Class 10 sciecne biology all chapters ppt.pdf
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Feb 25, 2025
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About This Presentation
Class 10 sciecne biology all chapters ppt
Slide Content
IFE PROCESSES
* Organisms show many properties such
as movement (growth-related or not).
* But visible movement is not a defining
characteristic of life because a plant
may not grow visibly and some animals
can breathe without visible movement.
Viruses do not show any molecular
movement in them until they infect
some cell.
bankofbiology.com
* Organisms show many properties such
as movement (growth-related or not).
* But visible movement is not a defining
characteristic of life because a plant
may not grow visibly and some animals
can breathe without visible movement.
Viruses do not show any molecular
movement in them until they infect
some cell.
bankofbiology.com
LIFE PROCESS
+ Living organisms are well-organised structures having tissues, cells, cell organelles etc.
* Due to the effects of the environment, living structures may be broken down and dead. So
they must be repaired.
* Since these structures are made up of molecules, they must always move molecules around.
bankofbiology.com
+ Living organisms are well-organised structures having tissues, cells, cell organelles etc.
* Due to the effects of the environment, living structures may be broken down and dead. So
they must be repaired.
* Since these structures are made up of molecules, they must always move molecules around.
bankofbiology.com
WHAT ARE LIFE PROCESSES?
+ Life processes are all the maintenance
processes to prevent damage and
break-down of body of an organism.
* E.g. nutrition, respiration, excretion,
growth etc.
+ For this, energy is needed from
outside. This energy source is called
food,
* Since life depends on carbon-based
molecules, most of the food sources
E Ed Die = are carbon-based.
bankofbiolo com
+ Life processes are all the maintenance
processes to prevent damage and
break-down of body of an organism.
* E.g. nutrition, respiration, excretion,
growth etc.
+ For this, energy is needed from
outside. This energy source is called
food,
* Since life depends on carbon-based
molecules, most of the food sources
E Ed Die = are carbon-based.
bankofbiolo com
WHAT ARE LIFE PROCESSES?
* Foods are broken down or built up in the body.
They are finally converted to a uniform source of
energy (for molecular movements) & molecules
for growth and development.
* Oxidising-reducing reactions are some of the
most common chemical means to break-down
molecules. For this, many organisms use oxygen.
* In cells, various chemical reactions create useless
and harmful by-products. The removal of such
products from the body is called excretion.
bankofbiology.com
* Foods are broken down or built up in the body.
They are finally converted to a uniform source of
energy (for molecular movements) & molecules
for growth and development.
* Oxidising-reducing reactions are some of the
most common chemical means to break-down
molecules. For this, many organisms use oxygen.
* In cells, various chemical reactions create useless
and harmful by-products. The removal of such
products from the body is called excretion.
bankofbiology.com
RE LIFE PROCESSES
* In unicellular organisms, the entire surface is in
contact with the environment. So, no specific
organs are needed for food intake, gas
exchange or removal of wastes.
* In multicellular organisms, all cells are not in
contact with the environment. So, simple
diffusion will not meet the requirements of all
the cells. That’s why they have specialised body
parts to perform various functions.
+ A transportation system is needed to carry
food & oxygen to all body parts and waste
products from tissues to excretory system.
* In unicellular organisms, the entire surface is in
contact with the environment. So, no specific
organs are needed for food intake, gas
exchange or removal of wastes.
* In multicellular organisms, all cells are not in
contact with the environment. So, simple
diffusion will not meet the requirements of all
the cells. That’s why they have specialised body
parts to perform various functions.
+ A transportation system is needed to carry
food & oxygen to all body parts and waste
products from tissues to excretory system.
NUTRITION
* It is the process of transfer of energy source (food) from outside the body to the inside.
* It is needed for body growth, development and synthesis of protein and other substances.
* Even though we are inactive, energy is needed to maintain a state of order in body.
* General requirement for energy & materials is common in all organisms, but it is fulfilled in
different ways.
* It is the process of transfer of energy source (food) from outside the body to the inside.
* It is needed for body growth, development and synthesis of protein and other substances.
* Even though we are inactive, energy is needed to maintain a state of order in body.
* General requirement for energy & materials is common in all organisms, but it is fulfilled in
different ways.
NUTRITION
Carbon
Dioxide
* Some organisms use simple food material obtained from inorganic sources such as CO, and
water. They are called autotrophs. E.g. green plants and some bacteria.
* Some organisms directly or indirectly depend on autotrophs for nutrition. They are called
heterotrophs, E.g. animals and fungi. They utilise complex substances which are broken
down into simpler ones with the help of biocatalysts called enzymes.
Carbon
Dioxide
* Some organisms use simple food material obtained from inorganic sources such as CO, and
water. They are called autotrophs. E.g. green plants and some bacteria.
* Some organisms directly or indirectly depend on autotrophs for nutrition. They are called
heterotrophs, E.g. animals and fungi. They utilise complex substances which are broken
down into simpler ones with the help of biocatalysts called enzymes.
RITION Autotrophic Nutrition
* Itis a process where an organism prepares its own food from simple inorganic materials.
* Photosynthesis: It is the process by which CO, & water is converted into carbohydrates in
presence of sunlight & chlorophyll. It occurs in autotrophs like green plants.
e
Chlorophyll
Sunlight 6CO, + 12 H,0 — C,H,,0, + 60, + 6H,0
flans “r ken Sunlight Glucose
Carbon GE Glucose
Dioxide + » » ad
* Carbohydrates provide energy to the plant.
* The carbohydrates which are not used
immediately are stored as starch. It serves as the
internal energy reserve. In our body, energy
derived from food is stored as glycogen.
bankofbiology.com
* Itis a process where an organism prepares its own food from simple inorganic materials.
* Photosynthesis: It is the process by which CO, & water is converted into carbohydrates in
presence of sunlight & chlorophyll. It occurs in autotrophs like green plants.
e
Chlorophyll
Sunlight 6CO, + 12 H,0 — C,H,,0, + 60, + 6H,0
flans “r ken Sunlight Glucose
Carbon GE Glucose
Dioxide + » » ad
* Carbohydrates provide energy to the plant.
* The carbohydrates which are not used
immediately are stored as starch. It serves as the
internal energy reserve. In our body, energy
derived from food is stored as glycogen.
bankofbiology.com
Autotrophic Nutrition
* Cross-section of a leaf under the microscope shows that
some cells contain green dots. They are cell organelles called
chloroplasts. lt contains chlorophyll.
Cross-section of a leaf
bankofbiology.com
* Cross-section of a leaf under the microscope shows that
some cells contain green dots. They are cell organelles called
chloroplasts. lt contains chlorophyll.
Cross-section of a leaf
bankofbiology.com
RITION Autotrophic Nutrition
Events in photosynthesis
1. Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
2. Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting
of water molecules into hydrogen & oxygen.
3. Reduction of CO, to carbohydrates,
* These steps need not occur in sequence immediately.
+ E.g. desert plants take up CO, at night and prepare an
intermediate. It is acted upon by the energy absorbed by
chlorophyll during the day.
bankofbiology.com
Events in photosynthesis
1. Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
2. Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting
of water molecules into hydrogen & oxygen.
3. Reduction of CO, to carbohydrates,
* These steps need not occur in sequence immediately.
+ E.g. desert plants take up CO, at night and prepare an
intermediate. It is acted upon by the energy absorbed by
chlorophyll during the day.
bankofbiology.com
* Take a potted plant with variegated leaves (e.g. money plant or crotons).
Keep it in a dark room for 3 days to use up all the starch (destarch).
Keep the plant in sunlight for about 6 hours.
Pluck a leaf and mark the green areas in it and trace them on a paper.
Dip the leaf in boiling water for a few minutes.
Then immerse it in alcohol in a beaker. Place the beaker in a water-bath and
heat to boil the alcohol. The leaf becomes colouriess. Chlorophyll is dissolved
in alcohol and the alcohol turns green.
Dip the leaf in a dilute iodine solution for a few minutes.
