Chapter 2 Social Sciences Andthe Scientific Method

1. Chapter 2Chapter 2
Social Sciences and Social Sciences and
the Scientific Methodthe Scientific Method

2. Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives
Define scienceDefine science
Explain the scientific methodExplain the scientific method
Explain how social scientists develop and test Explain how social scientists develop and test
hypotheseshypotheses
Explain the classic research designExplain the classic research design
Describe some of the problems faced by Describe some of the problems faced by
researching in implementing the scientific researching in implementing the scientific
methodmethod
Describe the methods of social science research, Describe the methods of social science research,
including survey research, field researchincluding survey research, field research and and
using secondary source datausing secondary source data

3. Science and the Scientific MethodScience and the Scientific Method
ScienceScience
an organized body of knowledge or a discipline that employs an organized body of knowledge or a discipline that employs
the scientific methodthe scientific method
Scientific methodScientific method
a method of explanation that develops and tests theories a method of explanation that develops and tests theories
about how observable facts or events are relatedabout how observable facts or events are related
Explaining RelationshipsExplaining Relationships
The goal of the scientific method is explanation.The goal of the scientific method is explanation.
Hypothesis is a tentative statement about a relationship Hypothesis is a tentative statement about a relationship
between observable facts or eventsbetween observable facts or events
Significant means that it is not likely to have occurred by Significant means that it is not likely to have occurred by
chancechance

4. Science and the Scientific Method cont.Science and the Scientific Method cont.
Developing and testing hypothesesDeveloping and testing hypotheses
The scientific method seeks to develop statements about how The scientific method seeks to develop statements about how
events or behaviors might be related and then determines the events or behaviors might be related and then determines the
validity of these statements by careful, systematic, and logical validity of these statements by careful, systematic, and logical
teststests
Correlation is a significant statistical relationship but does not Correlation is a significant statistical relationship but does not
equal causationequal causation
Inference is a causal statement based on data showing a Inference is a causal statement based on data showing a
significant relationshipsignificant relationship
Dealing with Observable PhenomenaDealing with Observable Phenomena
The scientific method deals only with observable—empirical—The scientific method deals only with observable—empirical—
facts and events, e.g. what facts and events, e.g. what isis
Normative referring to values or norms, e.g. what Normative referring to values or norms, e.g. what should beshould be

5. Science and the Scientific Method cont.Science and the Scientific Method cont.
Developing TheoryDeveloping Theory
The scientific method strives to develop a systematic body of The scientific method strives to develop a systematic body of
theorytheory
Theories are explanations of facts or eventsTheories are explanations of facts or events
Maintaining a Scientific AttitudeMaintaining a Scientific Attitude
More than anything else, the scientific method is an attitude of More than anything else, the scientific method is an attitude of
doubt or skepticismdoubt or skepticism
Scientific attitude is the doubt or skepticism about theories until Scientific attitude is the doubt or skepticism about theories until
they have been scientifically testedthey have been scientifically tested

6. WHAT IS A “FACT”?
Universal statementUniversal statement
a statement that applies to every circumstancea statement that applies to every circumstance
Probabilistic statementProbabilistic statement
a statement that applies to some proportion of circumstancesa statement that applies to some proportion of circumstances

7. The Classic Scientific Research DesignThe Classic Scientific Research Design
Scientific research designScientific research design
involves the comparison of specific changes in two or more involves the comparison of specific changes in two or more
carefully selected groupscarefully selected groups
An experiment is a scientific test controlled by the researcher to An experiment is a scientific test controlled by the researcher to
observe effects of a specific program or treatmentobserve effects of a specific program or treatment
An experimental group is the group that will participate in the An experimental group is the group that will participate in the
program or undergo the treatment under studyprogram or undergo the treatment under study
A control group is a group, identical to the experimental group, A control group is a group, identical to the experimental group,
that does not undergo treatment and is used for comparisonthat does not undergo treatment and is used for comparison
A null hypothesis a statement that the program or treatment has A null hypothesis a statement that the program or treatment has
no effectno effect

8. Gathering Data: Survey ResearchGathering Data: Survey Research
Survey ResearchSurvey Research
Sample is a group of people chosen to represent the opinions of Sample is a group of people chosen to represent the opinions of
a larger groupa larger group
Universe is the whole group about which information is desiredUniverse is the whole group about which information is desired
Random sample is a sample in which each person in the universe Random sample is a sample in which each person in the universe
has an equal chance of being selected for interviewinghas an equal chance of being selected for interviewing
Sampling error is the range of responses in which a 95-percent Sampling error is the range of responses in which a 95-percent
chance exists that the sample reflects the universechance exists that the sample reflects the universe
Problems in Survey ResearchProblems in Survey Research
survey research problemssurvey research problems
unformed opinionsunformed opinions
weakly held opinionsweakly held opinions
changing opinionschanging opinions

9. Gathering Data: Survey Research cont.Gathering Data: Survey Research cont.
Assessing Public OpinionAssessing Public Opinion
 Public opinion is the aggregate of opinions of individuals on topics in Public opinion is the aggregate of opinions of individuals on topics in
survey researchsurvey research
 Salient issues are issues about which most people have formed Salient issues are issues about which most people have formed
strong and stable opinionsstrong and stable opinions
 Push polls are polls constructed to produce results favorable to Push polls are polls constructed to produce results favorable to
political candidates or the side of an argumentpolitical candidates or the side of an argument
 Halo effect the tendency of respondents to give “good citizen” Halo effect the tendency of respondents to give “good citizen”
responses to pollstersresponses to pollsters
Field ResearchField Research
 directly observing social behaviordirectly observing social behavior
 participant-observation researchers both observe and participate in participant-observation researchers both observe and participate in
the behavior being studiedthe behavior being studied
 Ethnography is a systematic description of a society’s customary Ethnography is a systematic description of a society’s customary
behaviors, beliefs, and attitudesbehaviors, beliefs, and attitudes
 A case study is an in-depth investigation of a particular event in order A case study is an in-depth investigation of a particular event in order
to understand it as fully as possibleto understand it as fully as possible

10. Gathering Data: Survey Research cont.Gathering Data: Survey Research cont.

SecondarySecondary Source DataSource Data
data used by social scientists that have been collected by other data used by social scientists that have been collected by other
organizations, government agencies, or researchersorganizations, government agencies, or researchers
Statistical Abstract of the United StatesStatistical Abstract of the United States