biology ppthjkmnabhikkknnnbbhiaiooknbbvvv

Hi

1. Lungs as purification system Presented by: ANHAR FATIMA KUSUGAL AFTAB PHANIBAND ARSHIYA MULLA TAHSEEN KHANUM * See slide notes for page directions

2. . When you inhale (breathe in), air enters your lungs, and oxygen from that air moves to your blood. At the same time, carbon dioxide, a waste gas, moves from your blood to the lungs and is exhaled (breathed out). This process, called gas exchange, is essential to life. The lungs are the centerpiece of your respiratory system. Your respiratory system also includes the trachea (windpipe), muscles of the chest wall and diaphragm, blood vessels, and other tissues . All of these parts make breathing and gas exchange possible. Your brain controls your breathing rate (how fast or slow you breathe), by sensing your body’s need to get oxygen and also get rid of carbon dioxide. INTRODUCTION:

3. Lung architecture : The architecture of the lungs is a complex and highly organized system that allows for efficient gas exchange between the air and the bloodstream. Here’s an overview of the main structural components of the lungs : TRACHEA BRONCHI BRONCHIOLES ALVEOLAR DUCTS AND ALVEOLI DIAPHRAGM SUPPORTIVE STRUCTURES

4. Anatomy of lungs The lungs consist of two main lobes, the right and left lung, separated by the mediastinum. Each lung is further divided into smaller lobes and bronchial tubes that branch out to transport air. The trachea, or windpipe, is the main airway that connects the lungs to the outside environment. It branches into the left and right bronchi, which then divide into smaller bronchioles. At the ends of the bronchioles are tiny air sacs called alveoli, which are responsible for the gas exchange process in the lungs. Structure Trachea and Bronchi Alveoli

5. Respiratory System and Its Functions Inhalation Air is drawn into the lungs through the nose or mouth, passing through the trachea and bronchi . Gas Exchange In the alveoli, oxygen is absorbed into the bloodstream while carbon dioxide is expelled . Exhalation The used air is expelled from the lungs, completing the respiratory cycle.

6. trachea The windpipe or trachea is present below the larynx and is lined with mucous membranes. It constitutes the main airway for the body and comprises hard cartilage which stiffens and prevents the pipe from collapsing in on itself . The oesophagus is behind the trachea . The mucus in the trachea traps any foreign substances. This phlegm or mucus is moved to the throat where it is swallowed or expelled out by coughing.

7. Bronchi and Bronchioles The trachea at its lower end splits in an inverted Y into the two main (stem) bronchi, one each for the right and left lung . Bronchi are ensheathed by a layer of connective tissue which is continuous with the other components of the connective tissue of the lungs . Each bronchus is divided into smaller branches that further divide into smaller branches that in turn split into tunnels called the bronchioles. The bronchioles repeatedly branch before it concludes as small air pockets which contain the alveoli . Bronchioles are conducting airways (diameter ranges from 3 to less than a millimetre ).

8. alveoli Each bronchiole ends in spongy, tiny sacs – alveoli; each of the individual sacs is referred to as alveolus . Each alveolus fills with air when a person inhales. Together, the bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli constitute the bronchial tree . The alveoli are surrounded by tiny blood vessels referred to as capillaries . Oxygen in the inhaled air moves through the fine alveolar walls into the capillaries. The blood vessels then distribute the oxygen to the body.

9. Diaphragm At the base of the pleural cavity is the diaphragm, a sheet of strong muscles. They separate the chest cavity from that of the abdominal cavity . The diaphragm contracts during inhalation and pulls down. At the time of exhalation, the diaphragm and the intercostals relax . The diaphragm moves upward and the ribs move in and down, forcing air out of the lungs. One full cycle of inhalation and exhalation is one breath.

