BOTANY SCIENCE

BOTANY IS THE SCIENCE THAT DEAL WITH THE LIVING THING (PLANT), IN THE PHARMACY , THIS SCIENCES IS SO SPECIAL AS IT IS HELPFUL IN IDENTIFICATION OF PLANT WITH PHARMACOLOGICAL EFFECT TO HUMAN , APPLIED IN TRADTIONAL MEDICINES

1. BOTANY

2. BRIEF AND INTRODUCTION Botany is the branch of biology that studies plants, their life, structure, growth, classification, etc USES OF THE PLANT TO HUMAN for fuel, clothing, shelter, and, particularly, food and drugs . The guys Theophrastus wrote the De Historia plantarum and De Causis plantarum With many kind of plant and how are used in medicine

3. Through careful and accurate observation the sciences of taxonomy and morphology were developed, providing the basis for the first systematic classification of organisms, chiefly in the work of Linnaeus . With the microscope came the development of plant anatomy and research on the cell notably the early work of Stephen Hales on the sources and manufacture of plant food, which led to studies of such basic processes as photosynthesis

4. Modern botany has expanded into all areas of biology, including molecular biology , and has developed such specialties as ethnobotany , ETHNOBOTANY : which studies the use of plants in societies work of Mendel in plant breeding at the middle from which grew the science of genetics.

5. ETHNOBOTANY : ethno=people, botany=herbs At the first the human use the plant as medicine while seeing chimpanzee eating them What kind of critical thinking the human has at that time?????. Answer: consult the traditional medicine lecture note ETHNOBOTANY is the studies of relationship between human and plant , this relations are food, shelter, dyes, cosmetics, clothing, medicine etc

6. question Generation to generation , people passing the use of the plant How this is not forgettable while human still use instead of reject and forget Answer : this is learnt generation to generation as writings or as the herbal Otherwise , without documentations , some plant use should be ignored and disappear

7. Ethnobotany Ethnobotany is a multidisciplinary subject. It incorporates the culture or practice of ancient knowledge deals with the interaction between peoples and plants .

8. Ethnobotany Ethnobotany has its roots in botany , the study of plants. “ Each human population classifies plants through their culture, develops attitudes and beliefs and learns the use of plants, while human behavior has a direct impact on plant communities with which they interact; the plants themselves also impose limitations on humans. These mixtures of interactions are the focus of Ethnobotany.

9. Ethnopharmacology : Ethno=people, Pharmacology=study Of Drug Effect To The Body The observation, identification , description and experimental investigation of the ingredients and the effects of indigenous drugs is a truly interdisciplinary field of research. The term ethno pharmacology has been used to describe this field.

10. Scientists like Rudolf Buchheim , Thomas Fraser and Rudolf Kobert devoted a great part of their active life to the study of the pharmacological effects of natural products . Ethno pharmacologic research is based on botany , pharmacology and chemistry , but other disciplines have made vital contributions.

11. Review What is the difference and the similarity between the ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology in ecological aspects???? Answer: check note above slide analysis

12. PLANT SYSTEMATIC Plant systematic is the branch of botany that is concerned with the naming, identification , evolution , and classification (arrangement into groups with common characteristics) of plants In a strict sense, plant taxonomy is the science of naming and classifying plants

13. Questions What is the difference between the plant systemic and plant taxonomy Answer:check note above and below slides analysis

14. however, the terms taxonomy and systematics are sometime used interchangeably but systematic involves a broader discipline of discovering phylogenetic relationships through modern experimental methods using comparative anatomy, cytogenetics , ecology , morphology , molecular data, or other data .

15. What are the rational for biological taxonomy to understand the world about us and to conceptualize and order this through classifications; to have classifications for identification and communication for; a convenient information retrieval system; to use stable names that maintain continuity of the literature; to construct a predictive classification; and to construct a useful framework to understand phylogenetic relationships.

16. Taxonomy special rational use of conservators to provide a useful reference system for biodiversity conservation to aid gene bank managers to rationally organize collections; to aid germ plasm collectors to plan expeditions based on gaps in a gene bank.