Variegated leaf: * The green areas of leaf turn dark blue. It indicates the presence of starch.
(a) before starch test Colourless part of leaf shows no formation of starch.
(b) after starch test
bankofbiology.com
Keep it in a dark room for 3 days to use up all the starch (destarch).
Keep the plant in sunlight for about 6 hours.
Pluck a leaf and mark the green areas in it and trace them on a paper.
Dip the leaf in boiling water for a few minutes.
Then immerse it in alcohol in a beaker. Place the beaker in a water-bath and
heat to boil the alcohol. The leaf becomes colouriess. Chlorophyll is dissolved
in alcohol and the alcohol turns green.
Dip the leaf in a dilute iodine solution for a few minutes.
Variegated leaf: * The green areas of leaf turn dark blue. It indicates the presence of starch.
(a) before starch test Colourless part of leaf shows no formation of starch.
(b) after starch test
bankofbiology.com
RITION Autotrophic Nutrition
Guard cells
à Open stomatal pore Closed stomatal pore
* Gaseous xchange occurs in the leaves through stomata for photosynthesis. It also occurs
across the surface of stems, roots and leaves.
* During this, much water is also lost through stomata. So the plant closes stomata when it
does not need CO,.
* The opening and closing of stomatal pore is regulated by guard cells. When water flows into
guard cells, they swell and the pore opens. If the guard cells shrink, the pore closes.
bankofbiology.com
Guard cells
à Open stomatal pore Closed stomatal pore
* Gaseous xchange occurs in the leaves through stomata for photosynthesis. It also occurs
across the surface of stems, roots and leaves.
* During this, much water is also lost through stomata. So the plant closes stomata when it
does not need CO,.
* The opening and closing of stomatal pore is regulated by guard cells. When water flows into
guard cells, they swell and the pore opens. If the guard cells shrink, the pore closes.
bankofbiology.com
UTRITION Autotrophic Nutrition
Experiment to show that CO, is essential for photosynthesis
* Take 2 healthy potted plants having same size.
* Keep them in a dark room for 3 days.
* Now place each plant on separate glass plates. In
one, place a watch-glass containing potassium
hydroxide (KOH). KOH is used to absorb CO,.
+ Cover both plants with separate bell-jars.
+ Using Vaseline, seal the bottom of the jars to the
glass plates to make it air-tight.
+ Keep the plants in sunlight for about two hours.
* Test the leaves from both plants using iodine.
(a) with KOH (b) without KOH + Leaf of plant kept without KOH turn blue. It
indicates presence of starch.
+ Plant with KOH does not turn blue.
bankofbiology.com
Bell jar
Watch-glass
hydroxide
Experiment to show that CO, is essential for photosynthesis
* Take 2 healthy potted plants having same size.
* Keep them in a dark room for 3 days.
* Now place each plant on separate glass plates. In
one, place a watch-glass containing potassium
hydroxide (KOH). KOH is used to absorb CO,.
+ Cover both plants with separate bell-jars.
+ Using Vaseline, seal the bottom of the jars to the
glass plates to make it air-tight.
+ Keep the plants in sunlight for about two hours.
* Test the leaves from both plants using iodine.
(a) with KOH (b) without KOH + Leaf of plant kept without KOH turn blue. It
indicates presence of starch.
+ Plant with KOH does not turn blue.
bankofbiology.com
Bell jar
Watch-glass
hydroxide
Autotrophic Nutrition
ent to show that sunlight is essential for photosynthesis
* Keep a plant in dark room for 3 days to
amena destarch leaves.
* Cover a leaf partially with a black paper.
* Expose the plant to sunlight for 3-4 hours.
* Remove chlorophyll from the leaf and
perform a starch test with iodine.
* Covered leaf part shows brown colour.
* Exposed leaf turns dark blue due to the
presence of starch.
bankofbiology.com
ent to show that sunlight is essential for photosynthesis
* Keep a plant in dark room for 3 days to
amena destarch leaves.
* Cover a leaf partially with a black paper.
* Expose the plant to sunlight for 3-4 hours.
* Remove chlorophyll from the leaf and
perform a starch test with iodine.
* Covered leaf part shows brown colour.
* Exposed leaf turns dark blue due to the
presence of starch.
bankofbiology.com
RITION Autotrophic Nutrition
Sunlight 3 * Autotrophs also need other raw
MANS o Da materials such as water and minerals
o Y like N, P, Fe and Mg. They are taken
Carbon 8 ‘ up from the soil.
Dioxide -
. * Nitrogen is an essential element for
a protein synthesis. It is absorbed as
| inorganic nitrates or nitrites. Or it is
taken up as organic compounds
prepared by bacteria from
atmospheric nitrogen.
bankofbiology.com
Sunlight 3 * Autotrophs also need other raw
MANS o Da materials such as water and minerals
o Y like N, P, Fe and Mg. They are taken
Carbon 8 ‘ up from the soil.
Dioxide -
. * Nitrogen is an essential element for
a protein synthesis. It is absorbed as
| inorganic nitrates or nitrites. Or it is
taken up as organic compounds
prepared by bacteria from
atmospheric nitrogen.
bankofbiology.com
+ It is the nutrition in which an organism depends on other living organisms for food.
* Organisms take and use food by various ways. E.g.
» Some organisms break down food outside the body and absorb it. E.g. fungi like bread
moulds, yeast and mushrooms.
+ Some take in food and break down inside the body. E.g. Animals.
+ Some organisms take food from organisms without killing them (parasitism). E.g.,
Cuscuta (amar-bel), ticks, lice, leeches and tape-worms.
bankofbiology.com
* Organisms take and use food by various ways. E.g.
» Some organisms break down food outside the body and absorb it. E.g. fungi like bread
moulds, yeast and mushrooms.
+ Some take in food and break down inside the body. E.g. Animals.
+ Some organisms take food from organisms without killing them (parasitism). E.g.,
Cuscuta (amar-bel), ticks, lice, leeches and tape-worms.
bankofbiology.com
N ITION Heterotrophic Nutrition
* Unicellular organisms take food by their entire surface.
+ As the complexity increases, specialized parts are formed to perform different functions. E.g.
Nucleus
¿Food particle
Ep
5 m Anterior contractile
Food vacuole te fh
+ Amoeba captures food using temporary
finger-like extensions (Pseudopodia) of the
cell surface. They fuse over the food particle
forming a food-vacuole. In this, food breaks
down into simpler ones and diffuse into
Food vecuse CYtoplasm. The undigested material is moved
to cell surface and thrown out.
by the movement of cilia (hair-like structure
covering the cell).
fey particle Micronudloue | I
Macronucieus — +— Guitar * Paramoecium takes food in at a specific spot
eontractilo Cytoproct
Nutrition in Amoeba Mé Paramoecium
bankofbiology.com
* Unicellular organisms take food by their entire surface.
+ As the complexity increases, specialized parts are formed to perform different functions. E.g.
Nucleus
¿Food particle
Ep
5 m Anterior contractile
Food vacuole te fh
+ Amoeba captures food using temporary
finger-like extensions (Pseudopodia) of the
cell surface. They fuse over the food particle
forming a food-vacuole. In this, food breaks
down into simpler ones and diffuse into
Food vecuse CYtoplasm. The undigested material is moved
to cell surface and thrown out.
by the movement of cilia (hair-like structure
covering the cell).
fey particle Micronudloue | I
Macronucieus — +— Guitar * Paramoecium takes food in at a specific spot
eontractilo Cytoproct
Nutrition in Amoeba Mé Paramoecium
bankofbiology.com
TRITION Nutrition in Human Beings
* Human alimentary canal is a long tube
extending from the mouth to the anus.
4
Mouth (Buccal can
Tongue nh ay)
Oesophagus
Diaphiragm
Stomach,
Laver DI ‚Small
intestine
Large intestine
{Colon}
Anus
bankofbiology.com
* Human alimentary canal is a long tube
extending from the mouth to the anus.
