BBOC407 Module 1.pptx Biology for Engineers

Biology for Engineers. Revised scheme for VTU

1. BBOC407 – Biology for Computer Engineers RNS IN S TIT UTE O F T ECHN O L O GY ( AICTE A pp r ov e d , VTU A ff iliat e d a n d NAAC ‘ A+’ A ccre d i te d ) ( UG p r o g r a m s – C SE , ECE, IS E, E I E a n d E E E are A ccre d i t e d b y NBA up to 30.06.2025) Cha n n asa nd r a, D r . Vis hnu va r dh an Road, B en gal u r u – 560 098, Karnataka Dr. S Sathish Kumar Professor , Dept. of EIE RNSIT, Bengaluru

2. 3-May-24 2 Module – 1 Cell: Basic Unit of Life. Introduction: Cell: Structure and its functions Stem cells: and their application. Carbohydrates: Properties and Functions Nucleic Acids: Properties and Functions Proteins: Properties and Functions Lipids : Properties and Functions Importance of special biomolecules: Enzymes, Vitamins and Hormones: Properties and Functions T A 25 25 CIE SEE E 100

3. 3-May-24 3 BBOC407 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 Biomolecules : Biomolecules are organic molecules that are essential for life. Biomolecules play important roles in various biological processes . Metabolism: E.g : Carbohydrates  Glucose  ATP( Adenosine triphosphate ) – Catabolism E.g : Amino acids  Proteins – Anabolism Growth and Development: E.g.: Protein  New Tissue formation + Tissue repair Reproduction: E.g.: Nucleic acids  carry genetic information Overall functioning of cells: E.g.: Lipids  structure & functioning of cell membranes.

4. 3-May-24 4 CARBOHYDRATES

5. 3-May-24 5 1. Carbohydrates: 1.1 Introduction: Carbohydrates serve as vital source of energy for living organisms. They are organic molecules that are made up of oxygen , carbon and hydrogen . The general formula is (CH 2 O) n where n – no. of carbon atoms in a molecule The Carbon:Hydrogen:Oxygen ratio usually is 1:2:1 They are found in grains , vegetables , fruits , legumes , in milk and in dairy products .  Classification of Carbohydrates: based on their size and structure. BBOC407 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1

6. 3-May-24 6 1. Carbohydrates: 1.1 Introduction (Contd..): Monosaccharides : The simplest form of saccharides or sugars. (CH 2 O) n where n = 3 to 7 They are easily soluble in water & cannot be further broken down into smaller sugar units. They are the primary source of energy for the body. E.g: Glucose, Fructose, Galactose Chemical formula of Glucose – C 6 H 12 O 6 Disaccharides: Disaccharides - double sugar  2 monosaccharides joined together by glycosidic bond . They can be hydrolyzed by enzymes into their constituent monosaccharides . Sucrose + H 2 ​ O → Glucose + Fructose. The enzyme is sucrose. E.g: Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose Chemical formula of Sucrose – C 12 H 22 O 11 Glucose : the blood sugar Fructose : the fruit sugar Galactose: less sweet Sucrose : the cane sugar Lactose : the milk sugar Maltose: the malt sugar Open chain Ring Hexagonal ring BBOC407 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1

7. 3-May-24 7 1. Carbohydrates: 1.1 Introduction (Contd..): Polysaccharides: Many sugars  multiple monosaccharide units joined together by glycosidic bonds. They are often referred to as polymers - large molecules composed of monomers. They can be hydrolyzed by enzymes into their constituent monosaccharides . Starch + Water → Glucose   monomers. The enzyme is amylase . Energy storage: Plants  in the form of starch . Animals  in the form of glycogen E.g: Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose C ellulose provides structure and support in plant cell walls. Starch – potatoes, rice, wheat, corn, and legumes. Glycogen – stored in the liver and skeletal muscles. Cellulose – cotton, hemp, jute, wood, etc BBOC407 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1

8. 3-May-24 8 1. Carbohydrates: 1.2 Properties of Carbohydrates: Chemical Composition: Carbohydrates are composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms in the ratio of 1:2:1. The general chemical formula for carbohydrates is ( 𝐶𝐻 2 𝑂) 𝑛 ​ , where 𝑛 represents the number of carbon atoms in the molecule . Structural Diversity: Carbohydrates exhibit structural diversity, ranging from simple sugars ( monosaccharides ) to complex polymers (polysaccharides). Isomerism: Carbohydrates exhibit structural isomerism, where molecules with the same chemical formula have different structural arrangements . Solubility : Many carbohydrates, particularly monosaccharides and disaccharides, are water-soluble due to their hydrophilic nature. Sweetness: Carbohydrates vary in their degree of sweetness . Monosaccharides like glucose and fructose are sweet-tasting , while disaccharides such as sucrose (table sugar) and lactose (milk sugar) also exhibit sweetness, but to different degrees . BBOC407 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1