17. System of classification artificial systems : based on one or two easily recognizable characters Example : Theophrastus classified the plant into Trees Shrubs Undershrub And herbs

18. . Natural system : based on natural similarities of vegetative & floral characters Example: George Bentham & Joseph Dalton Hooker classified plants into: Cryptogams (non flowering plants) Phanerogams (seed bearing plants)

19. Phylogenetic system (cladistics ): based on evolutionary & genetic relationship of organisms in addition to natural characters. Example Whittaker proposed a “ five kingdom ” system in which three kingdoms were added to the animals and plants: Monera (bacteria), Protista , and Fungi early humans undoubtedly classified plants into edible , poisonous , medicinal , and hallucinogenic categories, etc . but the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature has rules that govern the assignment of names and define the taxonomic hierarchy.

20. TAXONOMY HIERRARCHY OF PLANT CLASSIFICATION Why plant are considered to be the individual kingdom Answer: Carl Linné proposed a system that has dominated classification for centuries. Linné gave each species two names, denoting genus and specie He then grouped genera into f amilies , families into orders , orders into classes , classes into phyla , and phyla into kingdoms . Linné identified t wo kingdoms : Animalia (animals) and Plantae (plants).

21. The first major break from the Linnean model came from Thomas Whittaker . In 1969 Whittaker proposed a “five kingdom ” system in which three kingdoms were added to the animals and plants: Monera (bacteria), Protista , and Fungi on the basis of following four criteria: Complexity of cell structure ( prokaryotic or eukaryotic) Complexity of body structure ( Unicellular or multicellular ) Mode of nutrition – autotrophic ( photosynthesis) and heterotrophic (absorption) and ingestion) Major ecological role ( Producer, Decomposer and Consumer)

22. QUESTION The cell undergo cell division process to make them greater in number According to this theory, differenciate the plant cell from animal cell Answer : analyse the figure above

23. In the years since Whittaker’s system fails tomake clear biodiversity, and the new evidence come Microbial biologists became aware of these limitations as they discovered : unicellular organisms that appeared to be prokaryotic, but were extremely distinct in ultrastructure and other characteristics from the traditional bacteria . Some of these unusual prokaryotes lived in hot springs and other places where the temperatures were near, or even above, the boiling point of water (the thermophiles ) . The halophile were able to tolerate salt concentrations as high as five Molar and is also unlike traditional bacteria

24. As final scientific conclusion microbilogist microbial evolutionist Carl Woese proposed a radical reorganization of the five kingdoms into three domains . Woese placed all four eukaryotic kingdoms into a single domain called Eukarya, also known as the eukaryotes . He then split the former kingdom of Monera into the Eubacteria (bacteria) and the Archaea (archaebacteria) domains .   Woese then placed most of the “ unusual” prokaryotes in the Archaea , leaving traditional bacteria in the Eubacteria . The Woese classification represents a demotion of the animals and plants as individual kingdoms.

25. Phylogeny and Cladistics Phylogeny refers to the evolutionary and genetics relationships between organisms Three Domain System proposed by Woese is an evolutionary model of phylogeny based on differences in the sequences of nucleotides in the cell's ribosomal RNAs (rRNA) , the cell's membrane lipid structure its sensitivity to antibiotics . Comparing rRNA structure is especially useful Because rRNA molecules throughout nature carry out the same function, their structure changes very little over time Therefore similarities and dissimilarities in rRNA nucleotide sequences are a good indication of how related or unrelated different cells and organisms are .

26. The cell evolutions There are various hypotheses as to the origin of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells . cells are similar in nature, it is generally thought that all cells came from a common ancestor cell termed the last universal common ancestor (LUCA). These LUCAs eventually evolved into three different cell types, each representing a domain. The three domains are the Archaea, the Bacteria, and the Eukarya

27. Challenges on the cells origins More recently various fusion hypotheses have begun to dominate the literature . One proposes that the diploid or 2N nature of the eukaryotic genome occurred after the fusion of two haploid or 1N prokaryotic cells . Others propose that the domains Archaea and Eukarya emerged from a common archaeal-eukaryotic ancestor that itself emerged from a member of the domain Bacteria . Some of the evidence behind this hypothesis is based on a "superphylum" of bacteria called PVC , members of which share some characteristics with both archaea and eukaryotes

28. Two domain from Monera kingdom The Archaea (archaebacteria) prokaryotic cells . membranes composed of branched hydrocarbon chains with ether linkage as reason of high tem res containing rings within the hydrocarbon chains) attached to glycerol by ether linkages cell walls of Archaea contain no peptidoglycan not sensitive to some antibiotics that affect the Bacteria but are sensitive to some antibiotics that affect the Eukarya contain rRNA that is unique to the Archaea The Bacteria (eubacteria) prokaryotic cells. membranes composed of unbranched fatty acid chains attached to glycerol by ester linkages cell walls contain peptidoglycan Bacteria are sensitive to traditional antibacterial antibiotics but are resistant to most antibiotics that affect Eukarya. Bacteria contain rRNA that is unique to the Bacteria as indicated by the presence molecular regions distinctly different from the rRNA of Archaea and Eukarya .

