
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effects (Hofstede 2001). Nevertheless, rather than to explore the nature of the value
construct, the aim of the study is to afford a means of comparability between value related
constructs on the culture/generation matrix as well as to provide HR managers with a
tangible reference to their current recruitment practices. This issue will be explored further
in the later part of this report.
Summarising, by adding generation variable to cross-cultural comparison we hope to
contribute to the development of new approaches to national cultures which ‘points to the
existence of, and possibilities for, considerable national diversity and change’ (McSweeney 2009).
Research questions
On the basis of the above introduction and literature review we can formulate our
three research questions:
Research question 1
What are the top five organizational characteristics viewed as most attractive for
three generations of employees from China, India and Thailand, known as Baby Boomers,
Generation X, and Generation Y?
Research question 2
Are there differences in the perceptions of top five attracting factors for employment
between the same generations across the three countries?
Research question 3
In each country, are there generational differences in perceptions of top five
attracting factors for employment?
Methodology
Generational Cohorts in China, India, and Thailand
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In general, the current workforce of the three countries used in this study is
commonly perceived as comprising three main generations: 1) the generation born during
1940s-1960; 2) the generation born during 1970s-1990s; and 3) the generation born during
1990s until present. The names and birth years for the generations differ from one
researcher to another as a generation does not end one day while another begins the next.
This study adopts just the time frame and names of the U.S. Bureau of Census in classifying
generations, while providing its own descriptive contents. Accordingly people born between
1946-1964 comprise the Baby Boomer Generation, those born between 1965- 1979 are
referred to as Generation X, and those born between 1980-1999 are recognized as
Generation Y(Murphy et al., 2004).
Sample
GCWs are difficult to locate, but the industries they are more prevalent in are IT,
Finance and Publishing (Holland et al. 2002). We identified organizations in these sectors
and recruited participants using a snowballing technique during January 2011. The
respondents of this study comprised a total of 1,048 employees from China (n = 282), India
(n = 436), and Thailand (n = 330). There were 59.9 percent males and 40 percent females.
Among 1,048 sampled, 27.7 percent were those born between 1946-1964, 39.7 percent born
between 1965-1979, and 32.4 percent born between 1980-2000. 38.9 percent of the
surveyed employees were single, 25 percent were married, and 35.1 percent were married
with child/children. In terms of educational background, 46.9 percent held Bachelor degree,
45.5 percent had Master degree or higher, and 7 percent held diploma or below. Only 16.7
percent were educated overseas. The majority of those with foreign education spent 1-2
years studying in the U.S., U.K., Canada, and Australia. In terms of their occupational
position, 36.8 percent represented operation level; 29.1 percent middle management; 16.7
percent first level supervisor; and 16 percent senior management.
In terms of work area, the highest frequency was IT/Computer which represented
23.2 percent; followed by 13.5 percent Engineer/Technician; 10.8 percent general
administration; and 8.9 percent human resources. For work experience, 31 percent
experienced 0-5 years; 21 percent experienced 6-10 years; 16 percent experienced 11-15
years; 9.7 percent experienced 16-20 years and 22 percent experienced more than 20 years
respectively.
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About half of the respondents worked with foreign companies (50.1 percent) while
27.8 percent worked with local organizations. Among those who worked with local
organizations, 9.4 percent were with state enterprise, 6 percent were with government office,
and 5.8 percent joint foreign companies (mostly U.S.). For the type of business, the highest
frequency was IT/telecommunications which represented 30.4 percent; followed by 13.4
percent finance/bank/insurance; 5.4 percent education and petroleum/energy/mining; and
4.2 percent electronic/computer. The highest frequency in terms of the organizational size
was for those working for companies with more than 1,000 persons as they comprised 64.1
percent of those sampled.
Procedures
First, a set of two questionnaires was designed as a tool to provide the initial data.
The first set intends to survey personal demographic background of the respondents and the
background of the organization he or she works for. Personal data includes age (generation),
gender, marital status, education background (level of education, and experience of overseas
education), position at work, work area (specialization), and years of work experience.
Organizational background includes type of organization (private or public enterprise or
government; local-owned or foreign-owned), type of industry, and size.
The second part of the questionnaire requested the respondents to rank top five
factors perceived as effective in attracting them for employment with their current
organization. Open-ended questions were used so that each respondent could answer in his
or her own words. Theoretically, open-ended questions are useful for determining what
respondents like most and what they like least about a particular subject.