9. 3-May-24 9 1. Carbohydrates: 1.2 Functions of Carbohydrates: Energy source: Carbohydrates are a primary source of energy for living organisms. When broken down through cellular respiration, carbohydrates are converted into ATP , the energy currency of cells, which fuels cellular processes and metabolic activities . C 6 H 12 O 6 (glucose) + 6O 2 (oxygen) → 6CO 2 (carbon dioxide) + 6H 2 O (water) + ATP (energy) Structural support: Carbohydrates contribute to the structure and function of cells and tissues. Polysaccharides like cellulose provide structural support and rigidity to plant cell walls. Energy Storage: Carbohydrates serve as energy storage molecules in the form of glycogen (in the liver and muscles) in animals and starch (in roots, tubers and seeds) in plants. Transport of Energy : Carbohydrates like sucrose facilitate the transport of energy in the form of sugars within plants . Quick energy release: T he rapid breakdown of glucose through glycolysis allows cells to quickly generate ATP and provide energy for essential cellular processes. Blood sugar regulation: C arbohydrates play a central role in blood sugar regulation, ensuring a steady supply of energy to cells and tissues while maintaining blood glucose levels within a narrow range.

10. 3-May-24 10 Nucleic acids

11. 3-May-24 11 5. Nucleic acids : 5.1 Introduction: Nucleic acids are  biopolymers essential to all known forms of life. They play a crucial role in the storage and transmission of genetic information in all living organisms. Nucleic acids are polynucleotides – they are long complex macromolecules composed of smaller units called nucleotides . Nucleotides are organic molecules composed of three main components: a nitrogenous base ( or nucleobase ) , a five-carbon sugar , and a phosphate group .   Types of Nucleic acids:   Nucleotide BBOC407 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1

12. 3-May-24 12 5. Nucleic acids : 5.1 Introduction (Contd..): Deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA): DNA carries genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth and reproduction of all living organisms. DNA is a polymer composed of two polynucleotide  strands that are coiled together to form a  double helix . Each nucleotide in DNA is composed of one of four  nitrogen containing nucleobases  (cytosine [C],  guanine [G], adenine [A] or  thymine [T]), a sugar  called deoxyribose , and a phosphate group . Each strand in DNA is composed of a sugar-phosphate backbone and the bases extend from the backbone and pair with their complementary bases in the opposite DNA strand. Base pair : A with T , C with G BBOC407 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1

13. 3-May-24 13 5. Nucleic acids : 5.1 Introduction (Contd..): Ribose nucleic acid (RNA): RNA functions in converting genetic information from genes of DNA into the amino acid sequences of proteins.  RNA is a polymer assembled as a chain of nucleotides ,  but unlike DNA, RNA is single strand rather than a paired double strand. Each nucleotide in RNA is composed of one of four  Nitrogen containing nucleobases  (cytosine [C],  guanine [G], adenine [A] or   uracil  [U]), a sugar called ribose , and a phosphate group . Base pair: A with U and C with G RNA is synthesized from DNA on an as-needed basis. Types of RNA: i ) mRNA, ii) tRNA , iii) rRNA BBOC407 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1

14. 3-May-24 14 LIPIDS

15. 3-May-24 15 2. Lipids : 2.1 Introduction: Lipids are a broad group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as ether, chloroform, or benzene. The fundamental component of lipids is fatty acids . Lipids are broken down into fatty acids and used as a fuel for cellular processes. They are found in nuts and seeds , oily fish, coconut oil, dairy products, eggs, meat and poultry, plant oils, etc . Properties: Hydrophobicity : Lipids are generally hydrophobic or insoluble in water. Solubility : Lipids are soluble in organic solvents like chloroform, ether, and benzene. Energy storage : Lipids (triglycerides) store energy in the form of long term fuel reserves . Membrane structure : Phospholipids serve as the structural component of cell membranes . Insulation : Lipids beneath the skin provide thermal insulation ( i.ereduces heat loss) to body. Signaling molecules : Sphingolipids function as signaling molecules in cell communication. Structural diversity : Each type of lipid has a unique structure and function. BBOC407 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1

16. 3-May-24 16 2. Lipids : 2.1 Introduction: Types of Lipids: Fatty acids : are the simplest form of lipids. They consist of a long hydrocarbon chain with a carboxylic acid group (-COOH) at one end. Fatty acids play vital roles in the body, including providing energy , supporting cell structure , assisting in hormone production , aiding nutrient absorption , contributing to brain function and insulation. Glycerides : are esters formed from glycerol reacting with fatty acids. Esterification : Alcohol + Acid = Ester + Water 1) Neutral glycerides: E.g: Triglycerides: are the primary form of energy storage in the body and are found in adipose tissue . They are composed of three fatty acids bonded to a glycerol backbone . 2) Phospho glycerides: E.g: Phospholipids: are the major components of cell membranes. They consist of a glycerol backbone , two fatty acid chains , and a phosphate group . BBOC407 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1

