Chapter-1-Lesson-2-The-Social-Sciences-2023LONG-1.pptx

UCSP

1. The Social Sciences: Sociology, Anthropology, and Political Science

2. OBJECTIVES Articulate how sociology, anthropology and political science explain the notions of the social within their respective disciplinal domains. 01 E xplain the benefits of recognizing the operations of social forces when using the sociological, anthropological and political imagination 03 U nderstand the shared concerns of sociology, anthropology and political science with respect to the nature of social change. 02 A nalyze the role of culture in the formation of cultural, idiosyncrasies and in the production of social identities. 04

3. Point for reflection: If you want to see change in your community, what do you think are the necessary steps that you need to do in order to start or create change?

4. Lesson Pretest True or False An inherent feature of social change is violent actions. Social actions and interactions are governed by the unseen rules of society. A person’s sex dictates that he/she can and cannot expect in life. Each social science has a unique take on what constitutes social life. These takes are mutually exclusive and are therefore irreconcilable.

5. The Social as “Driver of Interaction” The study of society can be accomplished in the three different ways: by mapping the social forces impinging on social actors as their lives intersect in society. by rehearsing the structures and components of cultural practices and traditions. by exposing the asymmetrical power distributions among members of social communities and organizations.

6. Different and unique in their basic assumptions about what makes society possible and the network of relationships that define and constitute it—are made due to a common concern: to understand the dynamics of social interaction in the society.

7. If the perspectives highlights the external influences that facilitate or constrain human actions, the disciplines is called “sociology”. If the perspectives underlines the role of cultural structures in organizing human interactions, the discipline is referred to as “anthropology”. If the perspective zeroes in on power relation and how these produce layered modalities of opportunities among social actors then the discipline is called “political science”.

8. A. SOCIOLOGY I t focuses on the ubiquity (or the everywhere-ness) of social forces in unlikely forms: sex, gender, religion, class, race, ethnicity, social orientation and the likes. Social forces represent constellation of unseen yet powerful forces influencing the behavior of individuals and institutions. In this sense, social forces can be interpreted as any human created way of doing things that influence, pressure, or force people to behave, interact with others and think in certain ways.

9. Social forces are considered remote and impersonal because mostly people have no hand in creating them, nor do they know anyone who do or did. It is normally in the guise of (written and unwritten), norms, and expectations.

10. Social map refers to a person’s specific economic and political location. Social maps, therefore, lock out any possibilities of social mobility. C. Wright Mills, an American social critic, argued that individuals can still transcend the limitation posed by their respective social locations. They can do this by imagining the intersections of their life situations and the events of their societies.

11. The state of mind which Mills termed is “sociological imagination”, allows social actors to discern opportunities where there is none by converting their personal troubles into public issues. When successfully done, this makes people navigate the social world with much more ease as they have these intersection points as opportunity markers.

12. A QUICK HISTORY OF SOCIOLOGY Sociology was born in Europe during the period of Industrial Revolution. It was the period that witnessed the rapid development of industry and occurred in Britain in the late eighteenth centuries, brought about by the introduction of machinery. It was characterized using steam power, the growth of factories, and the mass production of manufactured goods .

13. AUGUST COMTE (1798-1857) Credited to be the father of the discipline for having coined the termed sociology. used the scientific method to identify what holds society together (positivism) he thought that the study of society could bring about social form

14. KARL MAX (1818-1883) EMILE DURKHEIM (1858-1977) MAX WEBER (1864-1920) First to raise critical questions about the deluged of changes brought about by the mushrooming factories within and outside the major cities of England

15. The bulk of their critical reflections focused on the seen and projected impacts of these changes on their traditional way of life, exacerbated by the dissolution of the family as the basic unit of society, construction of new forms of social interactions, and emergence of new social identities.

16. EMILE DURKHEIM (1858-1977) A French social thinker, was exceptionally instrumental in the formalization and later recognition of sociology as the new science of the study of society. His landmark study of suicide enabled him to concretize the “niche problematique ” of sociology, apart and different from that of anthropology, psychology, philosophy, religion, and literature.

17. With his monumental work on suicide, he introduced the concept of “social fact” which later sealed the eventual institution and recognition as sociology at least in France, as a new social science. Social fact is another name for social phenomenon. It has distinctive characteristics and determinants which can hold an external constraint on the individual. Social fact, according to Durkheim, was a characteristic feature of the power of ideas to create social realities for members of society.

18. Durkheim proved the existence of social fact by demonstrating that the three forms of suicides he observed from different societies were all triggered by the individual’s assessment of their moral standing in relation to the rules and norms of their respective cultures.