To facilitate the identification of the most important factors (organizational
characteristic), a weighted score (WS) was calculated. Rank 1 was assigned to the factor with
the highest importance, and rank 5 was assigned to the factor with the lowest importance,
and then summing the weights for the factor. Next, the frequencies of all the attracting
factors mentioned by all respondents were counted to find out preliminary results showing
how respondents of each generation from each country perceived the top five most
important attracting factors.
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After the top five attracting factors of each generation from each country were
identified, chi-square tests were performed to determine if each generation from each
country perceived the importance of all the selected factors differently. And finally, chi-
square tests were, again, used to determine if different generation within each country
perceived the importance of all the selected factors differently.
Data analysis
Results for research question 1
What are the top five organizational characteristics viewed as most attractive for
three generations of employees, known as Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Generation Y?
INSERT TABLE ONE ABOUT HERE
From Table One, the results show that the top five attracting factors for
employment mentioned by Baby Boomers across the 3 countries were: competitive reward
(78.4%), company’s brand and image (49%), organization’s stability and sustainability
(30.6%), job fit (25.5%), and job content (19%). For Generation X, the top five attracting
factors were company’s brand and image, competitive rewards (76.4%), career development
(28.8%), job fit (21.9%), and learning and growth opportunity (28.4%). As similar to Baby
Boomers, the first two attractive factors perceived by Generation Y were competitive reward
(79.3%), and company’s brand and image (51.5%). The other three factors were job fit
(31%), organization’s stability (25%), and learning and growth opportunity (33.4%).
Results for research question 2
Are there differences in the perceptions of top five attracting factors for employment
between the same generations across the three countries?
Baby Boomers
Results from Chi-Square tests indicate that there are significant differences of
perceptions of top five attracting factors of Baby Boomers across three countries.
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In China, Baby Boomers viewed competitive rewards as their first priority (21.9%), followed
by job stability and security (8.8%), job fit (8.1%), good physical working conditions (8.3%)
and organization’s stability and sustainability. Indian Baby Boomers’ preferences are
different as they ranked company’s brand and image as their top choice. Next, they ranked
competitive rewards (20.3%), job content (7%), position/status (6.7%), and career
development (9.4%) as their second, third, fourth, and fifth choice. In Thailand, the top five
attracting factors were: organization’s stability and sustainability (19.2%), competitive
rewards (23.6%), job fit (11.8%), company’s brand and image (11.5%), and job fit (11.7%)
Generation X
Results from Chi-Square tests show that there are significant differences in the
perceived top five attracting factors of Generation X across countries. Similarly to the
Boomers, Chinese Generation X regarded competitive rewards as the most important factor
(34.9%). Other factors included company’s brand and image (16.3%), learning and growth
opportunities (16.9%), job fit (12%), and career development (11.6%) consecutively. In
India, Generation X preferred company’s brand and image (36.4%), competitive rewards
(32.1%), career development (17.2%), convenient location (18.4%), and position and status
(16.3%). And for Thailand, Generation X’s top five attracting factors were: competitive
rewards (24.4%), job fit (11.7%), organization’s stability and sustainability (10%), company’s
brand and image (10.6%), and advancement (10%).
Generation Y
As before the results shown in indicate that there are significant differences of
perceptions of top five attracting factors among Generation Y across countries.
Results for research question 3
In each country, are there differences in each generation’s perceptions of top five
attracting factors for employment? In order to find out if different generations in China,
India, and Thailand have different perceptions of top five attracting factors, Chi-Square
tests were performed with the results shown in Table Two.
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INSERT TABLE TWO ABOUT HERE
The results from Chi-square tests of 3 different generations (Baby Boomers,
Generation X, and Generation Y) in each country shows significant differences as
summarized below.
China
There are significant differences of different generations’ perceptions of 3 attracting
factors in China which are: company’s brand & image, career development, and learning &
growth opportunities (p<0.05).
India
Among the three different generations in India, there are significant differences in
their perceptions of 2 attracting factors which include career development, and convenient
location (p<0.05).
Thailand
In Thailand, there are significant differences of different generations’ perceptions of
2 attracting factors which are: organization’s stability & sustainability, and advancement
(p<0.05).
