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theories of personality

1. Skinner: Behavioral Analysis
Burrhus Frederic Skinner
OVERVIEW OF BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS
behaviorism -an approach called Costa and
McCrae were using psy chometrics to build
theories of human personality emerged
from laboratory studies of animals and
humans.
behavioral analysis- is a clear departure
from the highly speculative psychodynamic
theories
radical behaviorism- a doctrine that avoids
all hypothetical constructs, such as ego,
traits, drives, needs, hunger, and so forth.

Precursors to Skinner’s Scientific
Behaviorism
law of effect-Thorndike observation that
learning takes place mostly because of the
effects that follow a response.
law of effect had two parts
The first stated that responses to stimuli
that are followed immediately by a satisfier
tend to be “stamped in”;
the second held that responses to stimuli
that are followed immediately by an
annoyer tend to be “stamped out.”
This assumption clouds the issue and
relegates much of psychology to that realm
of philosophy known as cosmology, or the
concern with causation.



Philosophy of Science
Scientific behaviorism, according to Skinner,
focuses on interpreting behavior rather than
explaining its causes. It allows scientists to
generalize from simple learning situations
(like animal studies) to more complex ones
(like human behavior). Skinner used lab-
based principles to interpret human actions
but emphasized that interpretation is not
the same as explaining why behavior occurs.
According to Skinner (1953), science has
three main characteristics:
1. Cumulative – Scientific knowledge
builds upon previous discoveries.
Unlike art or philosophy, science
continually advances and becomes
more sophisticated over time.
2. Empirical Attitude – Science values
facts gained through observation
and experimentation rather than
authority or opinion. It requires
honesty, skepticism, and suspension
of judgment until evidence is clear
and verified.
3. Search for Order and Lawful
Relationships – Science aims to find
patterns and laws that explain and
predict phenomena. Through
observation, hypothesis testing, and
theory modification, scientists seek
to describe, predict, and control
behavior, which Skinner believed
follows definite and discoverable
laws.

2. Skinner (1953) identified two types of
conditioning:
1. Classical (Respondent) Conditioning
– A response is elicited by a specific
stimulus (like Pavlov’s dog salivating
at a bell). The behavior is drawn out
by something external.
2. Operant (Skinnerian) Conditioning –
A behavior is emitted and becomes
more likely to occur again when
followed by reinforcement (reward).
The key difference is that in classical
conditioning, the behavior is triggered by a
stimulus, while in operant conditioning, the
behavior occurs voluntarily and is
strengthened by its consequences.
In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus
is paired with an unconditioned stimulus
until it can produce the same response on
its own. This process turns the neutral
stimulus into a conditioned stimulus, and
the response becomes a conditioned
response. It usually involves reflexive,
automatic behaviors (like salivation or
blinking) but can also lead to emotional
reactions such as fears or phobias.
In contrast, operant conditioning involves
learning through consequences. The
organism performs a behavior and then
receives reinforcement, which increases the
likelihood that the behavior will occur again.
The key idea is that the organism operates
on the environment to produce results, and
reinforcement strengthens the behavior
rather than causing it directly.
Shaping is a process in operant conditioning
where complex behavior is learned
gradually through reinforcing successive
approximations of the desired action. The
environment or trainer first rewards simple
versions of the behavior, then closer
versions, until the full target behavior is
achieved.
In shaping, three key elements are always
present:
• Antecedent (A): The setting or
situation where the behavior occurs.
• Behavior (B): The specific action
performed by the organism.
• Consequence (C): The result or
reinforcement that follows the
behavior.
For example, when teaching a child to dress
himself, the home is the antecedent, the act
of dressing is the behavior, and the reward
(like candy) is the consequence that
strengthens the behavior.
Operant behavior always happens within an
environment, which plays a key role in
shaping and maintaining behavior. Our
actions are influenced by our past
experiences of reinforcement—we learn to
respond to certain environmental cues that
have been rewarded before.
This leads to two important concepts:
1. Operant Discrimination – This
occurs when a person learns to
respond differently to various
situations because of past
reinforcement. It’s not due to an
inner ability to “discern,” but rather
the result of being reinforced for
reacting to specific cues in the
environment.
2. Stimulus Generalization – This
happens when a person responds to
a new situation in the same way
they did to a previous one because
the two share similar features. For

