biochemical catalaysis - biochemistry.pptx

biochemical of kinetics

1. BIOCHEMICAL CATALYSIS BIOCHEMICAL CATALYSIS UNIT 2 UNIT 2

2. Trách nhiệm - Chất lượng - Phát triển - Hội nhập BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS

3. CONTENTS CONTENTS BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS Definition of Biochemical reactions Type of Biochemical reactions BIOCHEMICAL CATALYSIS Definition of Biochemical catalysis I II 01 02 01 CONTENTS Basic Characteristics of Biocatalysts 02

4. BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS Type of Biochemical reactions BIOCHEMICAL CATALYSIS Definition of Biochemical catalysis I II Definition of Biochemical reactions 01 02 01 BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS Definition of Biochemical reactions 01 CONTENTS CONTENTS Basic Characteristics of Biocatalysts 02

5. I. BIO CHEMICAL REACTION I. BIO CHEMICAL REACTION BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS Definition of Biochemical reactions 01

6. BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS Definition of Biochemical reactions 01 CONTENTS CONTENTS

7. BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS Definition of Biochemical reactions 01 CONTENTS CONTENTS Intracellular Extracellular Intra-organelle

8. enzym A B

9. enzym I t can often be extracted from living tissues P erform reactions in vitro

10. ANABOLISM CATABOLISM METABOLISM

11. ANABOLISM CATABOLISM METABOLISM Organismal Structure Functions

12. ANABOLISM CATABOLISM METABOLISM Maintain body temperature Support life processes Muscle contraction

13. 02. Energy-yielding processes 01. Biosynthetic processes The role of biochemical reactions

14. 02. Energy-yielding processes 01. Biosynthetic processes The role of biochemical reactions

15. Nature The synthesis of macromolecules from monomeric precursors. Typically requires the consumption of energy (ATP, NADPH). Nature: The degradation of organic compounds (glucose, fatty acids, amino acids). Releases energy mainly in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH₂. Biological significance: enzymes, hormones, cellular structures. storage and transmission of genetic information. energy storage and structural support components of biological membranes and energy reserves. 01. BIOSYNTHETIC PROCESSES 01. BIOSYNTHETIC PROCESSES 01. Biosynthetic processes 02. Energy-yielding processes

16. Nature: The degradation of organic compounds (glucose, fatty acids, amino acids). Releases energy mainly in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH₂. Examples: DNA polymerase catalyzes DNA replication. Ribosomes, tRNA, and elongation enzymes mediate protein synthesis. Fatty acid synthase catalyzes fatty acid biosynthesis. Nature The synthesis of macromolecules from monomeric precursors. Typically requires the consumption of energy (ATP, NADPH). Biological significance: enzymes, hormones, cellular structures. storage and transmission of genetic information. energy storage and structural support components of biological membranes and energy reserves. 01. BIOSYNTHETIC PROCESSES 01. BIOSYNTHETIC PROCESSES

17. Nature: The degradation of organic compounds (glucose, fatty acids, amino acids). Releases energy mainly in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH₂. Examples: DNA polymerase catalyzes DNA replication. Ribosomes, tRNA, and elongation enzymes mediate protein synthesis. Fatty acid synthase catalyzes fatty acid biosynthesis. Biological significance: enzymes, hormones, cellular structures. storage and transmission of genetic information. energy storage and structural support components of biological membranes and energy reserves. 01. BIOSYNTHETIC PROCESSES 01. BIOSYNTHETIC PROCESSES

18. Biological significance ATP supplies energy for: Muscle contraction. Cellular signaling. Heat production to sustain body temperature. Examples: DNA polymerase catalyzes DNA replication. Ribosomes, tRNA, and elongation enzymes mediate protein synthesis. Fatty acid synthase catalyzes fatty acid biosynthesis. Biological significance: enzymes, hormones, cellular structures. storage and transmission of genetic information. energy storage and structural support components of biological membranes and energy reserves. Nature The degradation of organic compounds (glucose, fatty acids, amino acids). Releases energy mainly in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH₂. 02. ENERGY-YIELDING PROCESSES 02. E NERGY -YIELDING PROCESSES