17. 3-May-24 17 2. Lipids : 2.1 Introduction: Types of Lipids (Contd..): Non glyceride lipids: are a diverse group of lipids that do not contain a glycerol backbone like triglycerides and phosphlipids . E.g: Steroids: encompass a wide range of compounds such as sex hormones , cholestrol , bile acids , and certain vitamins. Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like substance that is found in the cells of the body. It is produced by the liver . It is a vital component of cell membranes. Lipoproteins: Cholesterol travels through the bloodstream in small packages called lipoproteins. Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL) often referred to as "bad" cholesterol carries cholesterol from the liver to the cells . High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL) k nown as "good" cholesterol helps remove excess cholesterol from the bloodstream and carries it back to the liver for disposal. BBOC407 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1

18. 3-May-24 18 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 2. Lipids : 2.2 Biodiesel: Biodiesel is a form of diesel fuel derived from plants or animals. Lipids can be a source for biodiesel Biodiesel is renewable , environmentally friendly alternative to traditional petroleum-based diesel fuel. Biodiesel is derived from organic sources such as vegetable oils, animal fats, and recycled cooking oils. Biodiesel from lipids is produced through a process called tranesterification . Transesterification : the lipids are reacted with an alcohol ( usually methanol ) and a catalyst to break down the triglycerides present in the oils or fats into fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) Transesterification reaction

19. 3-May-24 19 Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 2. Lipids : 2.2 Biodiesel (Contd..): Benefits of biodiesel: renewable because it is derived from renewable sources. reduces dependence on fossil fuels and can be produced locally from domestic sources. reduced greenhouse gas emissions because it has low CO 2 biodegradable and less toxic than petroleum diesel. provides an alternative market for agricultural crops.

20. 20 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 2. Lipids : 2.2 Biodiesel (Contd..): Biodiesel Production: Feedstock selection: To prepare feedstock like Vegetable oils – soybean, canola, or palm oils Animal fats – beef tallow, pig lard. Recycled cooking oil . Pretreatment: is done to remove impurities such as water, solids, or free fatty acids. Transesterification : The cleaned and dried feedstock is then made to react with an alcohol such as methanol or ethanol and a catalyst such as NaOH or KOH in a reactor vessel. The reaction breaks down the Triglycerides in the feedstock into fatty acid methyl Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) and Glycerol. FAME is the main component of biodiesel Biodiesel Production

21. 3-May-24 21 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 2. Lipids : 2.2 Biodiesel (Contd..) Biodiesel Production (Contd..): Separation: the mixture is allowed to settle in a settling tank, separating the glycerol layer from the Biodiesel. Washing: The biodiesel contains impurities , such as excess alcohol, catalyst, or soap and needs to be washed using water. Drying: The fuel is then dried to remove any remaining water using a vacuum or a desiccant. Biodiesel Production

22. 3-May-24 22 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 2. Lipids : 2.3 Detergents: Detergents are substances used for cleaning purposes. They are designed to remove dirt , grease , and stains from surfaces such as fabrics, dishes, floors, and household items. Surfactants   are chemical compounds  that decrease the surface tension  or interfacial tension between two liquids or between a liquid and a solid. By reducing surface tension, surfactants allow water to spread more easily , penetrate materials , and interact with substances like dirt and grease . Detergents are products that typically contain surfactants as their active cleaning agents along with other additives. Surfactants, short for surface-active agents , are compounds that have both hydrophilic (water-loving) and hydrophobic (water-repelling) properties. Phospholipids are a type of surfactant.

23. 3-May-24 23 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 2. Lipids : 2.3 Detergents (Contd..): Phospholipids are a major component of cell membranes Phospholipids have a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail. Hydrophilic head readily interacts with water molecule. Hydrophobic tail repel water but readily interact with substances like oils, fats, and dirt. In water , phospholipid molecules spontaneously arrange themselves into structures known as bilayers , with the hydrophilic heads facing the water and the hydrophobic tails facing inward , shielded from the water. When the detergent, comes into contact with dirt and oil on the surface, the hydrophobic tails face inward , shielding the oil and dirt from water, while the hydrophilic heads face outward , forming a water-soluble exterior.

24. 3-May-24 24 Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 2. Lipids : 2.3 Detergents (Contd..): The dual nature of phospholipids allows them to surround and encapsulate oil and dirt particles , forming structures called micelles . When we rinse the surface treated with a phospholipid -based detergent, the micelles are easily removed with water , taking away the encapsulated oil and dirt along with them.