3. example, buying a ticket to a new
rock concert because it seems
similar to a previous one you
enjoyed.
In short, discrimination comes from learning
which cues lead to reinforcement, while
generalization happens when similar cues
trigger similar responses.
According to Skinner (1987), reinforcement
has two effects: it strengthens behavior
and rewards the person—but these are not
the same thing. A behavior can be
reinforced even if it isn’t enjoyable (e.g.,
working for pay despite finding the job
boring). Reinforcers come from the
environment, not from how a person feels
about them.
Reinforcement is anything that increases
the likelihood of a behavior recurring and
can be divided into two types:
1. Positive Reinforcement – Adding
something pleasant or beneficial
after a behavior to strengthen it.
o Example: Giving food,
money, praise, or comfort
after a desired action.
o Turning on a faucet and
getting clean water
reinforces the behavior
because a positive stimulus
is added.
2. Negative Reinforcement – Removing
something unpleasant to strengthen
behavior.
o Example: Eating to remove
hunger, or turning off a loud
noise.
o Here, a negative or aversive
condition is taken away, but
the effect (strengthening
behavior) is the same as
positive reinforcement.
In short:
• Positive reinforcement = adding
something good.
• Negative reinforcement = removing
something bad.
Both increase the chance that the
behavior will happen again.
Punishment is different from negative
reinforcement.
• Negative reinforcement strengthens
behavior by removing something
unpleasant (e.g., buckling your
seatbelt to stop the buzzer sound).
• Punishment, on the other hand,
aims to weaken or decrease
behavior—either by adding
something unpleasant or removing
something pleasant.
There are two types:
1. Positive Punishment – Adding an
unpleasant consequence to reduce
behavior.
o Example: Getting a fine for
parking illegally.
2. Negative Punishment – Removing a
pleasant consequence to reduce
behavior.
o Example: Losing driving
privileges for texting while
driving.
Skinner (1953) noted that punishment is
less predictable and less effective than
reinforcement because it may not always
stop the unwanted behavior—it might only

4. suppress it temporarily or cause avoidance
instead of learning.
Effects of Punishment
Skinner believed that punishment is less
effective than reinforcement in controlling
behavior. Unlike reinforcement—which can
precisely shape and predict behavior—
punishment only suppresses unwanted
actions without teaching a desirable
alternative.
Here are its main effects:
1. Suppression of Behavior –
Punishment stops the unwanted
behavior temporarily but doesn’t
teach what to do instead.
o Example: A boy stops teasing
his sister when spanked, but
his attitude toward her
doesn’t improve.
2. Conditioning of Negative Emotions
– Punishment can create fear, guilt,
anxiety, or shame associated with
the punished behavior.
o The child may fear
punishment rather than learn
proper behavior.
3. Generalization or Avoidance – The
negative effects can spread to
related people, objects, or
situations.
o The boy might avoid his
sister, his parents, or even
develop negative feelings
toward the home or the
object used for punishment.
In short, punishment may stop bad behavior
in the moment, but it can also cause fear,
avoidance, and emotional harm—without
promoting positive learning or lasting
behavioral change.
Conditioned and Generalized Reinforcers
According to Skinner, conditioned
reinforcers (or secondary reinforcers) are
stimuli that become reinforcing through
association with primary reinforcers such as
food, water, sex, or comfort. For example,
money becomes reinforcing because it can
be exchanged for these basic needs—it
doesn’t satisfy them directly but gains value
through experience and learning.
A generalized reinforcer is a type of
conditioned reinforcer that is connected to
many primary reinforcers, making it more
powerful and useful in different situations.
Skinner identified five main generalized
reinforcers that influence much of human
behavior:
1. Attention
2. Approval
3. Affection
4. Submission of others (having
influence or control)
5. Tokens (like money)
For example, attention becomes reinforcing
when it’s repeatedly paired with food or
comfort—children learn to seek attention
even without expecting physical rewards.
Similarly, approval, affection, and money
gain their reinforcing power because they
are linked to various satisfying experiences.
In short:
• Conditioned reinforcers = learned
rewards through association.
• Generalized reinforcers = learned
rewards tied to many basic needs,