4
Mouth (Buccal can
Tongue nh ay)
Oesophagus
Diaphiragm
Stomach,
Laver DI ‚Small
intestine
Large intestine
{Colon}
Anus
bankofbiology.com
RITION Human Beings
Food Digestion
Pry.
+ Itis the breakdown
of complex food
with the help of
enzymes into
smaller absorbable
molecules.
Submandibudar gland
+ In mouth, food is chewed with the help of teeth and muscular tongue and it is mixed with saliva
secreted by salivary glands.
* Teeth are used to crush the food into small particles.
* Saliva contains salivary amylase enzyme that breaks down starch to simple sugar.
bankofbiology.com
Food Digestion
Pry.
+ Itis the breakdown
of complex food
with the help of
enzymes into
smaller absorbable
molecules.
Submandibudar gland
+ In mouth, food is chewed with the help of teeth and muscular tongue and it is mixed with saliva
secreted by salivary glands.
* Teeth are used to crush the food into small particles.
* Saliva contains salivary amylase enzyme that breaks down starch to simple sugar.
bankofbiology.com
‘Starch solution -—
with saliva
(No blue colour)
a
Testtube A Test tube B
Experiment to show the action of Saliva
> Take 1 mL starch solution (1%) in test tubes A & B.
» Add 1 ml saliva to test tube A and leave both test
tubes undisturbed for 20-30 minutes. Now add a
few drops of dilute iodine solution to the test
ie inl pe tubes
(Blue colour) > In test tube B, blue colour develops. It indicates
presence of starch, In test tube A, no colour
change occurs because starch is digested by
salivary amylase.
bankofbiology.com
with saliva
(No blue colour)
a
Testtube A Test tube B
Experiment to show the action of Saliva
> Take 1 mL starch solution (1%) in test tubes A & B.
» Add 1 ml saliva to test tube A and leave both test
tubes undisturbed for 20-30 minutes. Now add a
few drops of dilute iodine solution to the test
ie inl pe tubes
(Blue colour) > In test tube B, blue colour develops. It indicates
presence of starch, In test tube A, no colour
change occurs because starch is digested by
salivary amylase.
bankofbiology.com
* The lining of alimentary canal is soft for smooth
passage of food.
+ The muscles in the lining, contract rhythmically to
push the food forward. It is called peristalsis. It
helps to process the food properly in each part.
* From the mouth, food is moved through
FO oesophagus (food-pipe) and reaches stomach.
nd E Fi * Stomach is a large organ which expands when
> food enters it. Its muscular walls help in mixing the
food thoroughly with digestive juices.
bankofbiology.com
Peristalsis
passage of food.
+ The muscles in the lining, contract rhythmically to
push the food forward. It is called peristalsis. It
helps to process the food properly in each part.
* From the mouth, food is moved through
FO oesophagus (food-pipe) and reaches stomach.
nd E Fi * Stomach is a large organ which expands when
> food enters it. Its muscular walls help in mixing the
food thoroughly with digestive juices.
bankofbiology.com
Peristalsis
Food Digestion
* Stomach wall contains gastric glands. They release hydrochloric acid, pepsin (a protein digesting
enzyme) and mucus.
* HCI creates an acidic medium which facilitates the action of pepsin. it also helps to destroy
harmful bacteria.
A Gastric glands * The mucus protects the
— à inner lining of the
ens Ml = stomach from the
action of the acid.
+ Sometimes HCl acts on
the wall causing a
burning sensation. This
is called acidity.
bankofbiology.com
* Stomach wall contains gastric glands. They release hydrochloric acid, pepsin (a protein digesting
enzyme) and mucus.
* HCI creates an acidic medium which facilitates the action of pepsin. it also helps to destroy
harmful bacteria.
A Gastric glands * The mucus protects the
— à inner lining of the
ens Ml = stomach from the
action of the acid.
+ Sometimes HCl acts on
the wall causing a
burning sensation. This
is called acidity.
bankofbiology.com
RITION Nutrition in Human Beings
Food Digestion
+ Asphincter muscle regulates the exit of food in small amounts from stomach into small intestine.
+ Small intestine is the longest and highly coiled part of alimentary canal.
LARGE INTESTINE
In animals, length of the small
intestine differs based on the food
they eat. E.g.
We ye + Herbivores need a longer small
joint intestine for cellulose digestion.
cele > Meat is easier to digest. So
an" carnivores have a shorter small
tect intestine.
anus
bankofbiology.com
Food Digestion
+ Asphincter muscle regulates the exit of food in small amounts from stomach into small intestine.
+ Small intestine is the longest and highly coiled part of alimentary canal.
LARGE INTESTINE
In animals, length of the small
intestine differs based on the food
they eat. E.g.
We ye + Herbivores need a longer small
joint intestine for cellulose digestion.
cele > Meat is easier to digest. So
an" carnivores have a shorter small
tect intestine.
anus
bankofbiology.com
RITION Human Beings
Food Digestion
+ Small intestine is the site of the complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins & fats. It receives
the secretions of liver & pancreas.
LARGE INTESTINE
Liver secretes bile juice. It
transverse.
pan » + Emulsifies fat. It is the
breakdown of large fat globules
d a as into the smaller globules with
+ EE
peel se the help of bile salts. It increases
isos a Bu the efficiency of enzyme action.
Y colon Pancreas This is similar to emulsifying
appendix —”\ ke cé sigmoid \ action of soaps on dirt.
— > Makes the acidic food (from
-———— rectum
| as stomach) alkaline.
bankofbiology.com
Food Digestion
+ Small intestine is the site of the complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins & fats. It receives
the secretions of liver & pancreas.
LARGE INTESTINE
Liver secretes bile juice. It
transverse.
pan » + Emulsifies fat. It is the
breakdown of large fat globules
d a as into the smaller globules with
+ EE
peel se the help of bile salts. It increases
isos a Bu the efficiency of enzyme action.
Y colon Pancreas This is similar to emulsifying
appendix —”\ ke cé sigmoid \ action of soaps on dirt.
— > Makes the acidic food (from
-———— rectum
| as stomach) alkaline.
bankofbiology.com
TRITION Nutrition in Human Beings
Food Digestion
* Pancreas secretes pancreatic juice. It contains enzymes
like trypsin (to digest proteins) and lipase (to digest
emulsified fats).
* Glands in the walls of small intestine secrete intestinal
juice which contains enzymes. They finally convert
o Proteins > amino acids.
o Complex carbohydrates > glucose.
o Fats > fatty acids & glycerol.
* Digested food is taken up by the walls of the intestine.
bankofbiology.com
Food Digestion
* Pancreas secretes pancreatic juice. It contains enzymes
like trypsin (to digest proteins) and lipase (to digest
emulsified fats).
* Glands in the walls of small intestine secrete intestinal
juice which contains enzymes. They finally convert
o Proteins > amino acids.
o Complex carbohydrates > glucose.
o Fats > fatty acids & glycerol.
* Digested food is taken up by the walls of the intestine.
bankofbiology.com
RITION
+ Inner lining of the small LARGE INTESTINE
5 a 2 Pr transverse ——
intestine has many finger-like colon
projections called villi, They
increase the surface area for
absorption. o
* Villi contain blood vessels ceecum E
which take the absorbed food hi
appendix __* Ÿ
to all cells. In cells, it is utilised
to obtain energy, build up new
tissues and repair old tissues.
* The unabsorbed food is moved to the large intestine where its wall absorbs more water from
this material.
* Remaining waste material is removed from the body via anus. This removal is regulated by anal
sphincter.
bankofbiology.com
+ Inner lining of the small LARGE INTESTINE
5 a 2 Pr transverse ——
intestine has many finger-like colon
projections called villi, They
increase the surface area for
absorption. o
* Villi contain blood vessels ceecum E
which take the absorbed food hi
appendix __* Ÿ
to all cells. In cells, it is utilised
to obtain energy, build up new
tissues and repair old tissues.