25. 3-May-24 25 Dr. Manohar P, Dept. of EIE, RNSIT PROTEINS

26. 3-May-24 26 Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 3. Proteins : 3.1 Introduction: Proteins are large complex molecules that play many critical roles in the body. Proteins are required for the structure , function and regulation of cells and organisms. Protein is a long chain of amino acids which are linked together in a specific sequence dictated by the genetic information encoded in DNA. The long chains of amino acids are folded into complex three-dimensional structures Most amino acids have a central carbon atom bonded to one amino (N 2 containing group) and one carboxylic acid group. The carbon also has one hydrogen atom and a sidechain which is unique to each amino acid. Proteins are found in variety of foods such as meat, poultry, seafood, dairy products, legumes, soy, nuts, seeds, grains, etc

27. 3-May-24 27 Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 3. Proteins : 3.1 Introduction (Contd..): There are 20 amino acids commonly found in proteins. Non essential amino acids : 5 – Alanine , Asparagine , Aspartic acid, Glutamic acid, Serine. The human body can produce these amino acids on its own , so they are not considered essential to obtain from the diet. Conditionally essential a. a : 6 – Argenine , Cysteine , Glutamine, Glycine , Proline , Tyrosine. Under certain conditions , the body may not be able to produce these amino acids in sufficient quantities, making them conditionally essential. Essential amino acids: : 9 – Histidine , Isoleucine , Leucine , Lysine, Methonine , Phenylalanine, Threonine , Tryptophan, Valine Essential amino acids are amino acids that cannot be synthesized by the human body and must be obtained through the diet. A complete protein refers to a food source that contains all nine essential amino acids in adequate amounts required for the body.

28. 3-May-24 28 Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 3. Proteins : 3.1 Introduction (Contd..): Dietary proteins : are proteins that are obtained through the diet by consuming various food sources. Dietary protein is broken down through a process called Proteolysis . Animal-based protein sources include meat, poultry, fish, eggs, dairy products (such as milk, cheese, and yogurt), and seafood. They contain all essential amino acids in sufficient amounts. Plant-based protein sources include legumes (such as beans, lentils, and chickpeas), grains (such as rice, wheat, and oats), nuts, seeds, and some vegetables (such as spinach, broccoli, and brussels sprouts). Plant proteins are often incomplete, meaning they may lack certain essential amino acids . However, by combining different plant protein sources , it is possible to obtain all the essential amino acids.

29. 3-May-24 29 Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 3. Proteins : 3.1 Introduction (Contd..): Functions of Proteins: Structural support: Fibrous proteins provide structure, strength and elasticity to cells and tissues. E.g: Keratin, Elastin, Collagen Collagen is a fibrous protein that forms a scaffold for connective tissues such as skin, tendons, and bones. Enzymatic catalysis: Proteins act as catalysts and facilitate biochemical reactions in cells. E.g: Amylase, Protease E.g: Digestive enzymes like amylase break down complex carbohydrates such as glycogen into smaller sugar molecules such as glucose which can be readily absorbed by the body.

30. 3-May-24 30 Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 3. Proteins : 3.1 Introduction (Contd..): Functions of Proteins (Contd..): Transport: P roteins facilitate the movement of molecules and ions across cell membranes and throughout the body. E.g: Hemoglobin, Albumin E.g: Hemoglobin , found in red blood cells, transports oxygen from the lungs to tissues. Immune defense: Proteins recognize and eliminate foreign substances such as pathogens. E.g: Antibodies Antibodies are specialized protein that recognize and bind to specific antigens , marking them for destruction by other immune cells.

31. 3-May-24 31 Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 3. Proteins : 3.1 Introduction (Contd..): Functions of Proteins (Contd..): Regulation: Hormones regulate and coordinate various physiological processes. E.g: Insulin, Growth harmone E.g : Insulin is a hormone that plays a crucial role in regulating glucose metabolism in the body. Movement: Proteins are involved in muscle contraction and movement . E.g: Actin, Myosin E.g: Myosin is the primary motor protein responsible for the contraction of muscle fibers As a Food : Protein is an essential micronutrient for building and repairing tissues in the body. Nuts and seeds, vegetables, legumes, grains, soy foods

32. 3-May-24 32 Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 3. Proteins : 3.2 Plant based proteins: are proteins derived from plants . serve as an alternative to animal based proteins. are lower in saturated fat and cholesterol are also rich in dietary fiber, antioxidants , vitamins and minerals . linked with lower risk of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes . associated with decreased risk of certain types of cancer and stroke . Legumes, Nuts and Seeds, Grains, Vegetables, Soy products

33. 3-May-24 33 Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 3. Proteins : 3.3 Whey Protein Analogs: Whey protein is a type of protein derived from milk . Whey protein is a complete protein It is a rapidly digesting protein. It is highly regarded for its nutritional value . It is well-known for its ability to promote muscle protein synthesis (MPS). Used as a dietary supplement and is often consumed by athletes and body builders . Disadvantages: Whey protein contains lactose , and individuals who are lactose intolerant may have difficulty digesting it properly. Whey protein is derived from milk , and individuals with milk allergies may experience allergic reactions when consuming whey protein. Compared to other protein sources, whey protein can be relatively expensive .

