Building Stones.pdf

Building stones and its types in detail

1. Building Stones
Building Construction Material

2. Definition
•Stonesarenaturallyoccurringcompact,
solidandmassivematerialthatmakethe
crustoftheearth.
•Technically,thestonesarecalledasrocks.
Therocksoccuringreatvariety.Therocks
possessuitablepropertiesoftenfindusein
buildingstones.Itfollowsthatallbuilding
stonesarerocksinnature,allrocksmaynot
beusefulasbuildingstones.

3. Building Stones

4. Introduction
•Stoneshavebeenusedinalltypeofconstruction
sincetimeimmemorial.ThepyramidsofEgypt,The
eiffeltower,ThetempleofJagannathpuri,theTaj
Mahal,theredfort,thegreatwallofchinaand
hundredsofhistoricalbuildingsineachbigcountryare
madeofstones.Thegreatestthingaboutstoneisthat
theyarenaturalanddonotrequiredtobe
manufactured.
•Stone,timberandclayhadbeenthemostcommonly
constructionusedmaterialrightfromthebeginning
ofthecivilizationtilltheadventofPortlandcement
andhenceconcreteintheearlynineteenthcentury.

5. historical buildings

6. Classification of Stones
•Thebuildingstonesareclassifiedinthree
ways:Geologically,Chemicallyand
structurally

7. Classification of Stones
A)GeologicalClassification:
•Thisclassificationisbasedonmodeof
formationoftherockfromwhichbuilding
stonesareobtained.Threemaingroup
recognizedare:
•I)IgneousRocks
•II)SedimentaryRocks
•III)MetamorphicRocks

8. Classification of Stones
IgneousRocks(Greekwordignis=fire)
•Allthoserocksoftheearththathavebeen
formedbythenaturalprocessofcoolingand
crystallizationfromoriginallyhotandmolten
magmaaregroupedasIgneousRocks.Theyare
themostabundantrocksinthecrustwhen
considereddepthwise.
•Infacttheigneousrocksarefurther
distinguishedbygeologistsintothreesub
classesonthebasisoftheirdepthofformation.

9. Igneous Rocks

10. Classification of Stones
(a)ThePlutonicRocks
•Theseareformedatgreaterdepthbelowthe
surface.Theyareexposedonthesurfaceby
erosionoftheoverlyingsecondaryrocks
withpassageoftime.Theyarecoarsely
crystallized.i.e.thecomponentofcrystalscan
beeasilyseenwithoutthehelpofmagnifying
glasses.Granites,Syenitesandgabbrosare
typicallyigneousplutonicrocks.

11. The Plutonic Rocks

12. Classification of Stones
(b)TheVolcanicRocks
•Theseareformedonthesurfaceoftheearth
fromlavacomingoutofnumerous
volcanoesthateruptfromtimetotime.
Basaltandtraprocksareverycommon
examples;theconstituentsmineralsareso
smallthattheycanbeseenonlyafter
magnifyingundermicroscope.

13. The Volcanic Rocks

14. Classification of Stones
(c)TheHypabyssalRocks.
Theseareformedatshallowdepths,about
2-3kmbelowthesurfacefrommagmathat
couldnotcomeoutaslava.Theyshow
crystalthatarepartlycoarseandpartlyfinein
size.Rockknownasporphyriesbelongto
thisgroup.

15. The HypabyssalRocks.

16. Sedimentary Rocks
•SedimentaryRocks(sediment=particle)
Theyarethemostwidespreadrocks
foundcoveringagreatpartofthesurfaceof
earth.TheSedimentaryrockareformed
fromanytypeofpreexistingrocksbya
simpleprocessofbreakdownintosmaller
particlesundertheinfluenceofnatural
agencieslikewind,waterandiceand
atmosphericgases.

17. Sedimentary Rocks

18. Sedimentary Rocks
•Thenaturalprocessofrockdisintegrationare
calledweatheringanderosion.Thesediments
producedbynaturalagenciesaretransportedby
theseverynaturalagenciestoriverbed,lake
basin,seasandoceanswherethisdepositiontakes
placeformillionofyears.Gradually,the
particlessodepositedarecompressedunder
theirownloadintohardmassiverocks,called
secondaryrocks.Sincetheyareformedof
sedimentsitisquiteappropriatetocallthem
sedimentaryrocks.