* The unabsorbed food is moved to the large intestine where its wall absorbs more water from
this material.
* Remaining waste material is removed from the body via anus. This removal is regulated by anal
sphincter.
bankofbiology.com
TRITION Nutrition in Human Beings
Food Digestion
* Pancreas secretes pancreatic juice. It contains enzymes
like trypsin (to digest proteins) and lipase (to digest
emulsified fats).
* Glands in the walls of small intestine secrete intestinal
juice which contains enzymes. They finally convert
o Proteins > amino acids.
o Complex carbohydrates > glucose.
o Fats > fatty acids & glycerol.
* Digested food is taken up by the walls of the intestine.
bankofbiology.com
Food Digestion
* Pancreas secretes pancreatic juice. It contains enzymes
like trypsin (to digest proteins) and lipase (to digest
emulsified fats).
* Glands in the walls of small intestine secrete intestinal
juice which contains enzymes. They finally convert
o Proteins > amino acids.
o Complex carbohydrates > glucose.
o Fats > fatty acids & glycerol.
* Digested food is taken up by the walls of the intestine.
bankofbiology.com
RITION
+ Inner lining of the small LARGE INTESTINE
5 a 2 Pr transverse ——
intestine has many finger-like colon
projections called villi, They
increase the surface area for
absorption. o
* Villi contain blood vessels ceecum E
which take the absorbed food hi
appendix __* Ÿ
to all cells. In cells, it is utilised
to obtain energy, build up new
tissues and repair old tissues.
* The unabsorbed food is moved to the large intestine where its wall absorbs more water from
this material.
* Remaining waste material is removed from the body via anus. This removal is regulated by anal
sphincter.
bankofbiology.com
+ Inner lining of the small LARGE INTESTINE
5 a 2 Pr transverse ——
intestine has many finger-like colon
projections called villi, They
increase the surface area for
absorption. o
* Villi contain blood vessels ceecum E
which take the absorbed food hi
appendix __* Ÿ
to all cells. In cells, it is utilised
to obtain energy, build up new
tissues and repair old tissues.
* The unabsorbed food is moved to the large intestine where its wall absorbs more water from
this material.
* Remaining waste material is removed from the body via anus. This removal is regulated by anal
sphincter.
bankofbiology.com
RITION Nutrition in Human Beings
E Healthy Tooth decay Cavity
tooth (Caries) (Deep caries)
* It is the gradual softening & demineralisation of enamel & dentine due to the production of
acids by bacteria. They convert sugary foods to acids.
* Bacteria invade the pulp causing inflammation & infection.
+ Masses of bacterial cells together with food particles stick to the teeth to form dental plaque. It
prevents saliva reaching the tooth surface to neutralise acid.
* Brushing the teeth after eating can remove plaque.
bankofbiology.com
E Healthy Tooth decay Cavity
tooth (Caries) (Deep caries)
* It is the gradual softening & demineralisation of enamel & dentine due to the production of
acids by bacteria. They convert sugary foods to acids.
* Bacteria invade the pulp causing inflammation & infection.
+ Masses of bacterial cells together with food particles stick to the teeth to form dental plaque. It
prevents saliva reaching the tooth surface to neutralise acid.
* Brushing the teeth after eating can remove plaque.
bankofbiology.com
Oxygen $ co,
A
Organic
matter
* It is the oxidation of the food material in cells to
release energy for various life processes.
* Some organisms use oxygen to breakdown glucose into
CO, and water. Some do not use oxygen
A
Organic
matter
* It is the oxidation of the food material in cells to
release energy for various life processes.
* Some organisms use oxygen to breakdown glucose into
CO, and water. Some do not use oxygen
(a) Air being passed
into lime water with
a syringe.
(b) air being exhaled
into lime water.
— Tube
* Take some freshly prepared lime water
in 2 test tubes.
* In one, blow air through lime water. It
immediately turns lime water milky.
+ In other test tube, pass air using a
syringe or pichkari. It takes much time
to turn the lime water milky.
* It shows that the breath-out air
contains more CO, as compared to
atmospheric air.
into lime water with
a syringe.
(b) air being exhaled
into lime water.
— Tube
* Take some freshly prepared lime water
in 2 test tubes.
* In one, blow air through lime water. It
immediately turns lime water milky.
+ In other test tube, pass air using a
syringe or pichkari. It takes much time
to turn the lime water milky.
* It shows that the breath-out air
contains more CO, as compared to
atmospheric air.
RESPIRATION
+ Add some yeast to fruit juice or sugar
Cork Delivery tube Solution. Take this mixture in a test tube fitted
with a one-holed cork.
+ Fit the cork with a bent glass tube. Dip its free
end into a test tube containing freshly
prepared lime water.
* Air taken out through the tube makes lime
water milky. It is due to the production of CO,
in the mixture of yeast & sugar solution. Here,
Yeast fermentation occurs.
Test tube
co.
2
Fruit juice/
sugar solution Lime water
bankofbiolo
+ Add some yeast to fruit juice or sugar
Cork Delivery tube Solution. Take this mixture in a test tube fitted
with a one-holed cork.
+ Fit the cork with a bent glass tube. Dip its free
end into a test tube containing freshly
prepared lime water.
* Air taken out through the tube makes lime
water milky. It is due to the production of CO,
in the mixture of yeast & sugar solution. Here,
Yeast fermentation occurs.
Test tube
co.
2
Fruit juice/
sugar solution Lime water
bankofbiolo
RESPIRATION |
Ethanol + CO,+ Energ| * IN all types of respiration, the first step is the
nm breakdown of glucose (6-carbon) into pyruvate
(3-carbon). It takes place in cytoplasm.
No oxygen
in yeas
In cytoplasm
Glucose ——> Pyruvate
(6-carbon (carbon
molecule} molecule)
+
Energy
No oxygen
fin muscle
cells)
Lactic acid + Energy
(3-carbon)
Anaerobic respiration
CO,+ Water + Energy | It is the respiration in the absence of air (oxygen).
ini It releases less energy. E.g.
Fra Boım of glucose hy various patty: + In yeast, the pyruvate is converted into
O 3 ethanol & CO). It occurs during fermentation.
So > Sometimes, when there is no oxygen in our
muscle cells, the pyruvate breaks down into
lactic acid (3-carbon). This build-up of lactic
acid in muscles during sudden activity causes
cramps.
bankofbiology.com
Oxygen
Ethanol + CO,+ Energ| * IN all types of respiration, the first step is the
nm breakdown of glucose (6-carbon) into pyruvate
(3-carbon). It takes place in cytoplasm.
No oxygen
in yeas
In cytoplasm
Glucose ——> Pyruvate
(6-carbon (carbon
molecule} molecule)
+
Energy
No oxygen
fin muscle
cells)
Lactic acid + Energy
(3-carbon)
Anaerobic respiration
CO,+ Water + Energy | It is the respiration in the absence of air (oxygen).
ini It releases less energy. E.g.
Fra Boım of glucose hy various patty: + In yeast, the pyruvate is converted into
O 3 ethanol & CO). It occurs during fermentation.
So > Sometimes, when there is no oxygen in our
muscle cells, the pyruvate breaks down into
lactic acid (3-carbon). This build-up of lactic
acid in muscles during sudden activity causes
cramps.
bankofbiology.com
Oxygen
No oxygen
in yeas
In cytoplasm sis Bhagat
Glucose ——> Pyruvate
16-carbon (&-carbon \ Un muscle
molecule) molecule) cel
+
Energy Oxygen
Ethanol + CO, + Energy
(2-carbon)
Lactic acid + Energy
(3-carbon)
CO,+ Water + Energy
din mitochondria)
Break-down of glucose by various pathways
bankofb
Aerobic respiration
* It is the respiration in presence of air (oxygen).
* It releases much energy.
