CH10-Qualitative ResearchQualitative Research.ppt

CH10-Qualitative Research.ppt

1. Qualitative Research Methods
There’s more to it than meets the
eye!
Dr. Paul Ssemaluulu

2. Qualitative Methods
1.Get over the idea that research means counting.
2.The focus is on subjective experiences, or the
meanings that people use.
3.Because meaning resides in language (people think
with language), qualitative research largely
involves studying text.
4.The best device for collecting and analyzing
qualitative information is the human brain.
Introduction

3. Qualitative Methods (1)
5.Qualitative research is local, concrete.
6.Observations and findings depend on
understanding contexts and the meanings held by
the people in those contexts and the meanings of
the things in those contexts.
7.Observations are typically of interactions in smaller
groups or selectively defined settings.
8.Exploration is very often the motive, but not
always.
Introduction

4. Qualitative Methods (2)
9.Qualitative research often provides idiographic (as
opposed to nomothetic) causal explanations.
10.Qualitative research is typically inductive.
11.The research is reflexive—design is flexible and can
change given the needs of the research. E.g.,
Theoretical Sampling
12.The researcher must be reflexive as well—the brain
tool must be calibrated, understood, active, paid
attention to, controlled
Introduction

5. Qualitative Methods (3)
13.Qualitative research is very practical, logical,
and critical of itself. Researchers constantly
ask, “Am I accurately depicting the social
world given the ways I am collecting and
analyzing my data?”
14.Good qualitative research is often the most
rigorous, difficult research.
Introduction

7. DEDUCTIVE & INDUCTIVE REASONING

8. Elements of the Research Process
Deductive thinking (Quantitative)
THEORY
HYPOTHESIS
OBSERVATION
CONFIRMATION

9. Elements of the Research Process (Cont.)
Inductive thinking (Qualitative)
OBSERVATION
PATTERNS
HYPOTHESIS
THEORY

10. IDEAL
QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
Research process is
deductive.
Research process is
inductive.
Measure objective facts.Document social reality,
meaning is constructed.
Focus on variables. Focus on in-depth meaning.
Firewall between research
process and researchers’
values.
Values are present & explicit
(empathy).
Cross-contextual. Contextual dependence.
Many cases. Few cases.

11. IDEAL
QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
Statistical analysis Thematic analysis
Highly structured research
process.
Loosely structured
research process.
Particularistic, specificHolistic perspective
Separation from dataIntimacy with data
Generalize to populationGeneralization to properties and
contexts

12. Qualitative Methods
When should I use qualitative methods?
•When variables cannot be quantified
•When variables are best understood in their natural
settings
•When variables are studied over real time
•When studying intimate details of roles, processes,
and groups
•When the paramount objective is “understanding”

13. Qualitative Methods (1)
What skills do I need?What skills do I need?
•Must have requisite knowledge and skills about methodology,
setting and nature of the issue.
•Must be familiar with own biases, assumptions, expectations,
and values.
•Must be empathic, intelligent, energetic, and interested in
listening
•Must be open to embracing multiple realities.
•Must be prepared to produce detailed, comprehensive, and
sometimes lengthy reports.
Source: (Kuh & Andreas, 1991)

14. Qualitative Methods (2)
Before collecting data, you have to determine what you want to accomplish.
Tight versus Loose Design
Ask yourself:
–How much time do I have?
–What resources are available?
–What is the purpose of the study?
–In what am I really interested?
More structure can prevent waste
–If we already know about the context, it would be wasteful to go exploring
–If you have targeted topic, you can reduce data at the collection stage and
cut down on analysis time
–Loose produces more data, more “surprise discoveries” can be made
Design

15. Qualitative Methods (3)
Choose your unit of analysis.
•Individuals
–Certain experiences
–Experiences in particular settings
–Identities such as student with disabilities, ex-con
•Groups
–Demographic groups
–Intervention groups
–Types of people such as ball players, secretaries
–Those in one setting versus another
–Organizations
Design

16. Qualitative Methods (4)
Qualitative research quickly exhausts resources and time.
Limit the amount of data collected.
It’s not the size that matters, it’s what you do with the data.
•Be very clear about the research focus
–Write down your foggy ideas and then get more specific.
•Concentrate on most important issues and not others.
–Start writing specific questions you want to answer.
–Now get even more specific…reduce
Design

17. Sampling
Plan Data Collection
•Define sampling boundaries:
–Space
–Time
–Social position
–Context
•Record nothing that is not in your sampling
parameters
Design

18. Select Elements Representative of Target Population
Generalize from sample to population
Make claims about the population
Test theories within population
Select Elements Representative of Research Focus
Generate Detailed and Subjective Understanding
Answer research questions
Build theories
Sampling: (1)
Qualitative versus Quantitative
Quantitative Sampling
Qualitative Sampling

19. Sampling (2)
•Make choices that narrow or delimit research focus and
activities to a level that
–A researcher’s brain can handle
–Can be done in a reasonable amount of time
–Is within a reasonable budget
•Seek exposure to topic-related information
•Focus only on information directly useful for the research
–Samples should be small, not large
•Sampling decisions are made throughout data collection
Sampling

