Chapter 3 - Uses of Theory - Week 2 Lecture.pptx

educational leadership

1. Uses of Theory S Chapter Three: Dr. Alexandria Proff Introduction to Applied Research Master of Education: Educational Leadership American University of Ras Al Khaimah

2. Learning Goals 1 2 3 Identify the seven steps in locating and using theories for incorporation into a proposal or a study. Identify the major distinctions between an inductive and deductive use of theory in a research study. Define variables , their measurement, and a causal model for inclusion in quantitative research. 4 Distinguish between the deductive approach , a theoretical standpoint , and an end point as ways to incorporate theories into qualitative research.

3. Distinguishing Theory from Worldview

4. Theories vs Worldviews Before we delve into theory, let’s differentiate theory and worldview. Theories and worldviews are not the same Worldview relates to beliefs and values of researcher and how these inform the study (Figure 3.6) Theories are less abstract, drawn from literature, and guide many research process aspects (e.g., methodological approaches to design, data collection methods)

5. Theories vs Worldviews Figure 3.6: The Four Levels for Developing a Research Study (Adapted from Crotty, 1998) We learned about this in Chapter 1 We’re learning about this today ! We will get here in Chapters 8 & 9

6. The Varied Uses of Theory in Research

7. Varied Use of Theory Provide an explanation or prediction about the relationship among variables in the study Quantitative Studies Used as a broad explanation, a theoretical lens, or as an endpoint. In some cases, theory may not be used at all. Qualitative Studies Mixed methods research as a framework to inform the design, data collection, analysis, and interpretation of qualitative and quantitative data. A social science, discipline-based framework Qualitative Studies

8. Varied Use of Theory Theory is a scientific prediction or explanation of what the Researcher expects to find Interrelated set of constructs or variables Hypothesis: predictive statement that is tested Theory emerges from testing hypotheses over and over Quantitative Studies Used for a broad explanation Used a theoretical lens or perspective – overall orienting lens for question of gender, class, and race Theory becomes the end point in an inductive approach (Figure 3.5) Do not employ any explicit theory Qualitative Studies

9. The Seven Steps in Using Theory 1 Identify the theory from literature search 2 Place the theory at the beginning of the article as an a priori framework 3 Name the theory to be used and describe how it informs the quantitative, qualitative or mixed methods study 4 Discuss studies using the theory 5 Diagram the theory 6 Theory provides framework for the study 7 Review theory’s role at end of study in findings and results, and compare to other studies

10. Variables in Quantitative Research

11. Also called covariates Variables that can affect the outcome These are not the focus of the study Can increase precision These are variables that are not measured May be able to explain the relationship between the IV and the DV Control Confounding The predictor The indicator and/ or the “treatment” The thing being manipulated in the study. The outcome The effect of the treatment The thing that happens as a result of the manipulation Independent Dependent First, we need to understand how different types of variables work Understanding Variables: Types of Variables

12. What is the effect of violent video game playing on fourth grade children's behaviors? Playing video games IV Playing video games is the predictor – or the treatment – and therefore, the independent variable . The dependent variable is the outcome of the Independent Variable:  4 th grade children’s behaviors . DV 4 th grade children’s behaviors Variables: Independent vs Dependent

13. How does Region X's anti-bullying law reduce bullying in school? Anti-bulling law IV Why is the anti-bullying law the independent variable ? How do you know that bullying in schools is the dependent variable?   DV Bullying in schools Variables: Independent vs Dependent

14. What is the relationship between tutoring and academic achievement in chemistry? Tutoring IV Tutoring is the treatment – or the predictor – and therefore, the independent variable . The dependent variable is the outcome:  chemistry achievement . DV Chemistry Achievement Variables: Independent vs Dependent

15. What is the relationship between tutoring and academic achievement in chemistry? Tutoring IV Remember : covariates may affect the outcome of the study (the DV) but are NOT the focus. DV Chemistry Achievement Covariates | Control Variables Student motivation Parental education level SES Gender Variables: Control Variables

16. What is the relationship between tutoring and academic achievement in chemistry? Tutoring IV Remember: confounding variables may explain the relationship between the IV and CV. DV Chemistry Achievement Control Student motivation Parental education level SES Gender Confounding Prior science achievement Variables: Independent vs Dependent