5. making them stronger motivators for
behavior.
Schedules of Reinforcement
According to Skinner (1957), the
frequency and pattern of behavior
depend on how often reinforcement
is given—this is called the schedule
of reinforcement.
Reinforcement can be:
1. Continuous – The behavior is
reinforced every time it occurs. This
increases behavior quickly but is
inefficient and easy to extinguish.
2. Intermittent – The behavior is
reinforced only sometimes. This
produces more stable and long-
lasting behavior and is more
resistant to extinction.
The four basic intermittent
schedules are:
1. Fixed-Ratio (FR) – Reinforcement is
given after a set number of
responses.
o Example: A pigeon gets food
after every 5 pecks (FR 5).
o In humans, piece-rate pay
(like getting paid per brick
laid) is similar.
2. Variable-Ratio (VR) – Reinforcement
occurs after a variable number of
responses, but it averages to a
certain ratio.
o Example: Slot machines
(players never know when
they’ll win).
o Produces high, steady
response rates and is very
resistant to extinction.
3. Fixed-Interval (FI) – The first
response after a fixed time interval is
reinforced.
o Example: Getting a salary
every two weeks.
o Responses may increase as
the time for reinforcement
gets closer.
4. Variable-Interval (VI) – The first
response after varying time intervals
is reinforced.
o Example: Checking for
messages or emails that
arrive at random times.
o Produces steady but
moderate response rates.
In summary:
• Ratio schedules depend on the
number of responses.
• Interval schedules depend on time.
• Variable schedules lead to more
persistent and consistent behavior
than fixed ones.
Summary (Extinction – B.F.
Skinner’s Behavioral Analysis):
Extinction refers to the weakening
or disappearance of a learned
behavior when reinforcement is no
longer given. In simple terms, if a
behavior stops being rewarded, it
will eventually fade away.
Reasons Why Learned Behavior
Disappears:

6. 1. Forgetting – The behavior fades over
time.
2. Interference – Old or new learning
interferes with the behavior.
3. Punishment – The behavior
decreases because it is followed by a
negative outcome.
4. Extinction – The behavior weakens
when reinforcement is stopped.
Operant Extinction:
• Happens when an experimenter
systematically withholds
reinforcement for a learned
response until the behavior
disappears.
• The rate of extinction depends on
the type of reinforcement schedule
used during training.
• Behaviors learned through
intermittent reinforcement
(rewarded only sometimes) are
more resistant to extinction than
those learned through continuous
reinforcement (rewarded every
time).
Example:
• A child who receives praise every
time they behave well (continuous
reinforcement) may stop behaving
well once the praise stops.
• But a child who is praised only
occasionally (intermittent
reinforcement) is more likely to
continue the good behavior even
without constant praise.
According to Skinner (1953):
• He observed that some behaviors
under intermittent reinforcement
can continue for up to 10,000
unrewarded responses before
stopping.
• This suggests that reinforcers like
praise should be used sparingly,
since too much can make the
behavior dependent on constant
rewards.

Human Behavior and Animal Studies
Skinner believed that studying animals (like
rats and pigeons) helps us understand
human behavior, just as physics explains
the universe. Simple animal studies can
reveal general behavioral principles that
also apply to humans.

The Three Forces That Shape Human
Behavior
According to Skinner, human personality
and behavior are shaped by three main
factors:
1. Natural Selection – Evolution
shaped some of our behaviors to
help our species survive.
o Example: Babies turn their
heads when their cheeks are
touched (rooting reflex) to
help them feed.
o Some natural traits (like
overeating) helped early
humans survive but are less
useful today.
2. Cultural Evolution – Behaviors that
help societies survive are passed
down.

7. o Example: Toolmaking and
language started because
they were useful to the
group.
o Some cultural practices (like
war or overwork) are no
longer beneficial but still
exist.
3. Individual Reinforcement History –
Each person’s unique experiences
with rewards and punishments
shape their behavior.

Inner States
Skinner didn’t deny feelings, thoughts, or
intentions, but he said these should be
treated as behaviors within the skin —
private, but still observable in principle.
• Self-awareness – People can
observe their own thoughts and
feelings. Example: “I was so
frustrated I almost quit my job” is
verbal behavior that can be studied.
• Drives – Not causes of behavior, just
names for the effects of deprivation
(e.g., hunger).
• Emotions – Results of reinforcement
and survival history, not causes of
behavior.
• Purpose/Intention – Feelings inside
us that accompany behavior, not
reasons that cause it.