* Here, pyruvate breaks down using oxygen in the
mitochondria giving three CO, molecules &
water,
Oxygen _cO,
y
A N A Energy
Organic
in yeas
In cytoplasm sis Bhagat
Glucose ——> Pyruvate
16-carbon (&-carbon \ Un muscle
molecule) molecule) cel
+
Energy Oxygen
Ethanol + CO, + Energy
(2-carbon)
Lactic acid + Energy
(3-carbon)
CO,+ Water + Energy
din mitochondria)
Break-down of glucose by various pathways
bankofb
Aerobic respiration
* It is the respiration in presence of air (oxygen).
* It releases much energy.
* Here, pyruvate breaks down using oxygen in the
mitochondria giving three CO, molecules &
water,
Oxygen _cO,
y
A N A Energy
Organic
RESPIRATION |
+ Energy released during cellular respiration is used
| A immediately to synthesise ATP molecules (energy
lo + currency) from ADP & inorganic phosphate [®].
ATP is used to fuel all other cellular activities. When
the terminal phosphate linkage in ATP is broken
using water, energy (30.5 kJ/mol) is released. It
drives the endothermic reactions in cell.
A battery is used to obtain mechanical energy, light
energy, electrical energy etc. Similarly, ATP can be
used for muscle contraction, protein synthesis,
conduction of nervous impulses etc.
bankofbiology.co
| CO, + H20
|
Glucose + 0, I E > (a
+ Energy released during cellular respiration is used
| A immediately to synthesise ATP molecules (energy
lo + currency) from ADP & inorganic phosphate [®].
ATP is used to fuel all other cellular activities. When
the terminal phosphate linkage in ATP is broken
using water, energy (30.5 kJ/mol) is released. It
drives the endothermic reactions in cell.
A battery is used to obtain mechanical energy, light
energy, electrical energy etc. Similarly, ATP can be
used for muscle contraction, protein synthesis,
conduction of nervous impulses etc.
bankofbiology.co
| CO, + H20
|
Glucose + 0, I E > (a
Gas exchange in Plants
co, _ Opened stomata
Closed stomata
It occurs through stomata. Here, CO, & oxygen are exchanged
by diffusion. The large intercellular spaces in leaves help the
cells in contact with air.
During day, CO, formed by respiration is used for
photosynthesis. So, CO, is not released but O, is released,
At night, photosynthesis does not occur. So, CO, is released
out but oxygen is not released
co, _ Opened stomata
Closed stomata
It occurs through stomata. Here, CO, & oxygen are exchanged
by diffusion. The large intercellular spaces in leaves help the
cells in contact with air.
During day, CO, formed by respiration is used for
photosynthesis. So, CO, is not released but O, is released,
At night, photosynthesis does not occur. So, CO, is released
out but oxygen is not released
Gas exchange in Animals |
a
» Aquatic animals breathe dissolved oxygen in water.
* In fishes, respiratory organ is gills with gill slits behind their eyes. They may be covered by
operculum,
* During breathing, fishes open and close mouth & gill slits (or operculum) in a coordinated
manner and timing. They take in water through mouth and pumps over the gills. From the gills,
dissolved O, is taken up by blood.
* The amount of dissolved O, is lower than that in the air. So, the rate of breathing in aquatic
organisms is faster than that in terrestrial organisms.
bankofbiology.com
a
» Aquatic animals breathe dissolved oxygen in water.
* In fishes, respiratory organ is gills with gill slits behind their eyes. They may be covered by
operculum,
* During breathing, fishes open and close mouth & gill slits (or operculum) in a coordinated
manner and timing. They take in water through mouth and pumps over the gills. From the gills,
dissolved O, is taken up by blood.
* The amount of dissolved O, is lower than that in the air. So, the rate of breathing in aquatic
organisms is faster than that in terrestrial organisms.
bankofbiology.com
RESPIRATION | Gas exchange in Animals |
Tracheal system
* In terrestrial animals, there are different types of organs to breathe atmospheric oxygen.
They increase surface area which is in contact with the atmosphere.
* Surface of respiratory organs is very fine and delicate for easy gas exchange. To protect this
surface, it is placed within the body. So, some passages are necessary to carry air in and out
of respiratory organ.
bankofbiology.com
Tracheal system
* In terrestrial animals, there are different types of organs to breathe atmospheric oxygen.
They increase surface area which is in contact with the atmosphere.
* Surface of respiratory organs is very fine and delicate for easy gas exchange. To protect this
surface, it is placed within the body. So, some passages are necessary to carry air in and out
of respiratory organ.
bankofbiology.com
EN Nasal passage
Mouth eavity ‘ation
Pharynx
Alveolt Larynx
Rings of
Respiratory cari
brunehioles
Boned
Bronchioles'
Alveolar sac Diaphragm
Human respiratory system
+ It involves lungs & air passage.
* Air passage starts from nostrils through
which air is taken into the body. Air
passage is lined with fine hairs &
mucus to filter the air.
* Conduction of air through the passage
is as follows:
Nostrils > nasal passage > pharynx
3 larynx > trachea > bronchi >
bronchioles > lungs.
* Rings of cartilage in the throat and
trachea prevent collapsing of air-
Passage.
bankofbiology.com
Mouth eavity ‘ation
Pharynx
Alveolt Larynx
Rings of
Respiratory cari
brunehioles
Boned
Bronchioles'
Alveolar sac Diaphragm
Human respiratory system
+ It involves lungs & air passage.
* Air passage starts from nostrils through
which air is taken into the body. Air
passage is lined with fine hairs &
mucus to filter the air.
* Conduction of air through the passage
is as follows:
Nostrils > nasal passage > pharynx
3 larynx > trachea > bronchi >
bronchioles > lungs.
* Rings of cartilage in the throat and
trachea prevent collapsing of air-
Passage.
bankofbiology.com
+ Within the lungs, the passage divides
into smaller tubes (bronchi &
Nasal passage
bronchioles),
nn machen + Bronchioles terminate in balloon-like
Alveolt Larynx Pi structures called alveoli (sing.
[bend A = se alveolus).
* Gas exchange occurs in the surface
alveoli.
+ Alveolar walls contain a network of
A e | blood vessels.
=
Ka
Bronchiotes |
Alveolar sac Diaphragm
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into smaller tubes (bronchi &
Nasal passage
bronchioles),
nn machen + Bronchioles terminate in balloon-like
Alveolt Larynx Pi structures called alveoli (sing.
[bend A = se alveolus).
* Gas exchange occurs in the surface
alveoli.
+ Alveolar walls contain a network of
A e | blood vessels.
=
Ka
Bronchiotes |
Alveolar sac Diaphragm
bankofbiology.com
RESPIRATION Human respiratory system
LUNGS:
PLEURA * When we breathe in, ribs are lifted and
diaphragm gets flattened. As a result, the chest
cavity becomes larger and air enters the lung
alveoli.
* The blood brings CO, from the rest of the body
to release into the alveoli.
+ Oxygen in the alveoli is taken up by blood in the
alveolar blood vessels and is transported to all
DIAPHRAGM body parts.
bankofbiolo
LUNGS:
PLEURA * When we breathe in, ribs are lifted and
diaphragm gets flattened. As a result, the chest
cavity becomes larger and air enters the lung
alveoli.
* The blood brings CO, from the rest of the body
to release into the alveoli.
+ Oxygen in the alveoli is taken up by blood in the
alveolar blood vessels and is transported to all
DIAPHRAGM body parts.
bankofbiolo
RESPIRA TION | Human respiratory system |
=“ = During the breathing cycle, the lungs always contain
“ aresidual volume of air so that there is sufficient
time to absorb oxygen and release CO).
* In large-sized animals, diffusion pressure is not
3 sufficient to deliver O, to all body parts. So,
= — respiratory pigments take up oxygen from the lungs
A and carry it to tissues.
= In human, the respiratory pigment is haemoglobin
on red blood corpuscles (RBC). It has high affinity
for O).
* CO, is more soluble in water than oxygen and hence
is mostly transported in the dissolved form in our
= O. lenta blood.