17. Tutoring and Chemistry Achievement Variables: Independent vs Dependent

18. Tutoring and Chemistry Achievement Tutoring, Chemistry Achievement, AND Prior Achievement Understanding Variables : Confounding

19. Also called the experimental hypothesis Predicts the relationship between IV and DV A testable prediction about the relationship between the IV and DV Alternative The heart of a quantitative study Clear and specific statement about study: " This is what will happen." Methods section: how prediction was tested Results section: results of experiment Overview Predicts NO relationship between the IV and DV Needed to provide skepticism in research and science Is included to demonstrate the burden of proof for causality Null Understanding Variables : Hypotheses

20. Is considered best practice in experimental (quantitative) studies States the predicted relationship in exact terms: “Increased one-on-one tutoring sessions improves chemistry achievement for 10 th grade public school students. Directional Only acceptable when there is NO theoretical and/or experimental basis for direction States the predicted relationship in non-exact terms: “One-on-one tutoring sessions is related to chemistry achievement for 10 th grade public school students.” Non-Directional Understanding Variables : Hypotheses

21. Establishing Causality The goal of quantitative research Time Order The Independent Variable must precede the Dependent Variable. 02 01 03 NO Rival Explanations To demonstrate causality, you must be able to demonstrate there are no other explanations plausible. Relationship There must be a relationship between the Independent Variable and the Dependent Variable. How might this become challenging for researchers?

22. No! Of course not... In this case, we have accounted for (1) relationship and (2) time order However, there is likely a rival explanation. Understanding Variables: Causal Relationships

23. Selecting & Defining Variables Lam, K. (Directors). (2011). Steps in planning and conducting research [Video]. Sage Research Methods. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483397153

24. Let’s Take a Cognitive Break 10 Minutes

25. Placement of Theory in Research Proposal

26. Placement of Theory: Quantitative How Theory is Frequently Used Towards the beginning of the study Used deductively (Figure 3.4) Framework for study Organizing model for Research questions or hypotheses Data collection procedure

27. Writing Theory: Quantitative Examine discipline specific literature (psychological, sociological, etc.) Examine prior studies on the topic and related topics Ask the question that bridges independent and the dependent variables Script out the theory section (Example 3.1 in the textbook) Name the theory Identify origin, source Identify topics where it is applied Identify propositions or hypotheses State independent variables State dependent variables Provide a rationale Script for the Theory Section

28. Placement of Theory: Qualitative How Theory is Frequently Used Used for a broad explanation Used a theoretical lens or perspective – overall orienting lens for question of gender, class, and race Theory becomes the end point in an inductive approach (Figure 3.5) Do not employ any explicit theory

29. Writing Theory: Qualitative Studies with cultural themes or theoretical lens In the opening passages Studies with an emerging design of qualitative inquiry At the beginning, may be modified Studies based on grounded theory Theory derived inductively Placed at the end Locating theory in Qualitative Research CONSIDERATIONS Decide if you will use a theory in your qualitative proposal If used, identify how theory will be used Locate theory early in the research proposal or at the end

30. Placement of Theory: Mixed-Methods DISCIPLINE-BASED THEORY USE: Placed at the beginning as an a priori framework to guides questions/hypothesis Named and described, used to inform the explanation of the major variables in the study Diagrammed to indicate the causal links Used to guide the data collection process Returned to at the end to inform findings and results Include theory deductively theory testing and validity as with quantitative studies Include theory inductively an emerging theory or pattern as with qualitative studies Use a discipline-based framework Mixed Methods Studies may

31. Review of Key Concepts

32. Distinctions between a theory and a worldview: Worldview relates to beliefs and values of the researcher and how they inform the study Theories are less abstract, drawn from the literature, and provide a guiding perspective Theory is used in Quantitative studies to provide an explanation or prediction about the relationship among variables in the study Qualitative research as a broad explanation, a theoretical lens, or as an endpoint; or theory may not be used at all Mixed methods research as a framework to inform the design, data collection, analysis, and interpretation of qualitative and quantitative data. The framework may be a social science framework or participatory-social justice framework. Summary