19. Sedimentary Rocks

20. Sedimentary Rocks
•Justlikeigneousrocks,sedimentaryrocks
mayalsobeformedindifferentmanners.
Thesesubgroupofsedimentaryrocksare
•ClasticRocks.
•ChemicallyformedRocks
•Organicallyformedrocks

21. Sedimentary Rocks
ClasticRocks
•Thesearesedimentaryrocksformedby
depositionandconsolidationofdisintegrated
sedimentsandfragmentsfromtheprevious
rocksinsuitableriverbasins,lakeandthesea
basinsetc.Theyaremostwidespreadandinclude
suchtypesassandstones,hales,brecciasand
conglomerates.Sandstonesaremademostlyof
silicagrainsfusedtogetherorthoroughly
compactedundernaturalenvironment.They
formverygoodtypeofbuildingstone.

22. ClasticRocks

23. Sedimentary Rocks
ChemicallyformedRocks
•Manysedimentaryrocksareprecipitatedfrom
river,lakeandespeciallyfromseawaterby
evaporationetc.someofthecomponentsofprevious
rocksaretakeninsolutionduringtheprocessesof
weatheringanderosion.Thewatermaygetsaturated
withthesecompoundswithpassageoftimeand
precipitatethem.Thehugeaccumulationofthese
precipitatesandevaporatesultimatelymayform
rockdepositsofconsiderableimportance.
Limestones,Gypsum,anhydriteandrocksaltsarefew
examplesofchemicallyformedsedimentaryrocks.
Noneofthemareusedasbuildingstones.

24. Chemically formed Rocks

25. Sedimentary Rocks
OrganicformedSedimentaryRocks
•Asweknowthatmorethan70%ofthesurfaceofearth
iscoveredwithwaterintheformofseaandoceans.
Greatvarietyoflifeexistsinthesegreatwaterbodies.Many
seaanimalshavetheirhardpartsmadeupofbones,which
areamixtureofcalciumandmagnesiumcarbonates.These
partsaccumulateatproperplacesontheseafloor.
Graduallyhugethicknessofsuchdepositsgetformedand
compactedandconsolidateswithpassageoftime.These
aretheorganicallyformedsedimentaryrocks.Thebest
exampleoforganicallyformedsedimentaryrockisa
greatvarietyoflimestone,whichnowformthegreater
partofmanymountainsoftheearthincluding
Himalayas.Manymassivetypesoflimestoneformbest
typeofbuildingstones.

26. Organic formed Sedimentary Rocks

27. Metamorphic Rocks
•(meta=Change;morph=form)Theseare
originallyeitherigneousorsedimentaryrocks.
Theprocessfortheirchangeunderthe
influenceofincreasedtemperature,pressure,
andchemicalenvironmentiscalled
metamorphism.Whenanexistingrockgets
subjectedtoincreasedtemperatureorchanged
stressesandchemicallyactivefluidsitundergoes
aslowbutdefinitechangeinitsoriginalstructure
andchemicalcomposition.Thenewrockso
formediscalledmetamorphicrock.

28. Metamorphic Rocks

29. Metamorphic Rocks
•Towell-knownexampleofmetamorphicrock
aremarbleandslate.Marbleisformedin
naturalenvironmentbyverygradualheatingof
sedimentaryrocks,limestone,initsnatural
environment.Theheatingmaybecausedbyrise
ofmagmafrombelowinalimestonearea.
Similarly,anothersedimentaryrock,shalemaybe
formedcombinedactionoftemperature,pressure
&chemicallyactivefluidsthatitgetschangedto
ametamorphicrockslate.

30. Metamorphic Rocks

31. Metamorphic Rocks
•Thenatureofchangeofanoriginalrock
dependonfollowingfactors:
•(i)Thetypeofagent/soperating(
Temperature,Pressure,chemicallyactivefluid
etc.)
•Thedurationofoperationoftheaboveagent.
•Thenatureandcompositionoftheoriginalrocks,
Someverycommonmetamorphicrocksare
Marble,Quartzite,Gneiss,SlateandSchist;The
firstthreerocksareverygoodbuildingstonesin
manycases.