Complex Human Behavior
Even complex acts like thinking, creativity,
or dreaming follow behavioral laws.
• Thinking and Problem-Solving:
These are “covert behaviors”
(happening inside the skin).
Example: When recalling something,
we’re not searching our memory but
increasing the chance of a correct
response.
• Creativity: Happens when new
behaviors accidentally appear and
are rewarded — like evolution
selecting useful mutations.
• Unconscious Behavior: Not a hidden
“mind,” but actions we don’t notice
because they were punished or
avoided.
• Dreams: Covert behaviors that
express wishes symbolically without
punishment.
• Social Behavior: Only individuals
behave, not groups. People join
groups because it’s rewarding (for
safety, belonging, etc.).

5. Control of Human Behavior
Behavior is controlled by the environment,
not free will.
Social Control
Society controls people using:
1. Operant Conditioning – Rewards
and punishments.
2. Describing Contingencies –
Explaining consequences (e.g.,
promises, threats, ads).
3. Deprivation/Satiation – Limiting or
providing rewards (like food).

8. 4. Physical Restraint – Preventing
unwanted behavior (e.g., prisons,
stopping a child from danger).

Self-Control
Although “free will” is an illusion, Skinner
said people can still control themselves by
manipulating their environment, just as
they do with others.
Examples:
• Turning off distractions while
studying.
• Setting an alarm to force oneself out
of bed.
• Using tools or money to change
situations.
• Taking medication to calm oneself.
• Doing another activity to avoid bad
thoughts or actions.

In summary:
Skinner saw humans as products of their
environment, culture, and biology.
All behavior — simple or complex,
conscious or unconscious — can be
explained by reinforcement, conditioning,
and environmental influence, not by inner
causes or free will.
The Unhealthy Personality
Sometimes, social control (rules, authority,
expectations) and self-control (discipline or
restraint) can produce negative effects,
leading to unhealthy personality
development and inappropriate behavior.

Counteracting Strategies (Ways People
React to Too Much Control)
When people feel too controlled by society,
Skinner said they respond in three ways:
1. Escape –
People withdraw physically or
emotionally from whoever is
controlling them.
o Example: avoiding
relationships, becoming
isolated, or not trusting
others.
o These people tend to live
lonely, detached lives.
2. Revolt –
People fight back or act out against
control.
o Example: vandalism, mocking
teachers, stealing from
employers, rebelling against
authority, or joining
revolutions.
o They actively go against the
controlling system.
3. Passive Resistance –
People resist quietly but stubbornly.
o Example: a child making
excuses not to do homework,
or an employee slowing
down work.
o It happens when escape and
revolt don’t work.
o It’s less open but often more
frustrating for those in
control.

Inappropriate (Unhealthy) Behaviors

9. Unhealthy or inappropriate behavior comes
from:
• Failure to deal effectively with
control (social or self-control),
• Or from strong emotions during
these failures.
Skinner said these are learned behaviors,
shaped by reinforcement and punishment.
Here are the main types:
1. Excessively Vigorous Behavior –
Actions that are too intense or
unnecessary now but made sense in
the past.
o Example: overreacting angrily
even when it’s not needed.
2. Excessively Restrained Behavior –
People hold back their actions to
avoid punishment.
o Example: being overly shy,
fearful, or unable to express
oneself.
3. Blocking Out Reality –
Ignoring unpleasant or painful
realities to avoid discomfort.
o Example: pretending a
problem doesn’t exist.
4. Defective Self-Knowledge –
People lie to themselves or create
false images to escape feelings of
inadequacy.
o Example: boasting, making
excuses, or believing they are
special or chosen.
5. Self-Punishment –
People either punish themselves
directly or create situations where
others punish them.
o Example: feeling guilty and
sabotaging one’s own
success.