33. Let’s Go! Head over to Saqr Library for a Workshop on How to Databases

34. Who has the first question?

35. 01 02 Reading: Creswell & Creswell (2022) - Chapter Four: Writing Strategies and Ethical Considerations Reading for your own Literature Review: due 14 October Upcoming: Quiz 1 & Writing Workshop Quiz 1 will be held in class on 30 September . It will cover information from Chapter 1 and Chapter 2. Next week, we discuss Chapter 4 and begin Writer’s Workshop We will review your Research Proposal Template We will review the Submission Folder on Blackboard What’s Next: Drafting Your Findings

36. Writing and Ethics S Chapter Four: Dr. Alexandria Proff Introduction to Applied Research Master of Education: Educational Leadership American University of Ras Al Khaimah

37. Quiz 1 : 20 questions 25 minutes 25 Minutes

38. Learning Goals 1 2 3 Understand how to begin writing your literature review for your research proposal. Review the template for your literature review section as well as your entire research proposal . Conceptualize how to evaluate the quality of your writing for conciseness, coherence, and unnecessary words 4 Identify ethical issues and strategies for addressing them before conducting a study and during and after a study.

39. Recall: What is the Purpose of a Literature Review

40. The Literature Review The literature review accomplishes several purposes: It shares with the reader the results of other studies that are closely related to the one being undertaken. It relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in the literature, filling in gaps and extending prior studies (Cooper, 2010; Marshall & Rossman, 2022). It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study and a benchmark for comparing the results with other findings.

41. The Literature Review All or some of these reasons may be the foundation for writing the scholarly literature into a study: Studies need to add to the body of literature on a topic. Researchers shape literature sections in proposals from the larger problem to the narrower issue. This narrow issue, in turn, leads directly into the methods for studying the issue.

42. Topics Presented in Your Proposal

43. 03 02 04 01 05 This section sets the context and tone for the entire narrative. Here, describe how the results of the research will fill a gap in knowledge . 1-2 pages Here, the researcher should describe the problem of practice , identify the research focus , and the population affected 1 page This is where you theoretically ground and empirically contextualize your study. Start with 50 journal articles and relevant theory. 8–12 pages Specify what it is you want to learn about the problem. You should have 2-3 RQs and hypotheses. Describe how you are going collect the data needed to answer your question(s); 5-6 pages Describe in detail what you will do with the data to ensure it is analyzed accurately ; include validity and reliability, & limitations; discuss the ethical boundaries of the study 2-3 pages Background & Significance Problem Statement & Purpose Literature Review RQs, Hypotheses, & Methods Conclusion Parts of Your Proposal

44. Let’s Look at our Templates Please see the Writing Templates folder on Blackboard Learn

45. Exploring Writing Strategies

46. Writing Strategies General Strategies for Creating Space to Write Write ideas down early in the process rather than talking about them Work through several drafts of a proposal rather than trying to polish the first draft Start with an outline Write a draft and shift and sort ideas Finally, edit and polish each sentence Make writing a daily activity Keep a daily chart of activities if you do not feel you have time to write Write when fresh Avoid binges Write in small, regular amounts Share your writing with supportive, constructive peers before going public Make Writing a Habit

47. Writing Strategies: Concise Clarity Readability of the manuscript : Use consistent terms throughout the proposal Consider how different type of narrative thought guide the reader: Umbrella thoughts: general or core ideas Big thoughts in writing: specific ideas Little thoughts: reinforcing big thoughts Attention or interest thoughts: keep the reader on track, organize ideas Coherence in writing – ideas tie and logically flow

48. Writing Strategies: Cohesion Coherence in writing Coherence ties ideas together that logically flow from sentence to sentence and paragraph to paragraph Repetition of same variable names in title, purpose statement, and research questions Consistent order presenting independent and dependent variables Clear structure and organization Use active voice “If the subject acts, the voice is active. If the subject is acted on, the voice is passive” (Ross-Larson, 1982, p. 29) Pay close attention to the tense of your verbs Write, review, edit

49. Summary v. Synthesis: What's the difference?

50. Ethical Considerations to Remember

51. Ethical Considerations Research involves collecting data from people Researchers need to Protect research participants Develop trust with research participants Promote the integrity of research Guard against misconduct Cope with new problems that emerge

52. Ethical Considerations Prior to conducting the study Type of Ethical Issue How to Address the Issue Examine professional association standards. Seek college/university institutional review board (IRB) approval. Gain local permission from site and participants. Select a site for the study. Negotiate authorship for publication. Plan to keep the burden of research for participants to a minimum. Consult the code of ethics for professional associations in your field or discipline. Submit a proposal for IRB approval. Identify and seek local approvals; find gatekeepers or key personnel to help. Select a site where the researcher can be objective and not have a personal interest. Decide on author order for publication based on each author’s contribution. Use brief instruments, pilot-test user acceptability of data collection, collect data at convenient times, and provide compensation for participants’ time.