19. Examples Amylase hydrolyzes starch into maltose/glucose. Glycolysis: breakdown of glucose into pyruvate with ATP generation. ATP synthase in mitochondria: synthesizes ATP via the proton gradient. Biological significance ATP supplies energy for: Muscle contraction. Cellular signaling. Heat production to sustain body temperature. Examples: DNA polymerase catalyzes DNA replication. Ribosomes, tRNA, and elongation enzymes mediate protein synthesis. Fatty acid synthase catalyzes fatty acid biosynthesis. Biological significance: enzymes, hormones, cellular structures. storage and transmission of genetic information. energy storage and structural support components of biological membranes and energy reserves. Nature The degradation of organic compounds (glucose, fatty acids, amino acids). Releases energy mainly in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH₂. 02. ENERGY-YIELDING PROCESSES 02. E NERGY -YIELDING PROCESSES

20. Examples Amylase hydrolyzes starch into maltose/glucose. Glycolysis: breakdown of glucose into pyruvate with ATP generation. ATP synthase in mitochondria: synthesizes ATP via the proton gradient. Biological significance ATP supplies energy for: Muscle contraction. Cellular signaling. Heat production to sustain body temperature. Examples: DNA polymerase catalyzes DNA replication. Ribosomes, tRNA, and elongation enzymes mediate protein synthesis. Fatty acid synthase catalyzes fatty acid biosynthesis. Biological significance: enzymes, hormones, cellular structures. storage and transmission of genetic information. energy storage and structural support components of biological membranes and energy reserves. 02. ENERGY-YIELDING PROCESSES 02. E NERGY -YIELDING PROCESSES

21. Type of Biochemical reactions 02 CONTENTS CONTENTS "Is this reaction possible?" "If so, how quickly does it happen?"

22. Chemical k inetics The rate Mechanism Thermodynamic Energy Direction "Is this reaction possible?" "If so, how quickly does it happen?" Chemical k inetics

23. Thermodynamic TO DESCRIBE Spontaneity Direction We essentially need three factors Δ H Δ G Δ S

24. Thermodynamic TO DESCRIBE Spontaneity Direction We essentially need three factors Δ H Δ G Δ S

25. Δ H Exothermic (ΔH < 0) The system releases heat into the surroundings. The energy of the products is lower than that of the reactants. This is a common type of reaction in catabolism (breakdown processes).

26. Δ H Endothermic (ΔH > 0) The system absorbs heat from the surroundings. The energy of the products is higher than that of the reactants.

27. Δ H Significance ΔH indicates whether a reaction heats or cools its surroundings. However, it is not the sole factor determining whether a reaction is spontaneous Δ S

28. Significance: In biochemistry, the breakdown of food (which increases ΔS) is a powerful driving force for biochemical reactions. ΔS < 0: The system becomes more ordered opposes spontaneity and requires external energy ΔS > 0: The system becomes more disordered favors the spontaneity of the reaction ΔS: Measure of Disorder - the change in the level of randomness or disorder of the system. Δ S

29. ΔS: Measure of Disorder - the change in the level of randomness or disorder of the system. ΔS > 0: The system becomes more disordered favors the spontaneity of the reaction Δ S ΔS < 0: The system becomes more ordered opposes spontaneity and requires external energy

30. ΔS: Measure of Disorder - the change in the level of randomness or disorder of the system. ΔS < 0: The system becomes more ordered opposes spontaneity and requires external energy Δ S Significance: In biochemistry, the breakdown of food (which increases ΔS) is a powerful driving force for biochemical reactions.

31. ΔS: Measure of Disorder - the change in the level of randomness or disorder of the system. Significance: In biochemistry, the breakdown of food (which increases ΔS) is a powerful driving force for biochemical reactions. Δ G Δ S

32. Gibbs Free Energy (ΔG) - The Ultimate Measure of Change Δ G Standard Conditions (ΔG₀ and ΔG₀’):v

33. Standard Conditions (ΔG₀ and ΔG₀'): ΔG₀ The concentration of all substances is 1M The pressure is 1 atm The temperature is 25°C (298K) Standard pH typically of 0. ΔG₀’ The standard biochemical condition is defined with a pH = 7. ΔG0′​=−RTlnK′=−2,303RT logK′ Where: R is the ideal gas constant. T is the absolute temperature (Kelvin). ΔG₀' is calculated in units of calories.