29. Archaea often live in extreme environments and include methanogens , extreme halophiles , and hyperthermophiles . One reason for this is that the ether-containing linkage s in the Archaea membranes is more stable than the ester-containing linkages in the Bacteria and Eukarya and are better able to withstand higher temperatures and stronger acid concentrations. Bacteria include mycoplasmas, cyanobacteria, Gram-positive bacteria, and Gram negative bacteria

30. The Eukarya (eukaryotes) Eukarya (also spelled Eucarya ) have eukaryotic cells . membranes composed of unbranched fatty acid chains attached to glycerol by ester linkages . Not all Eukarya possess cells with a cell wall, but for those Eukarya having a cell wall, that wall c ontains no peptidoglycan have cellulose like plant and x for fungi Eukarya are resistant to traditional antibacterial antibiotics but are sensitive to most antibiotics that affect eukaryotic cells . Eukarya contain rRNA that is unique to the Eukarya indicated by the presence molecular regions distinctly different from the rRNA of Archaea and Bacteria

31. QUESTIONS What are the key used to distuinguish the 3 domain of living things?? Mention 3 similarity between the 3 domain in ecological aspect? What are 7 general characteristics of each domain and give 4 example Answer : check well table in lecturer syllabus page 16/64

32. What are the kingdoms fall into the Domain of EUKARYA??? Describe one by one in half page of paper with specifying examples Answer : check the lecturer note page 17 to 18/64

33. Cladistic analysis Cladistic analysis=cladistics= phylogenetic systematics is the main approach of classification used in contemporary evolutionary biology Cladogram is the branching hierarchical trees(family tree or genealogy) that evolutionary and genetically specify the relationship between organisms This cladogram or phylogeny involve in confirmations or rejections of some organism from family due to new evidence when the hypothesis is not testable In cladistics analysis , groups of organisms, known as taxa, are arranged into clades that are then nested into larger clades . The term “taxa” (singular “taxon”) can be applied to groups of any size. Taxa that are each other’s’ closest relatives are called sister taxa

34. Types of clades: organism arranged in same taxa Monophyletic : all members share a single common ancestor, and all descendants of that ancestor are included in the clade .

35. a polyphyletic group is one in which the members are derived from more than one common ancestor .

36. What if all of a particular clade’s members share a common ancestor but not all taxa that share that common ancestor are included in that group? Such a group is called paraphyletic .

37. Taxonomic categories Eukarya Kingdom : Plant Division or Phylum : (-phyta) Class : (-eae, opsida) Subclass : (-ae) Order : (-ales) Family : (acea) Subfamily : (-ae) Genus Species

38. In the angiosperms, floral and fruit features are often used to characterize a family Kingdom Plantae – Plants Subkingdom Tracheobionta – Vascular plants Superdivision Spermatophyta – Seed plants Division Magnoliophyta – Flowering plants Class Liliopsida – Monocotyledons Class Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons

39. II.4. Concept of Species Species have a central place in taxonom y form the basic units of biological classification Many accept the biological species concept first proposed by Ernst Mayr in 1942, which defines a species as “a group of interbreeding populations reproductively isolated from any other such group of populations but this statement have failure This definition presents problems when defining plant species. Many closely related plant species that are distinct morphologically are, in fact, able to interbreed; this is true for many species of oaks and sycamores

40. The ecological species concept meaning The availability of molecular sequence data for nucleic acids and proteins had led to the development of the genealogical species concept . the concept of “species” facilitates the naming, describing , and classifying of plants in a uniform manner . An inventory of the world’s species is the first step in preserving and using biodiversity

41. Fundamental components of taxonomy classification necessitates the procedures of Description eg habit , stem, leaves, flowers, sepals, petals, stamens, carpels, fruits, etc ;

42. Classification assigning in different groups below Taxonomic hierarchy Kingdom Phylum (formerly Division in plants) Class Order Family Genus Species

43. Identification , Identification or determination is r ecognizing an unknown specimen with an already known taxon, and assigning a correct rank and position in an existing classification . In practice, it involves finding a name for an unknown specimen using identified herbarium specimens, dichotomous keys, etc menclature : a name is a binomial, literally two names, and is always italicized or underlined; for example, Persea Americana is the scientific name for Avocado . kind of organism is known as a species Each species has a scientific name in Latin that consists of two elements; the first is the genus and the second is the specific epithet Sp mean one uknown species and Spp means more unknownspecies More than one genus to different species exist. example note page 32.