10. GAS EXCHANGE MECHANISM We are all well aware of the importance of oxygen for survival. Hence , one must also be familiar with the transportation, exchange, and regulation of necessary gases . In very small organisms, there is no need to have a separate transportation system for gases as all its cells are directly involved in the exchange of gases by diffusion . This diffusion is caused due to the differential partial pressure of the respiratory gases. Gases tend to move from a high-pressure area to a low-pressure one . Towards the end of the process, oxygen passes from the blood to tissue fluid and carbon dioxide from tissue fluid into the blood. But larger, multicellular organisms will definitely need a mechanism for the transport of gases for their different organs and tissues. Human beings fall into this category and have a well-developed system for the transportation of gases.

11. Spirometry is a common test used to check how well your lungs work. It measures how much air you breathe in, how much you breathe out and how quickly you breathe out . Healthcare professionals use spirometry to diagnose asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and other conditions that affect the ability to breathe. Healthcare professionals also may use spirometry from time to time to check the condition of your lungs and see whether a treatment for a lifelong lung condition is helping you breathe better . 175 years have elapsed since John Hutchinson introduced the world to his version of an apparatus that had been in development for nearly two centuries, the spirometer spirometry:

12. Mechanism: A spirometry test requires you to breathe into a tube attached to a machine called a spirometer. Before you do the test, a healthcare professional will give you specific instructions. Listen carefully and ask questions if something isn't clear. For accurate and meaningful results, you need to do the test correctly. During a spirometry test, you'll likely be seated. A clip will be placed on your nose to keep your nostrils closed. You'll take a deep breath and breathe out as hard as you can for several seconds into the tube. It's important that your lips create a seal around the tube, so that no air leaks out . You'll need to do the test at least three times to make sure your results are relatively consistent. If the three outcomes vary too much, you may need to do the test again. Your healthcare professional uses the highest value among three close test results as the final result. The test takes 15 to 30 minutes. Your healthcare professional may give you a medicine that you breathe in to open your lungs after the initial round of tests. This medicine is called a bronchodilator. You'll need to wait 15 minutes and then do another set of measurements. Then your healthcare professional can compare the results of the two measurements to see whether the bronchodilator made your airflow better.

13. Spirometers can be divided into two basic groups : • Volume-measurement devices ( e.g. wet and dry spirometers). • Flow-measurement devices (e.g. pneumotachograph systems, mass flow meters)

14. Spirometry: Chest tightness, pain or pressure. Coughing, especially coughing with mucus. Difficulty taking a deep breath. Shortness of breath (dyspnea). Wheezing. Your respiratory therapist , nurse, general practitioner (GP) or pulmonologist may perform spirometry. If there’s a blockage or narrowing in your airways. If treatment is working. If your lungs are lower in volume than normal, which may require more testing. If a pulmonary disease is stable or getting worse . When would spirometry be needed? Who performs spirometry? How do spirometry test results help my healthcare provider?

15. Requirements of an acceptable spirometer Requirements of an acceptable spirometer are: • Spirometers must be able to accumulate volume for ≥15 s. • The measuring volume should be ≥8 L (body temperature and pressure, saturated). • The accuracy of reading should be at least ±3% (or ±0.05 L) with flows from 0–14 L per s. • The total resistance to airflow at 14 L per s should be <1.5 cmH2O per L per s (<0.15 kPa per L per s)

16. Results The main spirometry measurements include : Forced vital capacity (FVC). This is the largest amount of air that you can forcefully breathe out after breathing in as deeply as you can. An FVC reading that's lower than what's typical indicates restricted breathing. Forced expiratory volume (FEV). This is how much air you can force out of your lungs in one second. This reading helps your healthcare professional figure out how serious your breathing problem is. Lower FEV-1 readings mean greater blockages in the bronchial tubes.

17. HOW TO CALCULATE THE NORMAL RATE OF RESPIRATION IN A SPIROMETER: The FEV1/FVC Ratio (FEV1%) parameter is calculated by dividing the measured FEV1 value by the measured FVC value . The Measured column shows the absolute (numerical) ratio, and the Predicted column shows the ratio expressed as a percentage . In healthy adults of the same gender, height, and age, the normal Predicted percentage should be between 70% and 85%.