20. Data
Text is generally collected from or in the form of…
–Field notes -- Newspaper or magazine stories
–Interviews (recorded and transcribed)
–Focus groups -- Web pages
–Audio & video tapes (transcribed and described)
–Copies of documents-- Photographs (described)
–Narrative descriptions
–Diaries

21. 1.Read Data, develop ideas and
feelings
2.Code Data, tag items with same
meaning using a unique code
3.Search and extract instances of codes
4.Identify patterns among codes
(pattern coding)
5.Create figures, tables, or descriptions
of patternsA
N
A
L
Y
S
I
S
THEMES

22. Analysis (1)
•Process of Qualitative Analysis:
–Data Reduction
–Data Display
–Conclusion Drawing and Verification

23. Analysis (2)

24. Coding
What is coding?
•In qualitative analysis, coding is the process of identifying
categories and meanings in text, creating and applying a name
or code to each, and systematically marking similar strings of
text with the same code name.
•Coding permits systematic retrieval of categories and meanings
during analysis. Codes help researchers identify patterns in data.

25. Coding (1)
•One codes only relevant data (Not all text must be
coded to complete the project)
•Codes may be based on:
Actions, Behaviors,Topics, Ideas, Concepts,
Terms, Phrases, Keywords, and so forth
•Coding is purposeful interpretation, with mindful
reflection on the meanings of the persons, context,
interactions, statements, assumptions, and so forth

26. Coding (2)
Source: http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/Intro_QDA/phpechopage_titleOnlineQDA-Examples_QDA.php
An example of
“old school”
coding

27. Coding (3)
Sources of codes (typically both):
1.A priori codes—expected, looked for
–Previous research
–Previous theory
–Research question
–Your intuition of the data or setting
2.Grounded codes—discovered
(suspend ideas about the subject and let the data determine codes)

28. Coding (4)
•It helps if code names are meaningful.
•When new relevant content is discovered, a
new code is created.
•Codes may evolve
•A string of text may contain more than one
code.

29. Coding (5)
•Codes must be consistently applied
•Keeping a list of codes helps to:
–Identify the content of each code, and
–Reveal the contents of the text.
•Codes should be grouped in some form (e.g.,
related clusters) to advance analysis

30. Coding (6)
http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/209/461

31. Displays
Making sense of the data

32. Displays
•There are numerous legitimate ways to move from
codes to final narrative, but core among them is
systematic work and adherence to logic.
•Systematic analysis is advanced when codes are put
into “data displays” which reflect the researcher’s
judgments about the data
•Data displays link various codes and help to build
themes

33. Displays (1)
Source: http://journals.culture-communication.unimelb.edu.au/platform/yecrea_2011_kaprans.html
Thematic
network of
YouTube
comments
about Borat

34. Displays (2)
•Such arrangements help researchers:
1.“dimensionalize,” or recognize dimensions of similar
thoughts or
•E.g., thoughts about how to appear masculine:
•Clothes Presence
–Short hair -- Confidence
–Plain shoes -- Taking up space
–Shirt with collar
2.Connect codes in more sophisticated ways
3.Document patterns in “user-friendly” ways (never rely on
memory)

35. Displays (3)
•Relationships between codes become more apparent
as codes are grouped
•Themes should be explored
–Why do some codes co-occur?
–Why are some dimensions related to other codes while
others are not?
–Are some codes linked to particular emotions?
•Exploration of themes is analysis. The discoveries
should be written down. These eventually (with very
heavy and serious editing) turn into your written text.

36. Analysis
•Process of Qualitative Analysis:
–Data Reduction
–Data Display
–Conclusion Drawing and Verification

37. •As one creates and views displays, the salient components of
meaning and activities become apparent.
•Research may be:
–Descriptive: Represents the data (meanings, observations) to readers
in such a way that they will “understand” what the researcher “sees”
in the data.
–Causal: Links concepts in the data together to explain observed
meanings or phenomena, and to write in such a way that readers will
“understand” what the researcher “sees.”
•This stage relies very heavily on logical evaluation and
systematic description
Drawing Conclusions and Verification

38. •The researcher WRITES what he or she sees as logical
descriptions of themes
•The researcher always refers back to the data
displays and raw data as descriptions or causal
statements are made.
–Systematic, organized, and good coding and notes will
really pay off at this point, allowing efficient, accurate
access to data
•Conclusions are made through this process
Drawing Conclusions and Verification (1)

39. Drawing Conclusions and Verification
•Articles and reports often include quotes.
They are not the text “speaking for itself.”
•Quotes are used for:
–Evidence
–Explanation
–Illustration
–Deepening understanding
–Giving participants a voice
–Enhancing readability

40. Drawing Conclusions and Verification
In the end, like good quantitative research, good
qualitative research gives a portrayal of the human
experience that is as accurate as possible, but which
always has limitations.

42. Qualitative Methods
•It is often difficult to plan qualitative research
•Group Discussion:
–Spend several minutes generating ideas for a qualitative
research study. What are you going to study and why?
–Create a plan for:
•Sampling
–How will you determine whether your sample is representative of a
target group?
•Data Collection
•Data Analysis
–How will you evaluate causality?
•How will you write about or present your findings?
Introduction