44. A complete scientific name also includes the name or names of the author or authors (often abbreviated) who first described the species or placed it in a particular genus . For example, the complete scientific name for corn is Zea mays L.; the “L” indicates that Linnaeus named this species . On the other hand, the complete name for osage orange is Maclura pomifera ( Raf .) Schneid . This author citation indicates that Rafinesque-Schmaltz first described the species , giving it the specific epithet pomifera , but Schneider later put it in the genus Maclura

45. Other names Names in Commemoration Names That Describe Physical Qualities Names from Aboriginal or Classic Origins Names That Indicate Use Names That Indicate Location constructing affinities

46. IV.PLANT KINGDOM Normally the people ask where does the plant develop The scientists evidence say that the plant develop from the algae where the buoyancy was absent and or gravity and dryness Major character of plant Development of roots, shoots, vascular system : absorption and transport Increasing the diploid phase of the life cycle, and decreasing the haploid phase to conserve gene Protection and dispersal of reproductive structures to protect the decussation of the pollen and meet right

47. Plant kingdom The two taxa of the Kingdom bryophytes avascular : have dominant gametophye and dependent sporophyte ( including mosses and liverworts ) vascular plants =higher plant : ( plants with a vascular system of xylem and phloem ) Pteridophytes seedless plant ,dominant sporophyte and fragile gametophyte Spermatophyte seeded plant Spermatophytes Gygmnosperms : seed and pollen Angyosperms : seed,flower,pollen and fruit Summary the 4group of plants are Bryophyte Pteridophyte Gymnospermae and angyosperma

48. Seedless vascular and avascular plant bryophytes a waxy cuticle on their leaves to prevent desiccation (dryness). no internal vascular system . body of the moss plant is haploid. only diploid structure is a stalk and spore capsule Peat moss is used to help soil hold water Peat bogs are very acidic haploid gametophyte plant bodies are either male or female The eggs are encased within the female gametophyte’s body . haploid spores disperse in the wind (as pollinator agent pteridophytes vascular system to distribute nutrients diploid sporophyte grows out of the fertilized egg, attached to the gametophyte diploid sporophyte is much larger than the haploid gametophyte sperm have flagella and swim to the eggs through drops of water (just like the bryophytes).

49. Seeded vascular plant Gymnosperms A major key in plant evolutions is pollen grains and seeds. Pollen grains are the male gametophyte packaged in a hard coat that allows it to reach the female without having to swim through water. This is a large advantage on dry land . Seeds are diploid sporophyte embryos Gymnosperms were the first plants to have pollen grains and seeds . Cones are the reproductive structures: male and female are separate . Male cones produce pollen , which is carried to the female cones by the wind . Each scale of a female cone contains a single ovule , which develops into a seed . Gymnosperm=naked seed Seed of gym exposed to environment Most importa to day is conifer angyosperm Angiosperms are flowering plants, angiosperms produce seeds ; enclosed within a “fruit” . Fruit and flower structures vary enormously Angiosperms, or flowering plant angiosperms are often fertilized with the aid of animals: insects, birds, bats, that carry the pollen from one plant to another The plants and pollinators live symbiosis Flowers produce the visual signals and the scents that pollinators use to find the plants Flowers secrete nectar which is eaten by the pollinators The pollen is carried from flower to flower on the body of the pollinator

50. gymnosperms 4phylum Phylum Cycadophyta , cycads , dominant during mezoic era Phylum Gingkophyta , gingko Phylum Gnetophyta , gnetophyte Phylum Coniferophyta( pinophyta ). Confifers is the most common and used in paper manufacturer and wood sources angyosperms Some angiosperms have wind-dispersed pollen Flowers on these plants are usually small and inconspicuous. Angiosperms have double fertilization The endosperm continues to divide by mitosis to produce a 3n tissue that serves as nourishment for the developing embryo. embryo develops into a seed Male gamet:pllen gr, femal:ovule