34. 3-May-24 34 Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 3. Proteins : 3.3 Whey Protein Analogs (Contd..): Production of Whey protein: Pasteurization : is a process of heating the milk to kill harmful bacteria. Coagulation : an enzyme rennet is added to the pasteurized milk which causes it to curdle . Curd separation : the curds is separated from the liquid whey through filtration. Microfiltration : further purification removes fats, carbohydrates , lactose and water.   Drying : the water content is removed to obtain protein powder.   Whey Protein Analogs: refers to proteins that are designed to mimic the properties and functions of whey protein but are not derived from milk or diary. E.g: Pea protein, Soy protein, Rice protein, Hemp protein, Synthetic proteins Whey protein analogs are made from plant based sources They provide similar nutritional benefits as whey protein They are a high source of protein , easily digestible and absorbed by the body. They serve as a dietary supplement for those who are lactose intolerant, vegan. Serves those who have dietary restrictions that prevent them from consuming whey protein.

35. 3-May-24 35 Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 3. Proteins : 3.3 Whey Protein Analogs (Contd..): Pea protein: is a plant based protein that is derived from yellow split peas A complete protein and also an alternative to whey protein A good source of iron and is lactose free. Free from all of the most common allergens like lactose and gluten Easily digestible and absorbed by the body Lower in fat and carbohydrates than whey protein

36. 3-May-24 36 Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 3. Proteins : 3.4 Meat Protein Analogs: Meat protein refers to the protein content found in meat . Proteins are derived from animal tissues , including muscle, connective tissue , and organs . Meat protein is a complete protein It is a source of vitamins and minerals such as iron, zinc, vitamin B12, and vitamin D. Meat can be more difficult to digest compared to plant-based foods. Many meat products, tend to be high in saturated fat and cholesterol. Meat products can be more expensive compared to plant-based protein sources

37. 3-May-24 37 Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 3. Proteins : 3.4 Meat Protein Analogs (Contd..): Meat Protein Analogs: also known as meat substitutes , are products designed to mimic the flavor , texture , and appearance of real meat while being entirely plant-based or made from other alternative protein sources . i ) Plant based meat alternatives: mimics the flavor , texture and appearance of real meat. are made from a combination of plant proteins, such as soy , wheat , peas , or other legumes . are fortified with vitamins and minerals to provide a nutritional value that is similar to meat have lower levels of saturated fat and cholesterol compared to animal-based meats. offer an animal-friendly alternative by eliminating the need for animal slaughter . provide options for individuals who follow vegetarian , vegan , or flexitarian diets can be used in a variety of dishes and recipes.

38. 3-May-24 38 Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 3. Proteins : 3.4 Meat Protein Analogs (Contd..): i ) Plant based meat alternatives: Steps involved in plant-based meat analog production

39. 3-May-24 39 Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 3. Proteins : 3.4 Meat Protein Analogs (Contd..): ii) Cultured meat: is a type of meat that is produced by culturing animal cells in a laboratory instead of raising and slaughtering whole animals. It is also called lab-grown meat , cell-based meat , or cultivated meat. It eliminates the need for raising and slaughtering animals. It is produced using  tissue engineering techniques. this technology is still in its early development stage . Cultured Meat Production: Cell isolation: A small sample of animal cells, is taken from a living animal. E.g: muscle cells, stem cells Cell Culture: The isolated cells are then placed in a nutrient rich culture medium, that provides the necessary growth factors, hormones, and nutrients for the cells to multiply and thrive. Cell proliferation: Over time, the cells multiply forming larger populations in a bioreactor. Tissue Formation: The multiplied cells are stimulated to differentiate into muscle cells which then forms tissues.

40. 3-May-24 40 Dr. Manohar P, Dept. of EIE, RNSIT Enzymes

41. 3-May-24 41 Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 4. Enzymes: 4.1 Introduction: Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts in various biochemical reactions in living organisms. They play an essential role in metabolism – the set of all chemical reactions that takes place in cells to maintain life. Enzymes initiate and accelerate the rate of biochemical reaction. Enzymes lower the activation energy required for a chemical reaction to occur. Higher activation energy typically results in slower reaction rates. They are made of long chains of amino acids that fold into complex 3D structures. This folding creates a pocket in the enzyme called active site . The specific sequence of amino acids in an enzyme, determines its shape and its catalytic activity. Enzymes are not used up during the catalytic process. Once the reaction is complete, the enzyme is released from the products and is free to bind to and catalyze more substrate molecules.

42. 3-May-24 42 Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 4. Enzymes: 4.1 Introduction: The substrate refers to the specific molecules that enzyme acts upon during a chemical reaction. The active site  is the region of an enzyme where substrate binds and undergoes a chemical reaction. The active site of an enzyme is highly specific , meaning it binds to a particular substrate and catalyze a specific reaction. Products are the molecules formed as a result of the chemical reaction of the substrate within the active site of the enzyme.