34. Relationship Between the Three Quantities ΔH, ΔS, ΔG ΔG = ΔH - TΔS ΔG: Change in Gibbs free energy ΔH: Change in enthalpy (heat of reaction) T: Absolute temperature (Kelvin) ΔS: Change in entropy (degree of disorder) ∆H (enthalpy) ∆S (entropy) ∆G = ∆H – T∆S Spontaneity of Reaction ∆H < 0 (exothermic) ∆S > 0 (increases disorder) ∆G < 0 at all T spontaneous ∆H > 0 (endothermic) ∆S < 0 (decreases disorder) ∆G > 0 at all T non- spontaneous ∆H < 0 (exothermic) ∆S < 0 (decreases disorder) ∆G < 0 when T is low Spontaneous at low temperatures ∆H > 0 (endothermic) ∆S > 0 (increases disorder) ∆G < 0 when T is low Spontaneous at high temperatures    

35. EXERGONIC REACTION ENDERGONIC REACTION There are two main types of reactions

36. The principle of coupling: To sustain life They occur simultaneously enzyme EXERGONIC REACTION ENDERGONIC REACTION ATP hydrolysis Protein synthesis So why is thermodynamics classified into 2 types?

37. Why is thermodynamic classified into 2 types?

38. Reversible Two-Way Reaction: A ↔ B Irreversible One-Way Reaction: A → B 02 01 Chemical k inetics Chemical kinetics is classified into 2 types

39. Reversible Two-Way Reaction: A ↔ B Irreversible One-Way Reaction: A → B 02 01 Chemical k inetics Chemical kinetics is classified into 2 types

40. Reversible Two-Way Reaction: A ↔ B Irreversible One-Way Reaction: A → B 02 01

41. Reversible Two-Way Reaction: A ↔ B Irreversible One-Way Reaction: A → B 02 01

42. Reversible Two-Way Reaction: A ↔ B Irreversible One-Way Reaction: A → B 02 01

43. Only A and B are present As C and D are formed [A][B] is at its maximum → V₁ is at its maximum. [C][D] = 0 → V₂ = 0 . [A][B] decreases gradually → V₁ decreases gradually. [C][D] increases gradually → V₂ increases gradually. Reversible Two-Way Reaction: A ↔ B 02 Irreversible One-Way Reaction: A → B 01 We have the reaction rate : V 1 = k 1 [A] [B] V 2 = k 2 [C] [D] Where: k₁, k₂: the rate constants (or rate coefficients) of the forward and reverse reactions. [A], [B]: concentrations of reactants.

44. Reversible Two-Way Reaction: A ↔ B 02 Irreversible One-Way Reaction: A → B 01 Only A and B are present As C and D are formed [A][B] is at its maximum → V₁ is at its maximum. [C][D] = 0 → V₂ = 0 . [A][B] decreases gradually → V₁ decreases gradually. [C][D] increases gradually → V₂ increases gradually.

45. Reversible Two-Way Reaction: A ↔ B 02 Irreversible One-Way Reaction: A → B 01 Hb + 4O₂ ⇔ Hb·4O₂.

46. Reversible Two-Way Reaction: A ↔ B 02 Irreversible One-Way Reaction: A → B 01 Hb + O 2 ⟶ HbO 2 TRANSPORT HbO 2 ⟶ Hb+O 2 Red blood cell Oxygen molecule Hemoglobin molecule

47. Reversible Two-Way Reaction: A ↔ B 02 Irreversible One-Way Reaction: A → B 01 Hb + O 2 ⟶ HbO 2 TRANSPORT HbO 2 ⟶ Hb+O 2 Red blood cell Oxygen molecule Hemoglobin molecule

48. Reversible Two-Way Reaction: A ↔ B 02 Irreversible One-Way Reaction: A → B 01 Hb + O 2 ⟶ HbO 2 TRANSPORT HbO 2 ⟶ Hb+O 2 Red blood cell Oxygen molecule Hemoglobin molecule

49. II. BIO CHEMICAL CATALYSIS II. BIO CHEMICAL CATALYSIS BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS Definition of Biochemical reactions 01

50. Definition of Biochemical catalysis 01 What is a biological catalyst? T he catalysis that occurs within living organisms, enhanc ing the speed of biochemical reactions in them. It’s performed by a "biocatalyst" (or "biological catalyst"). BIOLOGICAL CATALYSIS BIOLOGICAL CATALYSIS