32. Chemical Classification
•Onthebasisofdominantchemicalcomposition,
followingthreemaingroupsofrocksarecommonly
recognized:
•I.)SiliceousRocks
•TheserockhaveSILICA(SiO
2)asthepredominant
component,thatismorethan50%ofthebulk
compositionoftherock.
•Theseincludevarietyofquartzites.Naturallytheyare
classedamongthestrongesttypeofbuildingstones.
Someotherrockslikegranites,sandstonesandgneisses
arealsomadeupofSilicaincombinedform.

33. Siliceous Rocks

34. Chemical Classification
2)CalcareousRocks.
•Intheserocks,thedominantcomponentisa
carbonate,generallyofcalciumbutoften
withmagnesium.Mostcommonlythey
belongtosedimentaryandmetamorphicgroup
ofrocks.Limestone,dolomiteandmarbles
areentirelycarbonaterocksandallform
goodbuildingstone.

35. Calcareous Rocks.

36. Chemical Classification
3)ArgillaceousRocks.
•Theyaremostlysedimentaryrockshaving
clay(hydrousaluminosilicatesofK,Na,Ca,
Mg.etc.)asadominantconstituent.Theyare
invariablysoftanduntrustworthyasbuilding
stoneanduntrustworthyasbuildingstones.
Shales,Slates,andSchistsareexamples.

37. Argillaceous Rocks.

38. Structural Classification
•Broadlyspeaking,inapparentstructures,
therock(Stones)mayeitherbefoundinthe
formofundifferentiatedmassesorthey
occurinverywelldefinedlayersorsheets.A
thirdcategoryisfoliatedrocks.

39. Structural Classification
1)TheMassiveorUnstratifiedRocks.
•Theserocksoccurinhugemasseswithout
showinganylayeredstructureinthem.
Igneousandmanymetamorphicrocksand
somesedimentaryrocksmaybeseen
occurringasbigmasses.Graniteand
Quartziteoftenoccurinmassiveform.

40. The Massive or UnstratifiedRocks

41. Structural Classification
•2)TheStratifiedRocks.
•Mostsedimentaryrocksoccurindistinct
layersofsameanddifferentcolorand
composition.Theirdifferentlayersarealso
calledbedsandareseparatedbyplanesof
weaknessescalledbeddingplanes

42. The Stratified Rocks.

43. Structural Classification
3)FoliatedRocks
•Veryoftenathirdgroupofrockis
distinguishedasfoliatedrocksinwhich
thereisprofusedevelopmentofwelldefined
bandofdifferentcomposition.Thisisseenas
schistsandgneisses.Thefoliatedrocksdo
notyieldbuildingstoneofgoodquality.

44. Foliated Rocks

45. Quarrying of Stones
•Itisknownthatstonesoccurinnaturein
theformofnaturalrockmassesforming
hillsorwallsofvalleys.Thesehavetobe
brokenandextractedfromthosenatural
outcropsforusingintheconstruction.The
processofextractionofsuitablestonesfrom
theirnaturalplaceofoccurrenceforusein
constructioniscalledquarrying.

46. Quarrying of Stones

47. Quarrying of Stones
•Quarryingisdifferentthanminingusedfor
extractionoforesformetalinthatinmining
wegodeepbelowthesurface,thetopsurface
isleftintact,andtheoresareextractedfrom
undertheearth.Inquarrying,however,the
processofextractionstartsfromthe
surface.

48. Quarrying of Stones

49. Selection of Quarrying Site
•EngineersandContractorshavetokeepinmind
followingfactorswhiledecidingaboutthe
locationofquarrysite
•(i)AvailabilityofSoundRock.
•Aquarrycanbeopenedupwhereasoundrock
thatcanyieldgoodqualityofbuildingstones
existinginsufficientlylargerarea.Theseis
essentialbecausequarryingoperationrequire
quiteheavyinitialinvestmentinmenand
machineryandthesehavetobeeconomically
viable.

50. Availability of Sound Rock

51. Selection of Quarrying Site
•(ii)DistanceofAreaofConstruction:
•Quarryingisacommonoperation.The
quarryingsitemustnecessarilybeclosetoa
mainroadsothatstonesextractedfromit
canbetransportedtoanyoutsideplaceat
economicrate.