43. 3-May-24 43 Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 4. Enzymes: 4.1 Introduction (Contd..): Glucose Oxidase : Glucose oxidase is an enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of glucose to produce gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide . Glucose oxidase is naturally found in certain organisms, primarily in fungi and bacteria . Blood Glucose monitoring systems: Glucose oxidase based tests are commonly used by people with Diabetes to monitor their blood glucose levels. The enzyme reacts with the glucose in blood sample, producing hydrogen peroxide which is then detected by a color change or other indicator. At a positive potential, hydrogen peroxide can be oxidized , producing oxygen gas and releasing electrons . The resulting current is proportional to the concentration of hydrogen peroxide in the sample.

44. 3-May-24 44 Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 4. Enzymes: 4.2 Glucose Oxidase in a Biosensor: Glucose Amperometric Biosensor: is a device that measures the concentration of glucose in a blood sample using an amperometric (current-based) method. Test Strip: The glucometer uses disposable test strip that contains a small amount of glucose oxidase . The enzyme reacts with glucose in the blood sample. Blood Sample: A small drop of blood is obtained by pricking the skin with a lancet . The blood sample is then applied to the test strip , which has small electrodes embedded in it. Enzymatic Reaction: The glucose in the blood sample reacts with the enzyme on the test strip. This reaction produces hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) and gluconic acid. Current Measurement: The amperometric sensor in the glucometer measures the electrical current generated by the oxidation of H 2 O 2 at the electrode surface. The presence of glucose in the blood sample is directly proportional to the current generated . Signal Processing: The electrical current signal is amplified and processed by the glucometer's circuitry. The device converts the current into a glucose reading , typically displayed in milligrams per deciliter (mg/ dL ) or millimoles per liter ( mmol /L) on a screen. Display: The glucose measurement is shown on the display of the glucometer .

45. 3-May-24 45 Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 4. Enzymes: 4.2 Glucose Oxidase in a Biosensor (Contd..): Glucose Amperometric Biosensor or Glucometer (Contd..):

46. 3-May-24 46 Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 4. Enzymes: 4.3 Lignolytic Enzymes in Bio-bleaching: Lignolytic enzymes: are a group of enzymes that have the ability to degrade lignin . Lignin is a complex polymer that is a major component of the cell walls of plants. It is responsible for the yellowish color of the paper and it needs to be removed during bleaching process to produce high quality white paper . Lignin is a complex and highly resistant polymer found in plant cell walls, and its degradation is essential for the recycling of carbon in forest ecosystems. Lignolytic enzymes are produced by certain microorganisms , mainly fungi and bacteria that have the ability to break down lignin. They are involved in the decay of wood debris. Types of Lignolytic enzymes: Laccases : are copper-containing enzymes that catalyze the oxidation of phenolic compounds, which are the major components of lignin. Peroxidases : are enzymes that require hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) as a co-substrate to break down lignin. Manganese peroxidases : are enzymes that require manganese ions for their activity and are capable of oxidizing both lignin and aromatic compounds.

47. 3-May-24 47 Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 4. Enzymes: 4.3 Lignolytic Enzymes in Bio-bleaching: Biobleaching : refers to the process of using biological agents or environmentally friendly methods to whiten materials , particularly fibers such as paper, textiles, and pulp. In biobleaching , enzymes are employed to break down the lignin and other pigments present in the materials, resulting in a brighter and whiter appearance . It is an alternative to traditional chemical bleaching methods , which often involve the use of chlorine-based compounds that can be harmful to the environment. Biobleaching with lignolytic enzymes offer several advantages over conventional bleaching techniques. They are more environmentally friendly because they reduce or eliminate the use of toxic chemicals , reduce water pollution , require less energy and improved paper quality . As a result, lignolytic enzymes have the potential to revolutionize the paper industry by providing a more sustainable and cost effective approach to paper production.

48. 3-May-24 48 Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 4. Enzymes: 4.3 Lignolytic Enzymes in Bio-bleaching: Biobleaching (Contd..): Lignolytic enzymes particularly laccases and peroxidases are able to catalyze the oxidation of lignin leading to the breakdown of lignin into smaller more soluble compounds that can be removed from the pulp. Lignin degradation by Lignolytic enzymes

49. 3-May-24 49 Dr. Manohar P, Dept. of EIE, RNSIT Nucleic acids

50. 3-May-24 50 Dr. Manohar P, Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 5. Nucleic acids : 5.1 Introduction: Nucleic acids are  biopolymers essential to all known forms of life. They play a crucial role in the storage and transmission of genetic information within In all living organisms. Nucleic acids are polynucleotides – they are long complex macromolecules composed of smaller units called nucleotides . Nucleotides are organic molecules composed of three main components: a nitrogenous base ( or nucleobase ) , a five-carbon sugar , and a phosphate group .   Types of Nucleic acids:   Nucleotide