51. Definition of Biochemical catalysis 01 What is a biological catalyst? Biological molecules, synthesized by cells, with a view to increasing the rate of chemical reactions in living organisms without being consumed or altered after the reaction. BIOCATALYSIS BIOCATALYSIS

52. Definition of Biochemical catalysis 01 Hexokinase C atalyzes the first step of glycolysis by adding a phosphate group to glucose. Trypsin B reaks down peptide chains into amino acids for absorption. ATP Synthase C atalyzes the synthesis of the cell's main energy molecule (ATP), a process that occurs in the mitochondria

53. Basic Characteristics of Biocatalysts 02 High Specificity High Catalytic Efficiency Conservation and Reusability Controllability (Regulation) 01 04 03 02

54. High Specificity Conservation and Reusability High Catalytic Efficiency Controllability (Regulation) 04 03 02 Each enzyme typically acts only on one type of reactant or a small group of substrates with very similar structures. This is explained through the "Lock-and-Key" model. An enzyme usually catalyzes only one specific type of chemical reaction. Basic Characteristics of Biocatalysts 02

55. High Specificity Conservation and Reusability High Catalytic Efficiency Controllability (Regulation) 01 04 03 The reaction rate is increased tremendously when catalyzed compared to the uncatalyzed reaction. Achieved by reducing the activation energy required for the reaction to occur, which helps biochemical reactions proceed quickly. Basic Characteristics of Biocatalysts 02

56. High Specificity Conservation and Reusability High Catalytic Efficiency Controllability (Regulation) 01 04 02 The catalyst is not consumed or permanently altered after the reaction is complete d . It is reused multiple times to catalyze various reactions, ensuring high efficiency with only a small quantity. Basic Characteristics of Biocatalysts 02

57. High Specificity Conservation and Reusability High Catalytic Efficiency Controllability (Regulation) 01 03 02 The activity can be regulated by other molecules such as hormones, vitamins, and coenzymes. Basic Characteristics of Biocatalysts 02

58. TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC Y DƯỢC CẦN THƠ Trách nhiệm - Chất lượng - Phát triển - Hội nhập Topic: VITAMIN Group 2 presentation – YG1

59. 02

60. R Overview of Vitamins 01 02 Classification of Vitamins AGENDA TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC Y DƯỢC CẦN THƠ Trách nhiệm - Chất lượng - Phát triển - Hội nhập Conlusion and Review question 3 04 Common Vitamins

61. TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC Y DƯỢC CẦN THƠ Trách nhiệm - Chất lượng - Phát triển - Hội nhập 01 Overview of Vitamins

62. TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC Y DƯỢC CẦN THƠ Trách nhiệm - Chất lượng - Phát triển - Hội nhập 1. Definition: Vitamins are a group of organic nutrients required in small amounts for various biochemical functions, usually cannot be synthesized by the body, and therefore must be supplied through diet . (Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry (31st Ed., McGraw-Hill)). Vitamins are organic substances needed in very small amounts to maintain health and normal growth. They often serve as essential catalysts inside cells. (Encyclopaedia Britannica (Nutrition / Vitamin article ) Vitamins are essential organic compounds, required in small amounts, mainly obtained from food. They play multiple roles such as acting as catalysts in metabolism, growth, immunity, .

63. TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC Y DƯỢC CẦN THƠ Trách nhiệm - Chất lượng - Phát triển - Hội nhập 2. Some Main Functions of Vitamins Regulation of metabolism Antioxidant activity and elimination of free radicals Acting as hormones or precursors of hormones: Supporting the synthesis of antibody proteins, enhancing immunity

64. TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC Y DƯỢC CẦN THƠ Trách nhiệm - Chất lượng - Phát triển - Hội nhập 02 Classification of Vitamins

65. TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC Y DƯỢC CẦN THƠ Trách nhiệm - Chất lượng - Phát triển - Hội nhập 1. Common Classification Methods : - The most common method, depends on the nature : depends on the nature By chemical nature: Acyclic vitamins, aromantic vitamin, heterocyclic vitamins. By the body’s ability to synthesize: Not synthesized or insufficiently synthesized.

66. TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC Y DƯỢC CẦN THƠ Trách nhiệm - Chất lượng - Phát triển - Hội nhập By solubility Fat-soluble vitamins: A, D, E, K Water-soluble vitamins: B group, C, P, U. Mainly non-polar, hydrocarbon molecules. Primarily stored in the liver and adipose tissue. Absorbed with dietary fats, transported via carrier proteins. Almost not stored, except for B12 in the liver. Structure contains many polar groups (-OH, -NH₂, -COOH,...). Absorbed directly into the bloodstream, transported freely in plasma.

67. TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC Y DƯỢC CẦN THƠ Trách nhiệm - Chất lượng - Phát triển - Hội nhập By chemical nature Acyclic Vitamins: A, D, C,... Aromatic Vitamins: E, K,... Heterocyclic Vitamins, containing heteroatoms N, O, S : B1, B2, B3, B6…

68. TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC Y DƯỢC CẦN THƠ Trách nhiệm - Chất lượng - Phát triển - Hội nhập By the body’s ability to synthesize Not synthesized or insufficiently synthesized (must be supplied by diet): A, D, E, K, B9, B12,… Partially synthesized by the body: D, K, B3, B7,… v

69. TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC Y DƯỢC CẦN THƠ Trách nhiệm - Chất lượng - Phát triển - Hội nhập 2. Reasons Why Classification by Solubility Is the Most Common. - + + + R R Reasons Why Classification by Solubility Is the Most Common Classifying vitamins based on solubility (a fundamental physical property) is appropriate because understanding their solubility allows us to make several predictions regarding absorption, storage, excretion, and potential health risks. Simple and easy to remember Directly related to absorption Determines storage and excretion Affects disease risk

70. TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC Y DƯỢC CẦN THƠ Trách nhiệm - Chất lượng - Phát triển - Hội nhập 2. Reasons Why Classification by Solubility Is the Most Common. - + + + R R Reasons Why Classification by Solubility Is the Most Common Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K): Absorbed together with dietary fats and require bile for emulsification. These vitamins are also easily degraded by heat, light, and cooking, so food preparation methods should be considered carefully. Water-soluble vitamins (B group, C): Easily absorbed without the need for fats or bile. Directly related to absorption

71. TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC Y DƯỢC CẦN THƠ Trách nhiệm - Chất lượng - Phát triển - Hội nhập 2. Reasons Why Classification by Solubility Is the Most Common. - + + + R R Reasons Why Classification by Solubility Is the Most Common Determines storage and excretion

72. TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC Y DƯỢC CẦN THƠ Trách nhiệm - Chất lượng - Phát triển - Hội nhập 2. Reasons Why Classification by Solubility Is the Most Common. - + + + R R Reasons Why Classification by Solubility Is the Most Common Affects disease risk

73. TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC Y DƯỢC CẦN THƠ Trách nhiệm - Chất lượng - Phát triển - Hội nhập 02 Common Vitamins

74. TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC Y DƯỢC CẦN THƠ Trách nhiệm - Chất lượng - Phát triển - Hội nhập Fat-soluble Vitamins 01

75. Name Structural Formula Main Functions Diseases Caused by Vitamin Excess Food Sources VITAMIN A ( Axerophtol ) C₂₀H₃₀O Structure that enables fat solubility: a long, nonpolar C 29 ​H 50 ​O​ Structure enabling fat solubility: a long, hydrophobic hydrocarbon chain. Maintains the eye’s sensitivity to light. Acts as a growth regulator, especially in epithelial tissues. Involved in protein synthesis and the formation of glycoproteins. Participates in phosphoryl-oxidation reactions. Promotes the maturation of lymphocyte T and B cells Nausea, jaundice, increased risk of bone fractures, enlarged liver, skin peeling, hair loss, etc. Animal liver, fish oil, egg yolk, whole milk, butter, cheese. Carrots, dark green and yellow leafy vegetables. VITAMIN D (CALCIFEROL) C₂₇H₄₄O Structure that enables fat solubility: a long hydrocarbon chain and a hydrophobic steroid ring. Helps the body absorb and utilize calcium and phosphorus. Supports the immune system. Regulates gene expression. Participates in muscle function. Reduces the risk of certain chronic diseases Causes hypercalcemia and leads to several symptoms and diseases such as: Kidney stones Acute or chronic kidney failure Soft tissue calcification, meaning calcium accumulates in areas such as: Heart Lungs Blood vessels Neurological problems such as headache, confusion, depression, or coma Oily fish such as salmon and tuna -Red meat -Egg yolk -Cow’s milk -Mushrooms