19. KARL MAX (1818-1883) He is poor and always hungry, exiled for several times and declared persona non grata by his own country Germany – saw and felt the evils of social inequality. He produced the most scathing critique of capitalist exploitation of the labor class for profit. He used this critique as the basis for his conflict paradigm, later relabeled by succeeding sociologists as the “critical historical” perspective given its historical rootedness. Despite being focused on struggles and conflict, the conflict paradigm was able to demonstrate the role of conflict in the evolution of society. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

20. Grew up in affluent families, hence the reality of oppression, poverty, and exploitation escaped their respective theoretical musings. They produced powerful analyses about religion, economics, and bureaucracy. Both saw society as a system with parts and functions. The optimum health of the system is defined by the parts performing their assigned tasks and working in coordination with the other parts of the system. EMILE DURKHEIM & MAX WEBER

21. Functions are other latent(hidden) or manifest(obvious). The task of sociologists is to explore these functions, which may explain the tenacity of social phenomenon, both positive and negative. Deviance is seen as something functional as they endure despite the operation of social control. These are the basic assumptions of the structural functional perspective in sociology.

22. Symbolic interactionism takes a rather different approach in the analysis of social realities. Charles Horton Cooley, Herbert Blumer, and George Herbert Mead produced the foundational principles of this school of thought. For them, social interactions are governed by the meanings shared and co-created by social actors in every interaction or encounter. These meanings are lodged on objects, events, and persons and are seen as symbols, the interpretation of which shape and influence the emerging interactions.

23. B. ANTHROPOLOGY The American Anthropological Association describes anthropology as a science as a science seeking to uncover principles of behavior that apply to all human communities. To an anthropologist, diversity itself – seen in body shapes and sizes, customs, clothing, speech, religion and worldview – provides a frame of reference for understanding any single aspect of life in any given community.

24. Instead of looking for a universal culture – cultural artifacts that appear the same or similar everywhere they are found – anthropologists are looking for culture universal, patterns of similarity within an array of differences. This approach is faithful to the principle of “equal but different” enshrined in the motto of the discipline. As a social science, anthropology focuses on human diversity around the world. Anthropologists look at cross-cultural differences in social institutions, cultural beliefs, and communication styles. They often seek to promote understanding between groups by “translating” each culture to the other, for instance by spelling out common, taken-for-granted assumptions.

25. The social in the guise of inequality Social diversity is an ever present and enduring feature of all known cultures around the world, from the most primitive to the most highly urbanized. Social inequality occurs when resources in a given society are distributed unevenly typically through norms of allocation that engender specific patterns along the lines of socially defined categories of persons. It is normally the end result of social diversity.

26. The concept has gained mutual currency in the vocabulary of political science literature as well, but curiously, not in anthropology. As a matter of fact, anthropology does not have an equivalent term or concept as the discipline’s starting point is dovetailed on the premises of cultural diversity. Even if anthropological counterparts exist, the terminologies will lack the evaluative tone exemplified by the takes of sociology and political science. Seen as modalities(or forms)of social inequality, cultural diversity and social diversity have been the perennial subjects of theoretical musings of sociologists, anthropologists, and political scientists.

27. S0CIOLOGIST Attributed the persistence and omnipresence of social inequality to the beneficial functions it provides for the overall operation of society. The merit system is the system of providing incentives and rewards depending on the qualifications of the social actors involved. It assumes that people will perform better if given rewards. This is exemplified by the merit system (giving incentives) and division of labor (diverse expertise and skills).

28. POLITICAL SCIENTISTS Explain social inequality as a product of an asymmetrical distribution of power in society. For political science, the clearest manifestation of power relations is the existence of the state, which may be seen as legitimate mediator of societal tensions, as well as social integration. The distribution of power is seen as contingent to and necessary for the governance of social relations.

29. ANTHROPOLOGISTS Take account of the equal but different ways of how people live in the world. For example, social arrangements however exotic/familiar(rituals, system of symbols, and values) or idiosyncratic/normative(cultural traits and practices, norms) can be seen as practical since they provide directions and instructions for a hassle-free life in their respective societies The “difference dimension” is seen a representing the culture’s inherent value, hence it is essential to the appreciation of the culture ‘sui generis’ while the equal dimension is interpreted on the basis of the logic that the same appraisal can be used to judge even influential and renowned cultures.

30. AN UNOFFICIAL STORY OF ANTHROPOLOGY Anthropology has been pejoratively called “ a child of colonization,” because discoverers of new territories were always accompanied by missionary documenters. The primary function of these documenters was to record to the minutest details, all their observations and reflections about the conquered territories, their people, practices, language, rituals, and idiosyncrasies.

31. These so called “scribes of cultures” became instruments of the colonizers in achieving their ultimate, yet oftentimes undisclosed goals – the subjugation of native cultures. This somewhat informal story of anthropology suggests two essential things about the discipline and its capacity to represent the social: 1. its methodology of documenting one’s engagement with a different culture 2. its fascination with the ways of life in different societies The former is referred to in anthropological jargon as the “ethnographic method” while the latter points to the “niche subject’ of the discipline.

32. Ethnography can either be a research design or a specific research method where people are observed in their natural environment rather than in a formal research setting. The fascination to understand familiar and exotic cultures gave the discipline a distinctive take on the issue of equality and difference when applied to cultural taxonomy.

33. FORMS OF DIVERSITY: SOCIAL AND CULTURAL Cultural diversity means a range of different societies or people of different origins, religions, and traditions all living and interacting together. Social diversity refers to the gaps between people as measured by the presence or absence of certain socially desirable traits. Ideally this should be seen as a neutral term, but in reality, the specific bases of what makes humans diverse become the basis of their assessment with regards to rewards and social standing in society. The bases of diversity are culturally dictated such as skin color, language, and ethnicity.