18. ABNORMAL LUNG PHYSIOLOGY: Percentages lower than 70% are considered abnormal . This is an important measurement because obstructive diseases such as COPD, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema cause increased airway resistance to expiratory airflow, and may result in percentages of 45% to 60%. Restrictive diseases such as pulmonary fibrosis tend to reduce both FEV1 and FVC values, so the percentage can remain within the normal range, or even increase.

19. COPD : Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a chronic inflammatory lung disease that causes obstructed airflow from the lungs . Symptoms include breathing difficulty, cough, mucus (sputum) production, and wheezing. It's typically caused by long-term exposure to irritating gases or particulate matter, most often from cigarette smoke . People with COPD are at increased risk of developing heart disease, lung cancer, and a variety of other conditions. Emphysema and chronic bronchitis are the two most common conditions that contribute to COPD. These two conditions usually occur together and can vary in severity among individuals with COPD

20. COPD

21. SYMPTOMS, TESTS AND MEDICATIONS • Lung (pulmonary) function tests. • Chest X-ray. • CT scan. • Arterial blood gas analysis. • Laboratory tests. • Shortness of breath, especially during physical activities • Wheezing • Chest tightness • A chronic cough that may produce mucus (sputum) that may be clear, white, yellow, or greenish • Frequent respiratory infections • Lack of energy • Unintended weight loss (in later stages) • Swelling in ankles, feet, or leg Bronchodilators Inhaled steroids Combination inhalers Oral steroids Phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitors Theophylline Antibiotics TESTS SYMPTOMS MEDICATIONS 1 2 3

22. Mechanical Ventilation: MECHANICAL VENTILATION: Mechanical ventilation is a form of life support that helps you breathe (ventilate) when you can’t breathe on your own. This can be during surgery or when you’re very sick. While mechanical ventilation doesn’t directly treat illnesses, it can stabilize you while other treatments and medications help your body recover . What is a ventilator? A ventilator is a machine that helps you breathe. Just like crutches support your weight, the ventilator partially or completely supports your lung functions. A ventilator : Provides oxygen to your lungs. Helps remove carbon dioxide (CO2) from your lungs. Provides pressure to keep the small air sacks in your lungs (alveoli) from collapsing.

23. VENTILATION: Providers use mechanical ventilators to support your breathing when you can’t breathe on your own. Mechanical ventilation : Can give you oxygen. Helps remove carbon dioxide so it doesn’t build up. Prevents parts of your lungs from collapsing from lack of pressure. During surgery. General anesthesia can make it difficult to breathe well enough on your own. If you have certain lung conditions or infections. In a medical emergency that blocks your airway or impairs your breathing . The length of time you need mechanical ventilation depends on the reason. It could be hours, days, weeks or rarely months or years. Ideally , you’ll only stay on a ventilator for as little time as possible. Why are mechanical ventilators used? Who needs to have mechanical ventilation? How long can you be kept on a ventilator?

24. NEED FOR VENTILATIONS: PNEUMONIA COMA STROKE COVID-19 COPD

25. Mechanical ventilator

26. RISKS AND BENEFITS BENEFITS You don’t have to work hard to breathe. Your body can focus on healing from infections or other conditions. It provides all the oxygen you need and removes carbon dioxide. It provides pressure to keep the small sacs of your lungs from collapsing. It keeps your airways open. RISKS Bacterial infections . Lung damage. Heart and blood flow changes. Prolonged dying process Collapsed lung.