* .050 of Company’s Brand & Image in Thailand is Asymp. Sig. but the Exact Sig. is .051 =>
not significant (p>0.05)
Discussion
Baby Boomers
Baby Boomers of different country/culture have different perceptions of the top five
attracting factors. The significant differences might be the consequences of several factors,
for example: different defining events during childhood, traditional values, religious beliefs,
current socio-economic and political conditions of each country.
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To begin with, it can be seen that Baby Boomers in China and Thailand seem to be
more concerned about rewards (income) and job security than Indian Baby Boomers as they
mentioned three similar attracting factors which are competitive rewards, job stability and
security, and organization’s stability and sustainability. This may result from the economic
conditions of these two countries. For Thailand, as already described in the country’s
background part, internal political conflicts and instability halted economic growth. Toppled
by global economic recession, Thailand was going through economic difficulties till the late
1990s and barely recovered since then. In addition, during the years 2007-2009, the
increasing oil price worsened the financial status of Thai employees, including gold-collar
workers. At the same time, Thai organizations adopted streamlining strategies together with
very tight hiring policy. During the past few years, many state enterprises and business
organizations encouraged the employees aged over 45 years old to take an early-retirement’
package. Therefore, Baby Boomers who do not have exceptionally distinctive talent may
feel anxious about their job security. Besides the concern for their own job security,
employees were concerned about their organization’s survival during economic hardship too.
It should be noted here that, for Thai Boomers who have been raised under traditional
values such as ‘kreng jai,’ they may feel shy or feel like it is rude to ask for or to express
materialist needs (e.g. money, status, recognition, etc.) directly and publicly. This may explain
why competitive rewards were ranked the second attracting factor, instead of the first.
Finally, it is interesting to see that Thai Boomers mentioned supportive colleagues as one of
the important factors. This demonstrates that the value of collectivism still exists in middle-
aged Thai workers’ society.
For China, although the country had experienced dramatic growth during the past
decade, after 2006 the economy has slowed down due to several reasons, including:
slowdown in US economy as the main trading partner, continued unemployment according
to privatization of inefficient state owned industries, shortage of raw materials, etc. Under
these circumstances, Chinese employees were concerned about their income and job
security. About 40% of the respondents who mentioned competitive rewards as one of their
choices wrote additional sentences stating that they were concerned about the economic
situation, and that was the reason why they deemed rewards (income) and their
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organization’s stability and sustainability as very important factors. In addition, we can never
ignore the fact that Chinese Baby Boomers (born during 1946-1965), had witnessed and
underwent poverty and famine under Maoist regime before. As a result, secured financial
income became their first priority. Next, both Chinese and Thai Boomers mentioned job fit
as an important factor when considering employment. This is not surprising in the light of
their other concerns as most people would consider if their competencies fit the job
description to keep their career with the organization in the long term.
Although Indian Boomers were neither worried about job security nor organization’s
stability, they were concerned about competitive rewards. The reason for this choice might
be similar to Chinese Boomers with regard to their experience of economic hardship and
food crisis during their teens and young adulthood. High financial income would give them
a sense of security and sustained quality of good life. And since job security was not the
problem, Gold-collar Indian Boomers placed more concern on the brand and image of their
employer, job content that matched their interest and expertise, position/status, and
promising career development.
According to the demographic background of Indian respondents, 47.7% of them
hold their bachelor degree and 50.5% had Master Degree. However, 93.8% were graduated
from local universities and only 5.7% were educated abroad. Then, 72% of the respondents
worked with foreign-owned or joint Indian and foreign companies while the rest worked
with local organizations. Based on this information, it is clear that nearly most of the
respondents of all three generations including the gold-collar Baby Boomers were well
educated and, to a certain degree, exposed to western work values and attitudes of their
organizations. Therefore, their preferences reflected the values of western middle-class
workers who value individual achievement, growth, and material indicators of success. At
the same time, traditional Indian culture valued and recognized people with power and social
status. These factors explain Indian Boomers’ choices of their attracting factors for
employment.