34. They represent ways of life that are determined by their respective geographies, environments, and ecologies. The food that we eat, the words that we use to communicate, and even the lifestyle that defines our individual personalities are but manifestations of the richness of cultural influences.

35. Cultural diversity is not only a situation between and across nations as is usually the case. It can also be a stark demographic phenomenon in countries characterized by pan-nationalities such as on the one hand, Singapore(with predominantly Chinese, Indian, and Malay populations due to historical, political, and geographic factors), and USA, Canada, and UK (with predominantly immigrant populations) on the other.

36. C. POLITICAL SCIENCE Political Science is the systematic study of government and politics. It makes generalizations and analyses about political systems and political behavior and uses these results to predict future behavior (as in elections and similar processes where predicting behaviors are important). Political science includes the study of political philosophy, ethics, international relations, foreign policy, public administration, and the dynamic relations between different parts of governments.

37. As such, it deals extensively with the theory and practice of politics which is commonly thought of as the determining factor in the distribution of the power and resources. Political scientists “see themselves engaged in revealing the relationships underlying political events and conditions, and from these revelations they attempt to construct general principles about the way the world of politics works.”

38. In its most generic sense, political science assumes the asymmetrical power relations of members of society but problematizes the unjust and unfair effects of such relations manifested in matters related to governance. Power relations are forms of interaction mediated by the use and deployment of authority and political influence. They have different layers ranging from the personal to the group/organizational, to the institutional and governmental.

39. Political science is fascinated by the variety of their manifestations; hence, its goal is to document these manifestations and map the constellations of power relations within the different layers. Their political analysis is sharpened by the diverse issues and concerns debated within and across the layers.

40. THE SOCIAL AS A TOOL OF CHANGE The term social change is used to indicate the changes that take place in human interactions and interrelations. Social change may be defined as the alteration of mechanisms within the social structure, characterized by changes in cultural symbols, rules of behavior, social organizations, or value systems. Society is a web of social relationships and hence, social change means change in the system of social relationships.

41. This is understood in terms of social processes, social interactions, and social organizations. Their political analysis is sharpened by the diverse issues and concerns debated within and across the layers. Sociology is both the consequence and the cause of change given its historical development as a result of wide-ranging changes in Europe from the Renaissance and Industrial Revolution periods. Just as change sparked the development of sociology, so does sociological thought provoke more change.

42. This is not to say that all sociologists agree on exactly what changes are most desirable. It is also the case that some sociologists are more activist than others. But simply doing sociology is becoming involved in change. This observation is true because becoming aware of the structure of society--- a consciousness we call the sociological imagination (Mills,1959)--- is a powerful tool that allows us to ask not only “What is going on here? But also “Should things be as they are?” The moment we ask these questions, the political dimension of our engagement becomes imminent.

43. This means that we are already attempting to change the state of things in ways we see fit given our specific social locations. But such an attempt to alter the equation of interactions in relation to specific issues like labor, health care, environment, elections, and business strikes the power components to more than anything else. Social activism consists of the efforts to promote, inhibit, or (re)direct social, political, economic, or environmental issues with the desire to make improvements in society and correct social injustice.

44. Forms of social activism range from writing letters to newspapers, to political campaigning, to taking part in economic boycotts and preferential patronizing of businesses. One can also express social activism through different forms of art or by simply acknowledging privileges and oppressions on a daily basis. The nonviolence and often personal features of social activism make it a suitable substitute for other militant forms of activisms that promote cultural disenfranchisements and social disorder.

45. THE STORY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE: A CRIB VERSION Political science is the discipline that problematizes the nature of power and studies how possession and exercise of power can shape individual actions and collective decisions for that matter. The latter are, in essence, a form of “social agreement” because they have futuristic and lasting effects in people’s collective lives. In view of this, the discipline was traditionally believed to have emerged from the works of “social contract” theorists.

46. These social thinkers, in different degrees and sophistication, argued for the existence of the state in order to create a community of citizens free from the brutalities of the state of nature, where every man is enemy to each one. The contract requires the people to surrender, completely or in part, their rights to whoever (a persona) or whatever (an office) who or which in return exercises the same for the protection of everybody. The state emerged out of the contract.

47. Thus, the first political task that confronted political theorists was the establishment of a political community that would protect the collective good, which in this context was born out of that social contract. However, this is not the end of the task of political science. A second task became necessary due to the failure of the social contract, seen in failed states or in states in crisis. It is here where issues of legitimacy, reform, and resistance/revolution emerge. The focus is on how to keep each party fulfilling its side of the contract.

48. A third task became more evident during the period of modernity. This is due to the fact that in desire to establish order, that much focus was given on the political collective. The individual, which Aristotle considered as a “political animal,” disappeared as focus.

49. It is well-documented that the desire to establish a political community took its toll on individual rights. The third and final task of political science aimed at bringing back the individual to the political domain, focusing on what has been labeled as “identity politics” that celebrated the saying “the personal is also political.”