51. 3-May-24 51 Dr. Manohar P, Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 5. Nucleic acids : 5.1 Introduction (Contd..): Deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA): DNA carries genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth and reproduction of all living organisms. DNA is a polymer composed of two polynucleotide  strands that are coiled together to form a  double helix . Each nucleotide in DNA is composed of one of four  nitrogen containing nucleobases  (cytosine [C],  guanine [G], adenine [A] or  thymine [T]), a sugar  called deoxyribose , and a phosphate group . Each strand in DNA is composed of a sugar-phosphate backbone and the bases extend from the backbone and pair with their complementary bases in the opposite DNA strand. Base pair : A with T , C with G

52. 3-May-24 52 Dr. Manohar P, Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 5. Nucleic acids : 5.1 Introduction (Contd..): Ribose nucleic acid (RNA): RNA functions in converting genetic information from genes of DNA into the amino acid sequences of proteins.  RNA is a polymer assembled as a chain of nucleotides ,  but unlike DNA, RNA is single strand rather than a paired double strand. Each nucleotide in RNA is composed of one of four  Nitrogen containing nucleobases  (cytosine [C],  guanine [G], adenine [A] or   uracil  [U]), a sugar called ribose , and a phosphate group . Base pair: A with U and C with G RNA is synthesized from DNA on an as-needed basis. Types of RNA: i ) mRNA, ii) tRNA , iii) rRNA

53. 3-May-24 53 Dr. Manohar P, Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 5. Nucleic acids : 5.1 Introduction (Contd..): Vaccine is a biological preparation that is used to stimulate the body's immune response to provide protection against specific infectious diseases. A vaccine contains an antigens , which are parts of the pathogen that trigger an immune response . When a vaccine is administered, the antigens in the vaccine mimic the presence of the actual pathogen without causing the disease itself. The immune system recognizes these antigens as foreign substances and mounts a response to eliminate them. β cells of the immune system produce specialized proteins called antibodies that specifically target and neutralize the antigens. Additionally, immune cells such as T-cells are activated to identify and destroy cells infected with the pathogen. After the initial exposure to the vaccine, the immune system " learns" from this encounter . It remembers the pathogen's antigens so that if the person is exposed to the actual pathogen later, their immune system can mount a faster and effective response.

54. 3-May-24 54 Dr. Manohar P, Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 5. Nucleic acids : 5.1 Introduction (Contd..): Nucleic acid Vaccines: Nucleic acid vaccines utilize genetic material from a disease causing virus or bacterium to trigger an immune response against it. DNA vaccines – E.g: DNA vaccine for Rabies RNA vaccines – E.g.: RNA vaccine for COVID 19

55. 3-May-24 55 Dr. Manohar P, Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 5. Nucleic acids : 5.2 DNA vaccine for Rabies: Rabies: Rabies is a viral disease that affects the central nervous system of mammals, including humans. It is caused by the rabies virus , which is usually transmitted through the bite or scratch of an infected animal. Saliva from an infected animal can also transmit rabies if the saliva comes into contact with the eyes, mouth, or nose. DNA vaccine: is a type of vaccine  that transfects a specific  antigen-coding DNA sequence into the cells of an organism as a mechanism to induce an immune response against the specific pathogen.  DNA vaccine uses a small piece of DNA that encodes for a specific antigen. Antigen is a protein found on the surface of the virus. When the DNA vaccine is injected into the body, the cells take up the DNA and use it to produce the antigen , which then triggers the immune response. Rabies Virus

56. 3-May-24 56 Dr. Manohar P, Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 5. Nucleic acids : 5.2 DNA vaccine for Rabies (Contd..): Plasmid : is a small, extrachromosomal DNA molecule within a cell of bacteria that is physically separated from chromosomal DNA and can replicate independently. DNA vaccine development: Antigen Selection: Identify the antigens from the pathogen (rabies virus) that will elicit an immune response. The identified antigen is called vaccine construct. DNA Plasmid Design: A plasmid is engineered to carry the vaccine construct . Plasmid Production: The DNA plasmid carrying the desired genes is produced in large quantities using bacterial or yeast cell cultures.

57. 3-May-24 57 Dr. Manohar P, Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 5. Nucleic acids : 5.2 DNA vaccine for Rabies (Contd..): DNA vaccine development (Contd..): Vaccine Administration: The DNA vaccine is typically delivered through injection , usually into the muscle cells of the individual. Uptake by Cells: Once inside the cells, the DNA plasmid is taken up by the cell nucleus . Gene expression: The DNA is released inside the nucleus. The host cell's own machinery reads the DNA sequence and produces the antigens encoded by the vaccine construct. Antigen Presentation: The antigens produced by the host cells are displayed on their surface , which enables the immune system to recognize them as foreign.