O,ftomiungs Fzemogiobin «sues
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=“ = During the breathing cycle, the lungs always contain
“ aresidual volume of air so that there is sufficient
time to absorb oxygen and release CO).
* In large-sized animals, diffusion pressure is not
3 sufficient to deliver O, to all body parts. So,
= — respiratory pigments take up oxygen from the lungs
A and carry it to tissues.
= In human, the respiratory pigment is haemoglobin
on red blood corpuscles (RBC). It has high affinity
for O).
* CO, is more soluble in water than oxygen and hence
is mostly transported in the dissolved form in our
= O. lenta blood.
O,ftomiungs Fzemogiobin «sues
bankofbiology.com
RBC Oxygen molecule
À Haemoglobin
+ If the alveolar surface were spread out, it would cover about 80 m2. Surface area of human
body is about 1.9 m?.
+ If diffusion were to move oxygen in our body, it would take 3 years for an oxygen molecule
to get to toes from our lungs. Haemoglobin helps in faster gas transport.
ankofbiology.com
À Haemoglobin
+ If the alveolar surface were spread out, it would cover about 80 m2. Surface area of human
body is about 1.9 m?.
+ If diffusion were to move oxygen in our body, it would take 3 years for an oxygen molecule
to get to toes from our lungs. Haemoglobin helps in faster gas transport.
ankofbiology.com
RESPIRATION Human respiratory system
SMOKING IS DANGEROUS TO YOUR HEALTH !
Gin * Tobacco or tobacco products affects tongue,
lungs, heart and liver.
$ * Smokeless tobacco also causes heart attacks,
A strokes, pulmonary diseases & cancers.
Fe * Oral cancer is highly reported in India due to
= 9 tobacco chewing in the form of gutkha.
* Smoking destroys cilia on the upper
o respiratory tract. As a result, germs, dust,
á smoke etc. enter lungs and cause infection,
k cough & lung cancer (common cause of
== a dj death).
bankofbiology.com
SMOKING IS DANGEROUS TO YOUR HEALTH !
Gin * Tobacco or tobacco products affects tongue,
lungs, heart and liver.
$ * Smokeless tobacco also causes heart attacks,
A strokes, pulmonary diseases & cancers.
Fe * Oral cancer is highly reported in India due to
= 9 tobacco chewing in the form of gutkha.
* Smoking destroys cilia on the upper
o respiratory tract. As a result, germs, dust,
á smoke etc. enter lungs and cause infection,
k cough & lung cancer (common cause of
== a dj death).
bankofbiology.com
TRANSPORTATION
er and other
* Transportation is the process of movement of v
molecules to the concerned parts of the organism
Human circulatory
system includes
” Blood
> Heart
> Blood vessels
ankofbiology.com
er and other
* Transportation is the process of movement of v
molecules to the concerned parts of the organism
Human circulatory
system includes
” Blood
> Heart
> Blood vessels
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Transportation in Human Beings |
| BLOOD
* Blood is a fluid connective tissue.
+ It consists of a fluid medium called plasma in which blood cells (RBC,
WBC & platelets) are suspended.
+ Plasma transports food, O,, CO, and nitrogenous wastes in dissolved form.
+ Oxygen is mainly transported by Haemoglobin.
eit OB
bankofbiology.com
| BLOOD
* Blood is a fluid connective tissue.
+ It consists of a fluid medium called plasma in which blood cells (RBC,
WBC & platelets) are suspended.
+ Plasma transports food, O,, CO, and nitrogenous wastes in dissolved form.
+ Oxygen is mainly transported by Haemoglobin.
eit OB
bankofbiology.com
TRANSPORTATION
| BLOOD |
+ Normal level of haemoglobin in human beings: 4
ul
+ In men: 14 to 17 g/ 100 ml.
+ In women: 12 to 15 g/ 100 ml. es
+ In children: 11 to 16 g/ 100 ml. A
* The normal level of haemoglobin in animals like buffalo or cow is 10.4 to eS
16.4 g/ 100 ml. Haemoglobin content in calves is higher than male and
female animals.
* Adult men do more work than women and children, So they need more
oxygen to get energy. That’s why adult men have more haemoglobin.
+ Haemoglobin level in human is comparatively more than that of animals
like cattle because human body needs more oxygen to do various biological
works,
bankofbiology.com
| BLOOD |
+ Normal level of haemoglobin in human beings: 4
ul
+ In men: 14 to 17 g/ 100 ml.
+ In women: 12 to 15 g/ 100 ml. es
+ In children: 11 to 16 g/ 100 ml. A
* The normal level of haemoglobin in animals like buffalo or cow is 10.4 to eS
16.4 g/ 100 ml. Haemoglobin content in calves is higher than male and
female animals.
* Adult men do more work than women and children, So they need more
oxygen to get energy. That’s why adult men have more haemoglobin.
+ Haemoglobin level in human is comparatively more than that of animals
like cattle because human body needs more oxygen to do various biological
works,
bankofbiology.com
RANSPORTATION
| OUR PUMP — THE HEART
rl * Heart pumps the blood all over the body.
a Pulmonary * It isa muscular organ which is as big as our fist.
ES veins + Ithas 4 chambers: 2 upper right and left atria and 2
leftatrium lower right and left ventricles,
* Right chambers carry CO,-rich (deoxygenated) blood.
* Left chambers carry O,-rich (oxygenated) blood.
sa + Deoxygenated blood reaches the lungs to remove CO),
ida Oxygenated blood from the lungs is brought back to
the heart and then pumped to the rest of the body.
Vena Cava
from lower
body
ventricle
Septum
(dividing wall)
bankofbiology.com
| OUR PUMP — THE HEART
rl * Heart pumps the blood all over the body.
a Pulmonary * It isa muscular organ which is as big as our fist.
ES veins + Ithas 4 chambers: 2 upper right and left atria and 2
leftatrium lower right and left ventricles,
* Right chambers carry CO,-rich (deoxygenated) blood.
* Left chambers carry O,-rich (oxygenated) blood.
sa + Deoxygenated blood reaches the lungs to remove CO),
ida Oxygenated blood from the lungs is brought back to
the heart and then pumped to the rest of the body.
Vena Cava
from lower
body
ventricle
Septum
(dividing wall)
bankofbiology.com
RANSPORTATION
OUR PUMP — THE HEART | PUMPING PROCESS OF HEART
Vena Cava
from lower
body
Pulmonary * Oxygenated blood from the lungs > left atrium
E sue relaxes > blood enters left atrium > left atrium
om" contracts & left ventricle relaxes > blood enters left
REG ventricle > left ventricle contracts > blood is
pumped out to the body.
* Deoxygenated blood from the body > right atrium
relaxes > blood enters right atrium > right atrium
contracts & right ventricle dilates > blood transfers
ventricle to right ventricle > right ventricle contracts > blood
is pumped into lungs for oxygenation.
ventricle
Septum
(dividing wall)
bankofbiology.com
OUR PUMP — THE HEART | PUMPING PROCESS OF HEART
Vena Cava
from lower
body
Pulmonary * Oxygenated blood from the lungs > left atrium
E sue relaxes > blood enters left atrium > left atrium
om" contracts & left ventricle relaxes > blood enters left
REG ventricle > left ventricle contracts > blood is
pumped out to the body.
* Deoxygenated blood from the body > right atrium
relaxes > blood enters right atrium > right atrium
contracts & right ventricle dilates > blood transfers
ventricle to right ventricle > right ventricle contracts > blood
is pumped into lungs for oxygenation.
ventricle
Septum
(dividing wall)
bankofbiology.com
TRANSPORTATION
[_ OURPUMP-THEHEART | PUMPINGPROCESSOFHEART |
* Since ventricles have to pump blood into various organs,
they have thicker muscular walls than that of atria.
Pulmonary
A arters * Heart has valves to prevent the backflow of blood
Vena Cava:
frost upper, Pulmona a N
ary
vow Er when the atria or ventricles contract.