52. Distance of Area of Construction

53. Selection of Quarrying Site
(iii)AvailabilityofWateranddumpingspace
•Inquarryingoperations,largenumberof
equipments,menandmachinesareoftenrequired.
Sufficientsafedistancefromquarryingmustbe
available.Oftenlotofwaterisalsorequiredforthe
workersandevenduringcuttingoperationswhen
machinesaretobeused.Thismustbeavailable
locally.Dumpingspaceisrequiredforstoringthe
brokenstoneandalsofordumpinguselessrock
fragmentsobtainedduringquarrying.Further,
adequatedrainageoutletforremovingany
undergroundorsurfacewatersimmediatelyafter
rainmustbeprovidedatthequarry.

54. Availability of Water and dumping
space

55. Preparatory Steps
•OnceasiteforquarryingofStoneisdecided.
Followingpredatorystepsbecomesnecessary
forstartingoperations
•i)SelectionofmethodofQuarrying
•Quarryingcanbedonemanuallyorwith
thehelpofmachines.Mechanized
quarryingistheadvancedandpreferred
methodofthequarry,thenatureoftherock
andthecommercialdemand.

56. Selection of method of Quarrying

57. Preparatory Steps
•(ii)Preparationofalayout
•Aschemeforoperationprocessorlayoutof
thequarryhastobepreparedafter
selectingmethodofquarrying.Thisshould
includethefaceofattack,theprogressionof
attackandvariousstagesinwhichtheblock
ofrocksareremoved.

58. Preparation of a layout

59. Preparatory Steps
•(iii)Removalofoverburden
•Theuppersurfaceofnaturalbedrockis
quiteoftencoveredwithsomethicknessof
soilorweatheredrockcalledoverburden.
Suchoverburdenaswellaslooselyheldrock
pieceshavetoberemovedwellbeforethestart
ofquarryingoperations.

60. Removal of overburden

61. Methods of Quarrying
A.QuarryingWithoutBlasting
•Inthismethods,skilledpersonsremove
blocksofrocksfromtheplacesof
occurrence.Theymayusehandtoolsoreven
lightchannelingmachinescalledchannellizers.
Noexplosivematerialisusedforbreaking
thestones.

62. Quarrying Without Blasting

63. Methods of Quarrying
•B)QuarryingbyblastingThismethodinvolvesuse
ofexplosivesforbreakingstonesfromveryhard
rocklikequartziteandsandstones,basalts,traps,
andnon-ornamentalgranites.Ithasbeenobserved
thatquarryingofthesetypesofhardrockbecomes
verylaboriousandcostlybyothermethods.
•Thebasicprincipleemployedinthismethodisto
explodeasmallquantityofanexplosiveata
calculateddepthwithinthebodyoftherock.
•Theforcegeneratedduetoexplosionissufficientto
onlycreatecracksandloosenrockblockofgoodsize.

64. Quarrying by blasting

65. Dressing of Stones
•Bydressingofstonesismeanttheprocessof
givingapropersize,shapeandfinishtothe
roughlybrokenstoneasobtainedfrom
quarry.Thisisdoneeithermanuallyor
mechanicallyorinsomecaseusingboththe
methods.

66. Dressing of Stones

67. Dressing of Stones
•Stonesasobtainedfromquarriesareveryroughandirregular
inshape.Besides,theymaybetoobulkytobeusedin
construction,Hencevariousobjectivesofdressingare:
•(a)Toreducethesizeofblockstoeasilyportableunits.Thisis
oftendoneatthequarryitselfbecausetransportofbigrockmaybe
costly.
•(b)Togiveapropershapetothestone
•Wecanusestonesinfoundationasblocks,inwallsassmall
units,infloorasslabsandincolumnasroundedorsquare
pillars.Eachsituationrequiresapropershapethathastobegiven
undertheprocessofdressing.
•(c)ToobtainanappealingfinishStonesalwayscomeinrough
andruggedforms.Foruseinbuildingconstructioninwallsand
exteriors,theyhavetobegivenanaestheticappealingfinish.A
stonehousehasitsowndistinction,beautyandindivualityina
concretejungle.