53. Ethical Considerations Beginning the study Type of Ethical Issue How to Address the Issue Identify a research problem that will benefit participants. Disclose purpose of the study. Do not pressure participants into signing consent forms. Respect norms and charters of indigenous societies. Be sensitive to vulnerable populations’ needs (e.g., children). Determine the needs of participants through a needs assessment or informal conversations. Contact participants and inform them of the general purpose of the study. Tell participants that they have a right not to sign the consent form. Contact indigenous leaders, and involve them in all phases of research. Obtain appropriate consent for vulnerable populations (e.g., parents as well as children).

54. Ethical Considerations Collecting Data Type of Ethical Issue How to Address the Issue Respect the site, and disrupt as little as possible. Make certain that all participants receive the same treatment. Recruit participants by collaborating with stakeholders and community partners. Avoid deceiving participants. Respect potential power imbalances and exploitation of participants (e.g., through interviewing, observing). Do not “use” participants by gathering data and leaving site. Avoid collecting information harmful to participants. Build trust, and discuss extent of anticipated disruption in gaining access with participants. Put into place wait-list provisions for treatment for participants in the control group. Recruit to support the representation of special populations and access to diverse national networks. Discuss purpose of the study and the use of the data. Avoid leading questions, withhold personal opinions, do not disclose sensitive information, and involve participants as collaborators. Provide rewards for participating. Stick to questions stated in an interview protocol.

55. Ethical Considerations Analyzing Data Type of Ethical Issue How to Address the Issue Avoid siding with participants. Avoid disclosing only positive results. Respect the privacy and anonymity of participants. Report multiple perspectives. Report contrary findings. Assign fictitious names or aliases, and develop composite profiles of participants.

56. Ethical Considerations Reporting, Sharing, and Storing Data Type of Ethical Issue How to Address the Issue Avoid falsifying authorship, evidence, data, findings, and conclusions. Do not plagiarize. Avoid disclosing information that would harm participants. Communicate in clear, straightforward, appropriate language. Share data with others. Keep raw data and other materials (e.g., details of procedures, instruments). Do not duplicate or piecemeal publications. Provide complete proof of compliance with ethical issues and lack of conflict of interest, if requested. State who owns the data from a study. Report honestly. See American Psychological Association (2020) guidelines for permissions needed to reprint or adapt work of others. Use composite stories to protect the identity of participants. Use biased-free language, and refrain from discriminatory language. Provide copies of reports to participants and stakeholders, and consider website distribution. Keep materials for five years. Refrain from using the same material for more than one publication. Disclose funders for research and those who profit from the research. Give credit for ownership to researchers, participants, and advisers.

57. Review of Key Concepts

58. Writing your proposal will take time Use the template(s) that have been provided to hep keep you organized Put words to paper – don’t just think them, write them Be thoughtful about ethical issues that may arise before, during, and after data collection Summary

59. 01 02 Reading: Creswell & Creswell (2022) - Chapter Five: Writing the Introduction Reading for your own Literature Review: due 14 October Upcoming: Literature Review Your Literature Review is due in two weeks on 14 October Review the templates on Blackboard Learn We will discuss the rubrics next week – ahead of your submission  For now, keep reading and focus on learning about your topic What’s Next

60. Let’s Connect – get out your laptops, devices, any other materials. I will spend the hour meeting each one of you to check on your progress. Creating Connections: Writer’s Workshop 45 minutes for discussion

61. Who has the first question?

62. The Introduction S Chapter Five: Dr. Alexandria Proff Introduction to Applied Research Master of Education: Educational Leadership American University of Ras Al Khaimah

63. Learning Goals 1 2 3 Construct a good abstract for a study with five key components. Describe reasons for an introduction’s role as a key feature of a study. Compare an introduction for a qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-methods study. 4 Describe the four components of a good introduction to a study.