Right
atrium Left atrium, an et
Vena Cava À
from lower
body Mure
Right >
ventricle -
Left L
Beanies ventricle
(dividing wall}
VALVES IN HEART
bankofbiology.com
[_ OURPUMP-THEHEART | PUMPINGPROCESSOFHEART |
* Since ventricles have to pump blood into various organs,
they have thicker muscular walls than that of atria.
Pulmonary
A arters * Heart has valves to prevent the backflow of blood
Vena Cava:
frost upper, Pulmona a N
ary
vow Er when the atria or ventricles contract.
Right
atrium Left atrium, an et
Vena Cava À
from lower
body Mure
Right >
ventricle -
Left L
Beanies ventricle
(dividing wall}
VALVES IN HEART
bankofbiology.com
RANSPORTATION Transportation in Human Beings
| OUR PUMP - THE HEART Oxygen enters the blood in the lungs
* The separation of right side and left side of the
my vein heart prevents mixing of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood. This allows a highly efficient
supply of oxygen to the body. It is useful in animals
that need high energy (birds & mammals) to
maintain body temperature.
* Animals like amphibians & many reptiles do not use
energy to maintain temperature. They depend on
the temperature in the environment. Such animals
have 3-chambered heart, and tolerate some mixing
of the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
Pulmonary
artery to lungs
To badly
From body
‘Artery
Vein
bankofbiology.com
| OUR PUMP - THE HEART Oxygen enters the blood in the lungs
* The separation of right side and left side of the
my vein heart prevents mixing of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood. This allows a highly efficient
supply of oxygen to the body. It is useful in animals
that need high energy (birds & mammals) to
maintain body temperature.
* Animals like amphibians & many reptiles do not use
energy to maintain temperature. They depend on
the temperature in the environment. Such animals
have 3-chambered heart, and tolerate some mixing
of the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
Pulmonary
artery to lungs
To badly
From body
‘Artery
Vein
bankofbiology.com
TRANSPORTATION Transportation in Human Beings
| OUR PUMP - THE HEART Oxygen enters the blood in the lungs
_— + Fishes have only 2-chambered heart. Here,
artery to lungs have circulation occurs as follows:
Deoxygenated blood enters the heart > pumped
to gills > blood is oxygenated in gills > blood to
rest of the body.
* Thus, blood goes only once through the heart
Vena cava
N D. during one cycle of passage through the body.
Dee vd * In other vertebrates, blood goes through the
heart twice during each cycle. This is called
‘Artery double circulation.
Vein’
bankofbiology.com
| OUR PUMP - THE HEART Oxygen enters the blood in the lungs
_— + Fishes have only 2-chambered heart. Here,
artery to lungs have circulation occurs as follows:
Deoxygenated blood enters the heart > pumped
to gills > blood is oxygenated in gills > blood to
rest of the body.
* Thus, blood goes only once through the heart
Vena cava
N D. during one cycle of passage through the body.
Dee vd * In other vertebrates, blood goes through the
heart twice during each cycle. This is called
‘Artery double circulation.
Vein’
bankofbiology.com
MSRM Transportation in Human Beings —]
| Blood pressure (BP) |
+ Itis the force that blood exerts
against the wall of a vessel, This is
greater in arteries than in veins.
* Sphygmomanometer: An
instrument to measure BP.
* Systolic pressure: Blood pressure in the artery during ventricular systole
"eran exeñod (contraction). It is about 120 mm Hg.
* Diastolic pressure: Blood pressure in the artery during ventricular diastole
(relaxation), It is about 80 mm Hg.
* High BP (hypertension) is caused by the constriction of arterioles, which
FR increases resistance to blood flow. It leads to the rupture of an artery and
internal bleeding.
bankofbiology.com
||
| Blood pressure (BP) |
+ Itis the force that blood exerts
against the wall of a vessel, This is
greater in arteries than in veins.
* Sphygmomanometer: An
instrument to measure BP.
* Systolic pressure: Blood pressure in the artery during ventricular systole
"eran exeñod (contraction). It is about 120 mm Hg.
* Diastolic pressure: Blood pressure in the artery during ventricular diastole
(relaxation), It is about 80 mm Hg.
* High BP (hypertension) is caused by the constriction of arterioles, which
FR increases resistance to blood flow. It leads to the rupture of an artery and
internal bleeding.
bankofbiology.com
||
Transportation in Human Beings |
| THE TUBES — BLOOD VESSELS (Arteries, Veins & Capillaries)
Arteries
x * They carry blood from the heart to various body parts. Since the blood
A emerges from the heart under high pressure, the arteries have thick,
elastic walls.
* On reaching an organ or tissue, the artery divides into small branches
(arterioles) to bring the blood in contact with all the cells,
Artery =.
ï iw
ankofbiology.com
| THE TUBES — BLOOD VESSELS (Arteries, Veins & Capillaries)
Arteries
x * They carry blood from the heart to various body parts. Since the blood
A emerges from the heart under high pressure, the arteries have thick,
elastic walls.
* On reaching an organ or tissue, the artery divides into small branches
(arterioles) to bring the blood in contact with all the cells,
Artery =.
ï iw
ankofbiology.com
| Transportation in Human Beings |
| THE TUBES — BLOOD VESSELS (Arteries, Veins & Capillaries)
Veins
+ They collect blood from different organs and bring it back to heart.
y + They have no thick walls because the blood is no longer under
pressure. Instead, they have valves to flow blood only in one direction.
ankofbiology.com
| THE TUBES — BLOOD VESSELS (Arteries, Veins & Capillaries)
Veins
+ They collect blood from different organs and bring it back to heart.
y + They have no thick walls because the blood is no longer under
pressure. Instead, they have valves to flow blood only in one direction.
ankofbiology.com
Transportation in Human Beings |
| THE TUBES — BLOOD VESSELS (Arteries, Veins & Capillaries)
Capillaries
* Smallest vessels having walls which are one-cell thick.
* Through this wall, exchange of material between blood & surrounding
cells takes place.
* The capillaries join together to form veins that convey the blood away
from the organ or tissue,
Artery = —_-
CP
IH =
ankofbiology.com
| THE TUBES — BLOOD VESSELS (Arteries, Veins & Capillaries)
Capillaries
* Smallest vessels having walls which are one-cell thick.
* Through this wall, exchange of material between blood & surrounding
cells takes place.
* The capillaries join together to form veins that convey the blood away
from the organ or tissue,
Artery = —_-
CP
IH =
ankofbiology.com
TRANSPORTATION § Transportation in Human Beings |
ME
3
PLATELETS >)
Maintenance by platelets
+ Leakage or loss of blood due to injury leads to reduction in
pressure and efficiency of circulatory system.
* To avoid this, the platelet cells plug these leaks to clot the blood
at the points of injury.
ME
3
PLATELETS >)
Maintenance by platelets
+ Leakage or loss of blood due to injury leads to reduction in
pressure and efficiency of circulatory system.
* To avoid this, the platelet cells plug these leaks to clot the blood
at the points of injury.
TRANSPORTATION
Lymph (Tissue fluid)
* Through the pores in the capillary walls, some amount of plasma,
proteins and blood cells escape into intercellular spaces in the
tissues to form lymph.
+ It is similar to blood plasma but colourless and contains less protein.
* From intercellular spaces, lymph drains into lymphatic capillaries,
which join to large lymph vessels that finally open into larger veins.
tissue uid formed a tissue fluid absorbed
fr 7
+ Lymph carries digested fat
from intestine and drains
excess fluid from extracellular
space back into the blood.
sel
bankofbiology.con
Lymph (Tissue fluid)
* Through the pores in the capillary walls, some amount of plasma,
proteins and blood cells escape into intercellular spaces in the
tissues to form lymph.
+ It is similar to blood plasma but colourless and contains less protein.
* From intercellular spaces, lymph drains into lymphatic capillaries,
which join to large lymph vessels that finally open into larger veins.
tissue uid formed a tissue fluid absorbed
fr 7
+ Lymph carries digested fat
from intestine and drains
excess fluid from extracellular
space back into the blood.
sel
bankofbiology.con
ION Transportation in Plants
* Soil is the nearest and richest source of raw
materials (water & minerals).