76. Name Structural Formula Main Functions Diseases Caused by Vitamin A Excess Food Sources VITAMIN E (Tocopherol) C 29 H 50 O​ -Structure enabling fat solubility: a long, hydrophobic hydrocarbon chain. Antioxidant -Cardiovascular protection -Skin protection -Cancer prevention through the regulation of protein p53 -Regulation of reproductive processes Causes blood thinning, hemorrhagic stroke, and digestive problems such as nausea, diarrhea, and abdominal pain -Vegetable oils -Nuts, whole grains, wheat germ -Avocados, tomatoes, and green leafy vegetables ITAMIN K ( Antihemorragias ) K1: (C 31 ​H 46 ​O 2 ​) -Structure enabling fat solubility: a long, hydrophobic hydrocarbon chain. -Participates in the blood clotting process -Helps the liver synthesize clotting factors -Required for the carboxylation reaction of osteocalcin, which allows calcium to bind to bones -Prevents abnormal calcification Hemolysis, irregular breathing, muscle stiffness, jaundice, muscle rigidity, etc. Green leafy vegetables Beef liver, chicken liver, red meats, poultry Eggs, cheese Soybean oil, olive oil

77. TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC Y DƯỢC CẦN THƠ Trách nhiệm - Chất lượng - Phát triển - Hội nhập Water-soluble Vitamins 02

78. Name Main Functions Deficiency/Excess Food Sources Notes B1 (Thiamine) TPP – coenzyme for PDH, α- KGDH, transketolase → carbohydrate metabolism, TCA cycle. - Deficiency: Beriberi (neurological, cardiovascular), Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome. - Excess: rare Rice bran, grains, pork, beans, brewer's yeast Heat-sensitive, lost during cooking B3 ( Niacin) NAD⁺/NADP⁺– oxidation-reduction, energy metabolism - Deficiency: Pellagra (3D) - Excess: flushing, liver toxicity, hyperglycemia Meat, fish, beans, grains Synthesized from tryptophan

79. Vitamin Main Functions Deficiency/Excess Food Sources Notes B7 (Biotin) Coenzyme for carboxylase – fatty acid synthesis, gluconeogenesis - Deficiency: hair loss, dermatitis, neurological disorders - Excess: rare Egg yolk, liver, nuts, fish, avocado Deficiency caused by eating raw egg white B2 (Riboflavin) FMN/FAD – oxidation-reduction reactions, cellular respiration - Deficiency: Cheilosis, glossitis, nyctalopia - Excess: safe (excreted in urine) Milk, eggs, liver, fish, leafy vegetables Causes yellow urine when in excess

80. Vitamin Main Functions Deficiency / Excess Food Sources Notes B5 (Pantothenic acid) Component of CoA, ACP – fatty acid synthesis, steroid synthesis, energy Deficiency: rare (fatigue, abdominal pain) Eggs, milk, vegetables, beef, chicken, and whole grains. Widely distributed B9 (Folate) C1 group transfer – DNA synthesis, methylation - Deficiency: megaloblastic anemia, neural tube defects - Excess: may promote precancerous lesions Green leafy vegetables, beans, liver, grains Masks B12 deficiency

81. Vitamin Main Functions Deficiency / Excess Food Sources Notes B6 (Pyridoxine  PLP) PLP – coenzyme for aminotransferase, decarboxylase, ALA synthase (heme synthesis) - Deficiency: dermatitis, anemia, depression - Excess: peripheral neuropathy. Liver, fish, meat, potatoes, bananas Active B12 (Cobalamin) Methionine synthase & methylmalonyl -CoA mutase → DNA synthesis, myelin formation. - Deficiency: megaloblastic anemia, neurological damage - Excess: rare, may cause acne Meat, liver, fish, eggs, milk Requires intrinsic factor, not found in plants

82. Name Main Functions Deficiency/Excess Food Sources Notes B10 (PAPA) Folate precursor in bacteria, not required for humans Excess: allergy, diarrhea, photosensitivity -Brewer's yeast, offal, grains, vegetables Non-essential VITAMIN B15 Unrecognized, unverified Excess: liver and nerve toxicity, hypotension Brewer’s yeast, brown rice, sesame seeds Not recognized by WHO/FDA