64. Let’s Review Last Week’s Quiz

65. Most Missed Questions: 3 Which of the following is the main focus of constructivism? participant’s views of a situation determining proper research methods finding the truth cause and effect 4 Which of the following is not a characteristic of post-positivist research? Reductionism a set of logically related steps belief in multiple perspectives focus on objective meanings

66. The Introduction to a Study

67. Establish the problem leading to the study Review literature about the problem Identify deficiencies in the literature about the problem Targeting an audience and noting the significance Identifying the purpose of the proposed study Research Proposal Introduction

68. The Importance of the Introduction The introduction is the initial passage in a study or proposal Sets the stage for the project Creates reader interest in the topic Establishes the problem leads to the study Places the study within the larger literature Reaches out to a specific audience

69. The Importance of the Introduction The Introduction of your research proposal established the research problem. Remember, this is the problem or issue that leads to the need for a study. Sources Personal experience Debate in the literature Gaps that need to be addressed Policy debates

70. The Introduction: Let’s Look as a Worked Example

71. The Introduction: A Model The Deficiencies Model of an introduction builds on gaps in the literature Plan on writing about one paragraph per element This comes out to about 2 pages) State the research problem Review evidence from literature justifying the problem Indicate deficiencies in the evidence State the importance of the problem for audiences

72. The Introduction: A Model Tobacco use is a leading cause of cancer in American society (McGinnis & Foefe , 1993). Although smoking among adults has declined in recent years, it has actually increased for adolescents. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported that smoking among high school students had risen from 27.5 percent in 1991 to 34.8 percent in 1995 (USDHHS, 1996). Unless this trend is dramatically reversed, an estimated 5 million of our nation’s children will ultimately die a premature death (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1996). Exploring the Conceptions and Misconceptions of Teen Smoking in High Schools: A Multiple Case Analysis Component: The Topic & The Research Problem

73. The Introduction: Research Problem Research Problem Paragraph Aims You want to pique the reader’s interest Convey distinct research problem or issue Use the Narrative hook to engage (or hook) the reader into the study; these are asily understood by many readers Builds readers’ interest through reference to study participants or posing questions Clearly identify the issue(s) or problem(s) that lead to a need for the study Indicate why the problem is important by citing numerous references

74. The Research Problem: Tips for your Opening Paragraph Opening sentence should stimulate interest while conveying the issue Do not use quotations to avoid confusion Avoid idiomatic expressions Consider numeric information for impact Clearly identify the research problem Indicate why the problem is important using the existing literature Frames the problem in a manner consistent with the research approach Consider whether there is a single problem or multiple problems addressed The Introduction: Research Problem

75. The Introduction: A Model Previous research on adolescent tobacco use has focused on four primary topics. Several studies have examined the question of the initiation of smoking by young people, noting that tobacco use initiation begins as early as junior high school (e.g., Heishman et al., 1997). Other studies have focused on the prevention of smoking and tobacco use in schools. This research has led to numerous school-based prevention programs and interventions (e.g., Sussman, Dent, Burton, Stacy, & Flay, 1995). Fewer studies have examined “quit attempts” or cessation of smoking behaviors among adolescents, a distinct contrast to the extensive investigations into adult cessation attempts ( Heishman et al., 1997). Of interest, as well, to researchers studying adolescent tobacco use has been the social context and social influence of smoking ( Fearnow , Chassin , & Presson , 1998). For example, adolescent smoking may occur in work-related situations, at home where one or more parents or caretakers smoke, at teen social events, or at areas designated as “safe” smoking places near high schools ( McVea et al., in press). Exploring the Conceptions and Misconceptions of Teen Smoking in High Schools: A Multiple Case Analysis Component: Evidence from Literature Justifying Problem

76. The Introduction: Evidence Evidence from Literature Justifying Problem Not a complete literature review as in the full literature review (recall Chapter 2) The literature review in the introduction serves to Justify the importance of the problem Create distinctions between past studies and the proposed study Set the research problem within ongoing dialogue in the literature Summarize groups of studies not individual ones Use in-text referencing to remove the emphasis on any one study Studies addressing the problem: Review studies that use quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods approaches Use recent studies (last 10 years) and older studies that are of value Tips: Reviewing Literature in the Introduction