27. Heart lung machine: A heart-lung machine is an apparatus that does the work both of the heart (i.e., pumps blood) and the lungs (i.e., oxygenates the blood) during, for example, open-heart surgery The basic function of the machine is to oxygenate the body's venous supply of blood and then to pump it back into the arterial system . Blood returning to the heart is diverted through the machine before returning to the arterial circulation. Some of the more important components of these machines include pumps, oxygenators, temperature regulators, and filters. The heart-lung machine also provides intracardiac suction, filtration, and temperature control A heart-lung machine may also be used on a person who needs heart or respiratory support for non-surgical reasons. For example, the machine can be used for someone with heart failure who is waiting for a heart transplant .

28. What Does a Heart-Lung Machine Do? To stop the heart without harming the patient, oxygenated blood must continue to circulate through the body during surgery without stopping. The cardiopulmonary bypass pump does the work of the heart, pumping blood through the body and making sure that the tissues of the body get the oxygen they need. The machine also adds oxygen to the blood while taking over the pumping action of the heart, replacing the function of the lungs.

29. When a Heart-Lung Machine Is Use? There are two primary reasons why a heart-lung machine is used. The most common use is so the heart can be temporarily stopped for surgery but the machine can also be used to support people with heart failure. Heart Surgery Heart Failure Lung Surgery

30. Parts of heart lung machine The cardiopulmonary bypass (heart-lung) machine consists of many parts, including: Tubes that connect your blood vessels to the machine. These tubes (called cannulas) drain oxygen-poor blood from your body into the machine. They also send oxygen-rich blood from the machine back into your body. Reservoir. This is a container that holds oxygen-poor blood that drains from your body. Oxygenator. The oxygenator acts as your lungs. It adds oxygen to your blood. Your body needs this oxygen to survive. Pump. The pump acts as your heart. It sends oxygen-rich blood from the machine back to your body through your aorta. Additional tubes connect the parts together. All of these parts form a circuit that replaces the usual work of your heart and lungs. So, to understand how the heart-lung machine works, it’s helpful to know how your heart and lungs normally manage blood flow

31. How does a heart lung machine work? The surgeon attaches special tubing to a large blood vessel (like starting a very large IV) that allows oxygen-depleted blood to leave the body and travel to the bypass machine. There , the machine oxygenates the blood and returns it to the body through the second set of tubing, also attached to the body . The constant pumping of the machine pushes the oxygenated blood through the body, much like the heart does . The placement of the tubes is determined by the preference of the surgeon. The tubes must be placed away from the surgical site so they do not interfere with the surgeon’s work, but placed in a blood vessel large enough to accommodate the tubing and the pressure of the pump. The two tubes ensure that blood leaves the body before reaching the heart and returns to the body after the heart, giving the surgeon a still and mostly bloodless area to work . A third tube is also inserted very near or directly into the heart, but not connected to the CPM. It is used to flush the heart with cardioplegia, a potassium solution which stops the heart . Once the cardioplegia takes effect, the CBM is initiated and takes over the heart and lung function.

32. Heart-lung machine

33. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HEART LUNG MACHINE ADVANTAGES Enables Complex Surgeries Maintains Blood Circulation and Oxygenation Substitutes Heart and Lung Function Reduces Surgical Risks Decreased Blood Loss DISADVANTAGES Inflammatory Response Neurological Issues Blood-related Issues Increased Risk of Infection Organ Dysfunction Technical and Operational Challenges

34. Maintain a healthy diet and stay hydrated Quit Smoking Exercise Regularly Avoid Air Pollution Get Vaccinated Your body uses food as fuel and the process of changing food into energy with the help of oxygen. No single food will supply all the nutrients you need. Drinking water can help thin the mucus lining of your airways and lungs, making it easier to breathe . Smoking is the leading cause of lung cancer and COPD. Quitting can significantly improve lung health . Aerobic exercise strengthens the respiratory muscles and improves lung function and capacity. Exposure to pollutants, such as dust, chemicals, and smoke, can damage the lungs over time. Vaccines like the flu and pneumonia shots can help prevent respiratory infections that can harm the lungs. MAINTANING HEALTHY LUNGS