83. Vitamin Main Functions Deficiency / Excess Food Sources Notes VITAMIN C Cofactor for hydroxylase (collagen), antioxidant, enhances iron absorption - Deficiency: scurvy - Excess: diarrhea, oxalate kidney stones -Orange, guava, strawberry, bell pepper, green vegetables Boosts immunity VITAMIN P Strengthens capillaries walls, antioxidant, supports vitamin C - Excess: nausea, mild allergies Orange, tangerine, strawberry, tea, onion. Not a true vitamin VITAMIN U Protects gastric mucosa, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant Toxicity not recorded. Cabbage, kale, asparagus Limited evidence

84. Trách nhiệm - Chất lượng - Phát triển - Hội nhập HORMONES ENDOCRINE AGENTS

85. MỤC LỤC 1 HORMONE CONCEPT CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES MAJOR EFFECTS OF HORMONES EXTENSIVE RESEARCHES

86. HORMONE CONCEPT

87. - A hormone is a biological catalyst (essentially a chemical mediator): - Secreted by specialized cells of endocrine glands. - Directly released into the bloodstream or body fluids. - Binds specifically to target tissues (organs, tissues, or cells with receptors) to stimulate or activate physiological and biochemical activities. (The mechanism of hormone action is understood as a ‘key-and-lock’ model with the target) .

88. CLASSIFICATION OF HORMONES

89. 1 Classification of hormones Classification based on chemical nature Classification by Mechanism of Action, Solubility, and Receptor Location

90. Help to understand the method of synthesis, storage, and release of hormones, thereby knowing whether hormones are transported in the blood in a free or combined form: Peptide/protein: Synthesized ready, transported in free form Steroid/ amino acid derivatives: Precursors, transported in combined form 1. Classification based on chemical nature: Peptides Amino Acid Derivatives Extracellular Signals Steroids

91. Water-Soluble Hormones (Peptide hormones and amino acid derivative hormones) Group II Group I Lipid-Soluble Hormones (Steroid hormones and thyroid hormones) Subgroup IIA: Cyclic AMP – cAMP (e.g., FSH, TSH, LH, etc.). Subgroup IIB: Calcium or Phosphoinositides (e.g., Oxytocin, TRH, etc.). Subgroup IIC: Second messenger is unknown, typically Insulin (e.g., GH, Prolactin)  Predicting the time and type of action on target cells , explaining the regulatory mechanism , determining the clinical significance and relevance for studying pathogenic agents or drugs. 2. Classification by Mechanism of Action, Solubility, and Receptor Location

92. MAJOR EFFECTS OF HORMONES

93. MAJOR EFFECTS OF HORMONES Lipid-Soluble Hormone Group Water-Soluble Hormone Group Steroid Hormones

94. Steroid Hormones Adrenocortical Hormones: Mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone), Glucocorticoids (Cortisol). Sex Hormones Androgens (Testosterone, Dihydrotestosterone), Estrogens (Estradiol), Progesterone. 1. Lipid-Soluble Hormone Group:

95. Significance for Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention Requires measurement of free and total hormone levels. Treatment Diagnosis Involves hormone replacement (for deficiency) or anti-hormone/recept or antagonists (for excess ) Prevention Control of long-term risk factors (nutrition, electrolytes, iodine)

96. EXAMPLE ( Aldosterone ) Measurement of Aldosterone + Renin Treatment Diagnosis Spironolactone . Prevention Salt restriction, blood pressure screening/management

97. - This group includes Peptide/Protein hormones and hormones that are Amino Acid derivatives (e.g., catecholamines, histamine, melatonin). - Receptor: Located on the cell membrane. - Mechanism: Elicits a fast, short physiological response on the target tissue via intracellular signaling pathways. 2. Water-Soluble Hormone Group:

98. Significance for Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention Requires dynamic tests and repeated quantification. Treatment Diagnosis Cannot be taken orally; must be administered by injection/infusion; both agonists and antagonists are used. Prevention Is very important to prevent acute and chronic complications.