77. The Introduction: A Model Minimal research attention has been directed toward the social context of high schools as a site for examining adolescent tobacco use. During high school, students form peer groups which may contribute to adolescent smoking. Often peers become a strong social influence for behavior in general, and belonging to an athletic team, a music group, or the “grunge” crowd can impact thinking about smoking ( McVea et al., in press). Schools are also places where adolescents spend most of their day ( Fibkins , 1993) and are available research subjects. Schools provide a setting for teachers and administrators to be role models for abstaining from tobacco use and enforcing policies about tobacco use ( OHara et al., 1999). Existing studies of adolescent tobacco use are primarily quantitative with a focus on outcomes and transtheoretical models ( Pallonen , 1998). Qualitative investigations, however, provide detailed views of students in their own words, complex analyses of multiple perspectives, and specific school contexts of different high schools that shape student experiences with tobacco (Creswell, in press). Moreover, qualitative inquiry offers the opportunity to involve high school students as co-researchers, a data collection procedure that can enhance the validity of student views uncontaminated by adult perspectives. Exploring the Conceptions and Misconceptions of Teen Smoking in High Schools: A Multiple Case Analysis Component: Deficiencies in Evidence

78. The Introduction: Deficiencies Deficiencies in Evidence Deficiencies in past literature: After advancing the problem and reviewing the literature, identify the deficiencies Deficiencies in past literature may exist because: The topic has not been explored with a particular group, sample, or population The literature needs to be replicated with new people or sites The voice of underrepresented groups has not been heard in published literature When identifying deficiencies in past literature: Cite several deficiencies Identify specifically the deficiencies of the other studies Write about areas overlooked by past studies Discuss how proposed study will Remedy or address the deficiencies Provide a unique contribution Tips: Discussing Deficiencies

79. The Introduction: A Model By examining these multiple school contexts, using qualitative approaches and involving students as co-researchers, we can better understand the conceptions and misconceptions adolescents hold about tobacco use in high schools. With this understanding, researchers can better isolate variables and develop models about smoking behavior. Administrators and teachers can plan interventions to prevent or change attitudes toward smoking, and school officials can assist with smoking cessation or intervention programs. Exploring the Conceptions and Misconceptions of Teen Smoking in High Schools: A Multiple Case Analysis Component: Importance of Problem for Audiences

80. Significance of a study for audiences: Describe the significance of the study for select audiences Consider including: 3-4 reasons the study adds to the scholarly literature 3-4 reasons the study helps to improve practice 3-4 reasons the study will improve policy End with a statement of the purpose of the study The Introduction: Importance

81. Proposal Introductions Similar pattern for all approaches, with some slight differences Qualitative Quantitative Mixed Methods Problem calls for exploration May be shaped by a theoretical lens May be written from a personal, first-person, subjective point of view Problem calls for understanding what factors and variables influencing an outcome May advance a theory to test Incorporate substantial literature review May be written from an impersonal point of view Can use a quantitative or qualitative approach or a combination If one approach is emphasized or begins the study, then the introduction may follow that approach May reflect need to understand relationships and explore Problem may include the need for other methodologies

82. The Abstract

83. 03 02 04 01 05 Succinctly describe the problem of practice you have identified. What is the significance and importance of this study moving forward? What data do you need to address the problem of practice you have identified? Themes, statistical results, or mixed methods integrated findings that are likely Practical implications of the study Research problem Purpose of the study What data will be collected Results Implications Parts of Your Abstract

84. Review of Key Concepts

85. The introduction incorporates the research problem Four-part deficiencies model Research problem (narrative hook) Evidence from the literature justifying the problem Deficiencies in the evidence The importance of the problem for audiences Summary

86. 01 02 Reading: Creswell & Creswell (2022) - Chapter Six: The Purpose Statement Shehzad (2011): Outlining Purposes Reading for your own Literature Review: due 14 October Upcoming: Literature Review Your Literature Review is due in two weeks on 14 October Review the templates on Blackboard Learn Review the rubric on Blackboard Learn Keep reading and focus on learning about your topic What’s Next

87. Who has the first question?