Generation X
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For Chinese Gen X (born during 1965-1979), they had spent their teens witnessing
China’s economic transition from radical and harsh communist regime under Mao Zedong
to a more open and modern communist country under Deng Xiaoping. They had
experienced economic hardship for a short period during their childhood, then, they
encountered several socio-economic reforms which brought in vast foreign direct
investment, industrialization, and modernization (or westernization –to be exact). Chinese
Generation X was better educated than the Boomers and they realized that with better
education, they could have a well-paid job with foreign companies. The influx of foreign
investments and global companies since early 1990s created ample employment
opportunities for local Chinese with relevant skills and competencies, and, of course, with
English fluency. Therefore, Chinese Gen X’s perception of competitive rewards as first
priority would reflect not only economic environment, but also the shift of focus from
collective wealth to self, and materialist achievements. However, their choices of company’s
brand and image, learning and growth opportunities, job fit, and career development may be
the consequence of a combination of traditional Confucianism which places a high value on
learning (Lai, 2006), and the western HR management values which also emphasize
employee development. These two influences might account for the fact that both Chinese
Generation X and Generation Y look for learning and career development opportunities in
their employers.
Generation X in India, like Chinese Generation X, also experienced hardship and
underwent several socio-economic reforms during their childhood. During their teens and
young adulthood, they had seen India’s economy start to flourish and become IT hub of the
world. Since mid 1990s, India has presented a vast potential for overseas investment and has
become actively encouraging the entrance of foreign players into its market (Ministry of
Finance, Government of India, 2009). The influx of foreign investors and the growth of
local business created more employment opportunities. Therefore, job security was not their
main concern and, accordingly, was not included in the top five attracting factors for Indian
Generation X. What seems to draw their interest more is the brand of their employer.
Especially, global and large-size organizations could attract more interest from Indian
Generation X as some respondents commented that global companies and large-size
organizations usually had modern, good human resource development practices. Data from
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Hewitt Associates who conducted surveys on Best Employers in Asia during the past several
years also confirms this trend.
The second-ranking factor was competitive rewards which was not an unexpected choice
because rewards (money) have always figured at the top of the list of attracting factors of all
time (Hewitt Associates, 2010). While Generations X’s choices of career development and
position/status were likely the result of the influence of western work value, so too Indian
traditional values that focused on power and the importance of career success and wealth
that could bring a change of such status may serve as strong motivators in their preferences.
Another factor that deserves discussion is the convenient location selected by Indian
Generation X. With regard to the demographic background of Indian respondents whose
age was about 30-44 years, about 70% were married and nearly 50% had children, therefore,
convenient location to commute from home to office and to their children’s schools was an
important factor for Generation X workers who have family to take care of.
With regard to Thai Generation X, they were, of course, pressured by difficult and
uncertain economic conditions. As a consequence, competitive rewards and organization’s
stability and sustainability appeared in their list of attracting factors for employment. And
since they need secured employment, being confident that their competencies fit job’s
requirements was very important too. Lastly, seeing opportunity for advancement and
promotion in the company would effectively attract the interest of Thai Generation X
because this would double their confidence that they have a secured and promising career.
Generation Y
Chinese Generation Y, locally labeled “Little Emperor”, received sole attention and
care from their parents and grandparents as the only child in the family. They never
experienced hardship and inadequacies like their predecessors. Born during Deng
Xiaoping’s modernized period, they were raised under the new version of Confucianism and
modern (westernized) education system. Therefore the reasons they mentioned competitive
rewards as their first priority was not necessary the same as those of Chinese Baby Boomers
and Generation X who were much more concerned about economic uncertainty. Their list
of desired organizational characteristics indicates that Chinese Generation Y sought an
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interesting job that fits their interest and specialization. It should be a job with a well-
recognized brand company that offers not only good pay but also provides opportunities for
them to learn new things and exposes them to new technology. About 20% of Generation
Y respondents provided additional data that they would love to have opportunities to be
trained abroad.
Similarly to Baby Boomers and Generation X, Indian Generation Y cared for the
company’s brand and image before competitive rewards. They sought branded company that
had clear policies for employees’ career path. Also, it was interesting to learn that Indian
Generation Y perceived that convenient location was an important factor.
As for Generation Y in Thailand, they have witnessed many organizations go
bankrupt and some companies downsize their workforce or froze hiring since 1997. Under
political instability and recession, newly graduates among Generation Y realized that it was
difficult to find a secured job in a secured company. Therefore, Thai Generation Y looked
for organization’s stability and sustainability as the most important factor. Besides good
salary, they were also interested in benefits and welfare. In additional conversations with the
researcher Generation Y respondents said that during the economic downturn, most
companies did not offer really good start-up salary for newly graduates. With higher cost of
living, benefits and welfare became more important as another source of financial support
for them.