99. EXAMPLE ( Insulin ) Insulin (Typical Peptide Hormone) - Secreting Cells: Beta cells of the Islets of Langerhans. - Receptor Location: On the cell membrane of target cells in skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, and liver. - Action on Target Tissue: Increases glucose transport from the blood into the cell , stimulates glycogen synthesis (liver, muscle) , inhibits gluconeogenesis , and stimulates protein and fatty acid synthesis (liver).

100. EXAMPLE ( Insulin ) Quantification of insulin and C-peptide to differentiate between type 1 diabetes mellitus (absolute insulin deficiency) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (insulin resistance) Treatment Diagnosis - Exogenous insulin injection is a life-saving therapy for patients with both Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (DM). - A variety of insulin preparations are available to help adjust blood glucose according to physiological needs. Prevention Using the correct insulin dose, combined with diet and exercise, is crucial to prevent acute complications (hypoglycemia/hyperglycemia) and chronic complications (renal, ocular, cardiovascular).

101. Hormones Target organ Target organ Progesterone Progesterone prepares the endometrium for implantation and maintenance of pregnancy. - Prepares the endometrium for implantation and maintenance of pregnancy.  - Stimulates the development of mammary glands. Estradiol Promotes proliferation and thickening of the endometrium. - Promotes proliferation of the endometrial lining.  - Regulates the menstrual cycle.  - Stimulates bone growth.  - Promotes development of female secondary sexual characteristics. 3. Steroid Hormones:

102. Hormones Target organ Target organ Aldosteron - Increases Na⁺ reabsorption.  - Enhances K⁺ excretion.  - Contributes to increased blood pressure by expanding extracellular fluid volume. Thyroxin - Promotes growth, development, and maturation of fetal tissues.  - Increases basal metabolic rate (BMR). 3. Steroid Hormones:

103. Water-Soluble Hormones: Amino Acid Derivatives and Peptide/Protein Hormones HORMONE NGUỒN GỐC ACID AMIN

104. Water-Soluble Hormones: Amino Acid Derivatives and Peptide/Protein Hormones HORMONE PEPTIT, PROTEIN

105. EXTENSIVE RESEARCHES

106. Hormone-related Diseases Hormone-based therapies Comparison

107. Pituitary Diseases Involving GH, FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, ADH, and oxytocin Pituitary adenomas (the most common) General : 1 case/865-2688 people Non-functioning adenomas : 15-54% of cases with a prevalence of 7-41.3/100,000 Molitch ME, Diagnosis and Treatment of Pituitary Adenomas Ntali G & Wass JA, Epidemiology, clinical presentation and diagnosis of non-functioning pituitary adenomas

108. Parathyroid Diseases Deficiency in parathyroid hormone secretion ( PTH ) C hronic hypoparathyroidism 25-37 cases/100,000 have been estimated in the United States, 25.4/100.000 in Denmark and 27/100.000 in Italy https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8242938/

109. Hormone-based therapies and Comparison

110. - World: Teriparatide (Forteo) and Abaloparatide (Tymlos) have been approved by FDA/EMA for clinical use in the treatment of severe osteoporosis . - Vietnam: Teriparatide has been imported and used in the management of osteoporosis with a high risk of fracture (particularly in postmenopausal women). However, due to its high cost , its use remains limited and not all patients have access to it. - A recombinant fragment of human parathyroid hormone - Indication: Treatment of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women with a high risk for fracture and increasing bone mass . Teriparatide https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559248/

111. - World: The compound NNC2215 was recently published in Nature (2024) . - Vietnam: There is currently no glucose-sensitive insulin like NNC2215 . Diabetic patients in Vietnam are still being treated with conventional types of insulin. - A glucose-sensitive insulin conjugate - NNC2215 dynamically modulates its activity in response to ambient glucose levels, providing stable glycemic control and minimizing hypoglycemia risk . NNC2215 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08042-3

112. How do sex hormones affect human health at different ages?

113. ➡️ Physiology: Estrogen maintains menstrual cycles, supports development of the reproductive organs, and influences bone health, cardiovascular function, skin, and hair. ➡️ Pathological effects of deficiency: Osteoporosis, cardiovascular diseases, genital atrophy, and accelerated aging.

114. ➡️ Physiology: Testosterone maintains male sexual function, muscle mass, bone density, and red blood cell production. ➡️ Pathological effects of deficiency: Erectile dysfunction, osteoporosis, metabolic syndrome, memory decline, and depression .