68. Dressing of Stones

69. Dressing of Stones
Methodofdressingofstones
•Dressingofstonescanbedonebothmanuallyor
mechanically.
•Manually,Skilledworkerscanworkwondersonsuitable
typesofstoneswithchisels,hammersandabrasives.Not
onlytheycangiveexcellentfinishandpolishstonesbutalso
maydocarvingandengravingthatcanwithstandcenturies.
•Mechanically,specialsawfittedmachinescancutslabsand
anyothershapefromroughrocks.Thesearecalledrock
cutters.Thegrindingandpolishingmachinesarefittedwith
wheelsordiscswithabrasivescapableenoughtogivepolish
andfinefinishtoanydesireddegreeevenonthehardestof
stones.

70. Dressing of Stones

71. Dressing of Stones
•TheTraditionalDressingmethodsappliedinmanualdressingaredescribed
below:
•Pitcheddressing
•Inthismethod,onlytheedgesofablockareleveledskillfullybyuseof
hammers.Thesurfaceisleftinoriginalcut.
•HammerDressing
•Inthismethodofdressingedgeaswellasthefacearereducedtoeven
regularsurface.Ithaspittedappearanceonthesurface.
•ChiselDressing
•Inthismethodstraightgroovesaremadewiththehelpofachiselatall
fouredges.Thesuperfluousstonefromthecentreisremoved.Chisel
draftedstonesarespeciallyusedinplinthsandcornerofthebuilding.
•RoughTooling
•Theedgesarefirstmadesquarebyusingchiselandhammer.Thena
seriesofgroovesofvariablewidtharedevelopedoverthesurfaceofstone.

72. Dressing of Stones

73. Dressing of Stones
•PunchedDressing
•Itisdoneonthestonethathavebeenalready
beenroughed.Aseriesofparallelridgesare
madeonthestonesurfaceusinghammerand
chisel.Itisalsocalledfurrowedfinish.
•Closedpickedfinetooling
•Thisisextremetypeofdressinginwhich
almosteverytypeofprojectingirregularityis
removedfromallfoursidesofstones.Its
surfaceisgivenfinefinishandanappealinglook.

74. Dressing of Stones

75. Dressing of Stones
•BoastedFinish
•Itisaverycommontypeoffinishinwhichthe
surfaceofthestoneiscoveredwithparallel
marksthatmayruninaparticulardirection
onaparticularface.Aboasterwhichisactually
awide-edgechiselisusedforthepurposeand
hencethesame.
•Numerousothertypesoffinishesaregivento
stonesinthedressingprocessdependingupon
theskilloftheworkerandfancyoftheowner.

76. Dressing of Stones

77. Selection of Stones For Construction
•Threefactorsaregenerallyconsideredbyanengineerwhile
decidinguseofstoneinconstructionjobs:
First
•Thetypeofbuildingandthesituationwherestoneisto
beusedsuchas:
•First
•1)Residentialbuildingorapublicbuilding,suchasfor
school,departmentoffice,communitycentreetc.
•2)Commercialbuildinglikecinemahall,shoppingcomplex
stadium,etc
•3)amonumentbuildingsuchastemplr,mosque,church,
fortetc.

78. Type Of Building

79. Selection of Stones For Construction
Second:
•Thepreciselocationinthebuildingwhere
thestoneshallgiveapreferentialbenefitin
termsofcost,appearance,anddurability
suchasinfoundations,superstructures,arches,
columns,beams,plinths,orflooring,sillsand
cantilever.

80. Selection of Stones For Construction

81. Selection of Stones For Construction
Third
•Costofconstructionwithstones.Thiswilldependon
factorsofavailabilityofstone,innearbyarea,their
extraction,transportationanddressingbefore
puttingtheminuse.Sometimesadesiredquantityof
stonemaynotbeavailablelocally.Itmayhavetobe
importedfromotherstatesorevenfromother
countries.
•Itisonlyafterthroughanalysisoffactorsas
mentionedabovethattheengineerwillbeableto
decideaboutusingstoneintheconstructionathand.

82. Selection of Stones For Construction

83. References
•BuildingConstruction:DrB.C.Punmia
•CivilEngineeringMaterial:Prof.Singh
•InternetWebSites

84. Thanks…