58. 3-May-24 58 Dr. Manohar P, Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 5. Nucleic acids : 5.2 DNA vaccine for Rabies (Contd..): DNA vaccine development (Contd..): Immune Response Activation: The presentation of antigens triggers an immune response . β cells are stimulated to produce antibodies that can bind to and neutralize the pathogen, while T cells activate β cells to produce more antibodies and remove infected cells . Immune Memory: If the vaccinated individual encounters the pathogen in the future , the immune system can quickly recognize and mount a strong and rapid response to eliminate the threat.

59. 3-May-24 59 Dr. Manohar P, Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 5. Nucleic acids : 5.3 RNA vaccine for Covid-19 Corona Virus: COVID-19 is a contagious disease  caused by the virus  severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 ( SARS-CoV-2 ). COVID‑19 transmits  when infectious particles are breathed in or come into contact with the eyes, nose, or mouth. The risk is highest when people are in close proximity . RNA vaccine: is a type of vaccine that uses a small piece of the virus's genetic material, (specifically the messenger RNA or mRNA ) to trigger an immune response against a specific pathogen. mRNA: is a type of RNA that plays a crucial role in the process of protein synthesis in cells.

60. 3-May-24 60 Dr. Manohar P, Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 5. Nucleic acids : 5.3 RNA vaccine for Covid-19 (Contd..) mRNA vaccine development: mRNA synthesis: The spike protein on the surface of the SARS-CoV-2 virus is the target antigen for the vaccine. Scientists generate the mRNA sequence encoding the spike protein . This mRNA carries the instructions for the synthesis of the spike protein . Lipid encapsulation: The synthesized mRNA is encapsulated in lipid nanoparticles to protect it and facilitate its delivery into cells. These lipid nanoparticles help the mRNA cross the cell membrane . Vaccine administration: The mRNA vaccines are administered via injection into the muscle tissue, typically in the arm. Once injected, the lipid-coated mRNA particles are taken up by cells at the injection site.

61. 3-May-24 61 Dr. Manohar P, Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 5. Nucleic acids : 5.3 RNA vaccine for Covid-19 (Contd..) mRNA vaccine development (Contd..): Uptake by cells: Once inside the cells, the lipid nanoparticles release the mRNA . The cells recognize the mRNA as instructions to produce the spike protein . Spike protein synthesis: The ribosomes in the cells read the mRNA and use it as a template to produce the spike protein . These proteins are identical or very similar to the spike proteins found on the surface of the SARS- CoV-2 virus. Antigen presentation: The newly synthesized spike proteins are displayed on the surface of the vaccinated cells. This presentation serves as a signal for the immune system to recognize the spike protein as foreign.

62. 3-May-24 62 Dr. Manohar P, Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 5. Nucleic acids : 5.3 RNA vaccine for Covid-19 (Contd..) mRNA vaccine development (Contd..): Immune response activation: The presence of the spike protein on the cell surface activates the immune system . Specialized immune cells, such as β cells and T cells, recognize the spike protein as an invader. Antibody production: β cells are activated to produce specific antibodies that bind to the spike protein . These antibodies help neutralize the virus and prevent it from infecting healthy human cells. T cells help eliminate infected cells. Immune memory: The immune system " remembers " the spike protein and maintains a memory of how to respond to it in the future.

63. 3-May-24 63 Dr. Manohar P, Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 5. Nucleic acids : 5.4 DNA fingerprinting in forensic: DNA fingerprinting: also known as DNA profiling or genetic fingerprinting, is a forensic technique used to identify individuals by analyzing their unique DNA profiles . The unique characteristics of an individual's DNA are the basis for DNA fingerprinting. The DNA sequence is highly specific to each individual . DNA printing has become an important tool in criminal investigations . DNA printing is highly accurate and can be used to link suspects to crimes, exonerate innocent individuals and to identify victims of crime. DNA printing is also used in paternity testing and medical diagnosis . Process of DNA finger printing: Sample collection: A sample containing DNA is collected from the individual or the crime scene. This can be done using various sources such as blood, saliva, hair, semen, or tissue. DNA extraction: The DNA is extracted from the collected sample using chemical and mechanical methods. This step separates the DNA from other components of the cell.

64. 3-May-24 64 Dr. Manohar P, Dept. of EIE, RNSIT 21BE45 - Biology for Engineers - Module 1 5. Nucleic acids : 5.4 DNA fingerprinting in forensic (Contd..): Process of DNA finger printing (Contd..): Gel electrophoresis : The amplified DNA is then subjected to a technique called gel electrophoresis. In this step, the DNA fragments are separated based on their size and electrical charge by applying an electric current through a gel matrix. The result is a distinctive pattern of DNA bands , which forms the DNA fingerprint. Analysis: The resulting DNA pattern is unique to each individual . The DNA fingerprint is then analyzed by comparing the banding patterns between different samples or potential suspects. Amplified DNA separated bands Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): The PCR technique is used to amplify specific regions of the DNA . This process makes millions of copies of the DNA segment of interest , increasing its number for analysis.