Psychotherapy (Therapy According to
Skinner)
Skinner was critical of traditional
psychotherapy, calling it unscientific
because it often depends on “inner causes”
like the unconscious or defense
mechanisms.
However, his ideas on behavior shaping
influenced modern behavior therapy.
Key points:
• The therapist is a controlling agent,
but a positive one — unlike harsh
parents or authority figures.
o The therapist is supportive,
not punitive.
• Therapy takes time, because
behavior change must happen
gradually through reinforcement.
• Behavioral therapists focus on
observable behaviors, not hidden
causes.
• Traditional therapists use “fictional
explanations” (like ego, unconscious
drives, etc.), but Skinner said we
should instead look at the learning
history — how reinforcement and
punishment shaped the person.

Behavior Therapy
Behavior therapists (inspired by Skinner)
use operant conditioning and sometimes
classical conditioning to:
• Reinforce positive behaviors,

10. • Reduce or eliminate harmful ones,
and
• Teach clients actions that will bring
positive reinforcement over time.
They play an active role in helping clients
change behavior by showing which actions
bring good or bad consequences.
In Summary:
• Too much control can make people
escape, rebel, or resist.
• Unhealthy behaviors are learned
responses to bad reinforcement or
punishment.
• True therapy should focus on
changing behavior, not explaining it
through imaginary inner causes.
Summary: How Conditioning Affects
Personality
Conditioning can lead to personality change
when new behaviors become stable over
time and across different situations.
Although B.F. Skinner did not directly
discuss personality change, behavior
modification through conditioning can
result in lasting behavioral patterns that
reflect personality shifts.
Language and Perception of Personality:
Murray Goddard (2018) suggested that the
English language makes it hard to see
personality change because it emphasizes
fixed traits (like “conscientiousness”),
making people think personalities are stable
even when behaviors change. For example,
if someone becomes more punctual due to
job rules, others might see it as part of their
existing trait instead of a true change.
Conditioning and Personality Change:
The Token Economy is a conditioning
system where people earn tokens for
desired behavior that can be exchanged for
rewards. Studies (like Saber, 2017) show
that this method improves participation,
grades, and motivation—suggesting that
conditioning can shift students from being
passive to active learners, which could be
seen as a personality change.
Personality Affecting Conditioning:
People respond differently to the same
reinforcers based on their personality. A
study by Sigmon et al. (2003) found that
some smokers reacted strongly to D-
amphetamine (a stimulant) and worked
harder for cigarettes, while others did not.
This difference may be due to variations in
dopamine sensitivity, linking biological
personality traits to conditioning responses.
Mutual Influence Between Personality and
Conditioning:
The Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST)
explains how personality and conditioning
influence each other through three systems:
• Behavioral Approach System (BAS):
responds to rewards and pleasure,
• Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS):
responds to punishment and anxiety,
• Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS):
responds to fear and threat.
These systems show that reinforcement
(reward and punishment) shapes behavior,
but personality traits also determine how
individuals react to conditioning.
Summary: Critique of Skinner’s Theory
Hans J. Eysenck (1988) criticized B.F. Skinner
for ignoring key psychological concepts like
individual differences, intelligence, genetics,
and personality. However, this is only partly
true—Skinner did acknowledge genetic

11. influences and defined personality as a set
of learned behaviors shaped by
environmental contingencies.
The theory was evaluated using six criteria
of a useful theory:
1. Ability to Generate Research – Very
High:
Skinner’s ideas inspired a vast
amount of experimental research,
especially in learning and behavior
modification.
2. Falsifiability – High:
Most of his principles can be tested
and proven either true or false
through observation and
experiments.
3. Organizing Knowledge – Moderate:
The theory organizes behavior well
under operant conditioning, but it
fails to explain complex traits like
creativity, insight, motivation, or
self-efficacy.
4. Guide to Action – Very High:
Skinner’s theory has strong practical
applications. His behavioral
techniques have been used
successfully in therapy, education,
addiction treatment, health
improvement, and behavior training.
5. Internal Consistency – Very High:
Skinner’s theory is logically
consistent, with clear, operational
definitions that avoid vague mental
or emotional explanations.
6. Parsimony – Mixed Rating:
While the theory avoids unnecessary
mental concepts, it can be overly
technical or awkward in explaining
simple human actions using
scientific terms.
Overall:
Skinner’s behaviorist theory is scientifically
strong, practical, and consistent, but it is
limited in addressing internal mental
processes and complex human traits.