51. Two taxa of angyosperms monocotyledon= liliopida only one cotyledon flower parts in multiples of threes could have three, six, or nine petals, or they could have sepals that make up their flowers . adventitious roots veins of the leaves are parallel . Examples: Typha (genus) domingensis (species Typha latifolia Paspalum : Bambousa vulgaris Cyperus Dicotyledon= magnoliopsida two cotyledon flowers are pentamerous leaves show reticulate venation Flower part is multiple of 4 or 5 Have the pivot root Example Beans Momordica foeida Mangoes Etc,……

52. 3 Subclass of the dicot Polypetaly = petal are free in the flower Thalamiflorae : Thalamus is dome shaped . This series includes 6 orders and many families ex . Hibiscus rosa sinens Disciflorae : Thalamus is disc shaped . This series includes 4 orders with several families Calyciflorae : Thalamus is cup shaped. This series includes 5 orders and many families. Ex . Rosa indica Gamopetalae: Petals are fused in the flowers Inferae : Ovary is inferior . This series includes 3 orders with many families Heteromerae : ovary is superior . This series includes 3 orders with several families bicarpellatae : Carpels are usually two in number. This series includes 4 orders with many families

53. Monochlamydeae : Flowers usually possess one whorl of perianth .   Ex Bougainvillia spectabilis

54. Preparation of botanical specimen What is botanical specimen Answer pressed plant sample deposited for future reference . Where does the plant specimen is deposited Answer in Herbarium What is an herbarium Answer = collection of botanical specimens which have been pressed, dried, mounted, described, named, preserved and classified systematically What are the type of herbarium answer International , National, Regional, Local and Special herbaria

55. What are the use of herbarium Herbarium specimens are used as references for comparison and identification with unknown samples, documenting species distribution and variation within species, and identifying times of fruiting and flowering , etc…

56. How to prepare good botanical specimen Vigorous, typical specimens are to be selected . Avoid insect damaged plants as well as exceptionally small or large plants . Specimens should be representative of the population , but should include the range of variation of the plants Roots, bulbs, and other underground parts should be carefully excavated and the dirt removed with care. In most cases flowering and/or fruiting materials are necessary for identification purposes . Many collectors prefer to add extra flowers and fruits to their collections when possible to avoid dissection of the specimen proper Each specimen should consist of a stem with attached l eaves and, if at all possible, flowers and/ or fruits The roots of herbaceous plants should also be i ncluded

57. How to prepare good botanical specimen Plants too large for a single sheet may be divided and pressed as a series of sheets In collecting large herbs, shrubs and trees, different types of foliage, flowers and fruits should be collected from the same plant. Collect sufficient material to fill a herbarium sheet and still leave enough room for the label. Bark and wood samples are often desirable additions when collecting woody plants. Proper identification of many plants depends on several different characteristics; some roots, others seeds or mature fruits, some flower color (which should be noted in the field book).

58. How to prepare good botanical specimen Pressing Plant Specimens and favor ventillations The objective of pressing plants is to extract moisture in the shortest period of time , while preserving the morphological integrity of the plant, and to yield material that can be readily mounted on herbarium paper for long-term storage.

59. How to prepare good botanical specimen Mounting botanical specimens Use of the mounting paste on mounting sheet Then give scientific names, date,label ,names of expermanter Habitat Plant habit and locations etc

60. Question: what are the major plant uses in the biodiversity(ecological aspects) Answer : note page 58to60

61. MEDICINAL PLANTS Suppose you are the current researcher on the medicinal plant ,what are the aspects can lead you physically identified the medicinal plants??? Normally the medicinal plant are differ from the other plant by smelling,testing,appearance and texture This specific characters is differ from one to another and is caused by the secondary metabolite of the plants . Growth form ,plant maturity and plant origin&location can contribute to this issues

62. Primary metabolite vs secondary metabolite are organic compounds produced in the plant which Have metabolic functions essential for plant growth and development Are Produced in every plant Include carbohydrates amino acids nucleotides fatty acids steroids and lipids Secondary metabolites are organic compounds produced which : Don’t have apparent functions in plant growth and development Produced in different plant families , in specific groups of plant families , in specific tissues, cells developmental stages throughout plant development . Include terpenoids , special nitrogen metabolite (including, non-protein amino acids, amines, cyanogenic glycosides, glucosinolates , and alkaloids), and phenolics and so on

63. Some African medicinal plant on market in the world . Notes last pages the end . For more check the syllabus lecturer notes Prepared by MINANI Theobald Pharmacy II Accademic year 2016-17