Implications
In the above discussion we attempted to elaborate on the respondents’ value based
preferences of top organizational/work characteristics and the manifest differences in those
across the three countries and three generations. By linking their choices to specific
economic, social, political and demographic events we hope to have unpacked a little what all
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too often is treated as monolithic cultural influences. Our demonstration of within culture
and between cultures generational differences, although of course needs further and more
robust research evidence, already indicates that past simplistic and timeless categorizations
schemes often applied to that region may need further scrutiny and reassessment based on
newly emerging shifts and reconfiguration of acculturation forces both within the global
context and that of the specific national environments.
Admittedly, during the analysis of the findings and their interpretation a number of
limitations also became evident in our own method and approach, and these will be
summarized next. Despite our attempts to overcome certain shortcomings of earlier studies
this research has been found to have a number of limitations of its own. There are also
some issues requiring further clarification. As already mentioned, our operationalization of
cultural values as manifested in the participants’ judgment of organizational attractiveness
has most likely been ‘contaminated’ by some measure of social desirability effect. We have to
accept that participants’ answer to the question “what are the five most important things to you in
an employer” included or was influenced by what they think should be desirable in an
organization, beside the organizational characteristics that they actually desire. Although it is
important to recognize the distinction between these two constructs, we agree with Hofstede
(2001) that for the purpose of this study the distinction is not that important. National
cultural values we are interested in can be related both to what is actually desired at the
personal level as well as to what is socially communicated as desirable on a shared ideological
level. Also, as both, though to a different extend, influence similar behaviors (Hofstede 2001)
their implications can be combined for most practical HR purposes.
A more serious limitation relates to the way our measure was developed and used for
comparison. As the measure was not based on a standardized scale it can be argued that we
are not comparing like with the like in the sense that, for example, the top choice of a
characteristic for one person may not equal in the intensity of desire to the same top choice
of another. We accept that this limits the appeal and importance of our findings. But it also
reflects a real difficulty in making cross-cultural and cross-generational comparisons without
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imposing top-down conceptualizations that would distort the cultural specificity of the
studied phenomena.
Nor did we manage to avoid such distortion completely. Admittedly, in the
translation of responses into English their linguistic nuances of meaning and expressiveness
have been lost. Additionally, as Hofstede (1993) comments: “[English] Concepts available
for this purpose are themselves alive with culture, having been developed within a particular
cultural context. They have a tendency to guide our thinking towards our desired
conclusion.”(p.344). It seems that this is something that all researchers working in this field
have to acknowledge and accept. It is the price to pay if we want to compare any aspect of
one culture with another with no shared language.
Another problem relates to the way we tried to measure differences between
generations. It has become clear that by comparing people of different generations at the
same time (and therefore of markedly different age groups) we might have been recording
differences that reflect different stages of their life cycle rather than purely generational ones.
To avoid this problem in the future different generations should ideally be studied at similar
stages of their life. As this asks a lot of a research in terms of time and resources committed
it is worth investigating further if a life cycle effect could be controlled in some other way.
Finally, we would like to stress that our findings should not be related to cultural or
generational differences per se. Although work related values are not totally independent
from more general ones, it is equally possible that people hold or express different value sets
depending on their role and function across different social settings. As we believe that a
person’s identity does not need to be a single and unified entity therefore different groups’
apparent similarity of work related values may reflect the convergence effect of their
members’ organizational identities engendered by shared organizational practices and
meanings. Such convergence of identities in one context can however be offset by a more
local or traditional and therefore more divergent value sets developing within identities
enacted in other context and roles, such as family life. This means that any future
convergence, versus divergence versus crossvergence debate should acknowledge that these
processes do not have to be self-exclusive or take place at the same level of analysis.
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Conclusion
It is hoped that by falling into a number of new pitfalls while trying to avoid some
mistakes of the past studies this research highlighted some of the difficulties likely to be
faced by others entering this field. The research should therefore be treated as a useful initial
exploration of potentials and dangers associated with an incorporation of cross-generational
variables into the cross-cultural domain. As we have tried inscribing the distribution of
differences across time onto their mapping in space both new opportunities as well as new
challenges have becoming more apparent. While accepting limitation of this study in terms
of its contribution to the theoretical debate, we still believe that its outcome in the form of
the ranked listing of different values related to organizational preference for the three
countries that play an increasingly more important role in the international labor market will
benefit recruiters and other HR practitioners in their competition for local talent within
those countries.
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