Ifthe distance between roots & leaves are small,
energy and raw materials can easily diffuse to all
parts. But for a large distance, a transportation
system is essential.
* Plants do not move and have enormous dead cells.
So, they need only low energy and slow transport
systems.
Plant transport systems include 2 independently
organised conducting tubes:
+ Xylem: Moves water and minerals from the soil
+ Phloem: Transports products of photosynthesis
from leaves to other parts.
bankofbiology.com
* Soil is the nearest and richest source of raw
materials (water & minerals).
Ifthe distance between roots & leaves are small,
energy and raw materials can easily diffuse to all
parts. But for a large distance, a transportation
system is essential.
* Plants do not move and have enormous dead cells.
So, they need only low energy and slow transport
systems.
Plant transport systems include 2 independently
organised conducting tubes:
+ Xylem: Moves water and minerals from the soil
+ Phloem: Transports products of photosynthesis
from leaves to other parts.
bankofbiology.com
ON Transportation in Plants
TRANSPORT OF WATER
* In xylem tissue, vessels & tracheids of the roots,
stems and leaves are interconnected to form a water-
conducting channels reaching all parts.
At the roots, cells actively take up ions from soil. This
creates a difference in the concentration of ions
between root and soil. So, water moves into the root
from the soil. Thus there is steady movement of water
into root xylem, creating a column of water pushing
upwards.
But this pressure is not enough to move water over
the heights. So, plants use another strategy called
transpiration,
bankofbiology.com
TRANSPORT OF WATER
* In xylem tissue, vessels & tracheids of the roots,
stems and leaves are interconnected to form a water-
conducting channels reaching all parts.
At the roots, cells actively take up ions from soil. This
creates a difference in the concentration of ions
between root and soil. So, water moves into the root
from the soil. Thus there is steady movement of water
into root xylem, creating a column of water pushing
upwards.
But this pressure is not enough to move water over
the heights. So, plants use another strategy called
transpiration,
bankofbiology.com
RANSPORTATION Tansportationinpians ]
| TRANSPORT OF WATER
* Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from the aerial parts (mainly stomata of leaves) of the
plant. It can be proved by the following activity
Par > Take two small same sized pots with same amount of soil.
One should have a plant in it. In other pot, place a stick of
the same height as the plant.
> Cover the soil in both pots with a plastic sheet so that
moisture cannot escape by evaporation.
Si + Cover both sets with plastic sheets and place in bright
No mater sunlight for half an hour.
+ In pot with plant, water droplets are found in plastic sheet.
It is due to condensation of water vapour released by
Pel para transpiration. In other pot, water droplets are not formed.
bankofbiology.com
| TRANSPORT OF WATER
* Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from the aerial parts (mainly stomata of leaves) of the
plant. It can be proved by the following activity
Par > Take two small same sized pots with same amount of soil.
One should have a plant in it. In other pot, place a stick of
the same height as the plant.
> Cover the soil in both pots with a plastic sheet so that
moisture cannot escape by evaporation.
Si + Cover both sets with plastic sheets and place in bright
No mater sunlight for half an hour.
+ In pot with plant, water droplets are found in plastic sheet.
It is due to condensation of water vapour released by
Pel para transpiration. In other pot, water droplets are not formed.
bankofbiology.com
ON Transportation in Plants
TRANSPORT OF WATER
* The water which is lost through the stomata is replaced
by water from the xylem vessels in the leaf.
* Transpiration creates a suction which pulls water from
pe the xylem cells of roots
Transpiaton + Thus, transpiration helps in the absorption and upward
movement of water & minerals from roots to the leaves.
It also helps in temperature regulation.
+ Generally, stomata are closed at night. So, plants
depend on the root pressure for water transport at
night.
* During the day when stomata are open, transpiration
pull is the major driving force in the water transport.
bankofbiology.com
TRANSPORT OF WATER
* The water which is lost through the stomata is replaced
by water from the xylem vessels in the leaf.
* Transpiration creates a suction which pulls water from
pe the xylem cells of roots
Transpiaton + Thus, transpiration helps in the absorption and upward
movement of water & minerals from roots to the leaves.
It also helps in temperature regulation.
+ Generally, stomata are closed at night. So, plants
depend on the root pressure for water transport at
night.
* During the day when stomata are open, transpiration
pull is the major driving force in the water transport.
bankofbiology.com
RANSPORTATIO
+ Transport of soluble products of photosynthesis (food)
from leaves to other parts is called translocation.
+ It occurs in a vascular tissue called phloem.
* Phloem also transports amino acids & other
substances.
* These substances are delivered to the storage organs of
roots, fruits and seeds and to growing organs.
bankofbiolo com
+ Transport of soluble products of photosynthesis (food)
from leaves to other parts is called translocation.
+ It occurs in a vascular tissue called phloem.
* Phloem also transports amino acids & other
substances.
* These substances are delivered to the storage organs of
roots, fruits and seeds and to growing organs.
bankofbiolo com
ON Transportation in Plants
| TRANSPORT OF FOOD AND OTHER SUBSTANCES
* Translocation takes place in the sieve tubes with the help of
adjacent companion cells both in upward and downward
directions.
* Xylem transport occurs mainly by simple physical forces. But for
the translocation in phloem, energy is utilised.
+ Material like sucrose is transferred into phloem using energy from
ATP. This increases the osmotic pressure of the tissue causing
water to move into it. This pressure moves the material in the
palos phloem to tissues. E.g., in the spring, sugar stored in root or stem
is transported to the buds which need energy to grow.
y
>
bankofbiology.com
| TRANSPORT OF FOOD AND OTHER SUBSTANCES
* Translocation takes place in the sieve tubes with the help of
adjacent companion cells both in upward and downward
directions.
* Xylem transport occurs mainly by simple physical forces. But for
the translocation in phloem, energy is utilised.
+ Material like sucrose is transferred into phloem using energy from
ATP. This increases the osmotic pressure of the tissue causing
water to move into it. This pressure moves the material in the
palos phloem to tissues. E.g., in the spring, sugar stored in root or stem
is transported to the buds which need energy to grow.
y
>
bankofbiology.com
Kidney
* Excretion is the process of removal of harmful metabolic
nitrogenous wastes from the body.
Urinary bladder $ : u
* Unicellular organisms remove these wastes by simple diffusion
from body surface into surrounding water.
— Urethra * Complex multicellular organisms use specialised organs for excretion
bankofbiology.co
* Excretion is the process of removal of harmful metabolic
nitrogenous wastes from the body.
Urinary bladder $ : u
* Unicellular organisms remove these wastes by simple diffusion
from body surface into surrounding water.
— Urethra * Complex multicellular organisms use specialised organs for excretion
bankofbiology.co
CRETION
+ Human excretory system includes a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, a urinary bladder & a
urethra.
1 Left renal artery
\ Len kidney . = are located vd the
Kidney abdomen, one on either
| Left renal vein
} side of the backbone.
4 Aorta + The purpose of making
/ Left ureter Lu urine is to filter out waste
| Vena cava | products from the blood.
| a :
f Urinary | | In the kidneys, nitrogenous
bladder wastes such as urea or uric
Urethra Urinary bladder acid are removed from
\ blood.
A
‘Urethra
bankofbiology.con
+ Human excretory system includes a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, a urinary bladder & a
urethra.
1 Left renal artery
\ Len kidney . = are located vd the
Kidney abdomen, one on either
| Left renal vein
} side of the backbone.
4 Aorta + The purpose of making
/ Left ureter Lu urine is to filter out waste
| Vena cava | products from the blood.
| a :
f Urinary | | In the kidneys, nitrogenous
bladder wastes such as urea or uric
Urethra Urinary bladder acid are removed from
\ blood.
A
‘Urethra
bankofbiology.con
CRETION
+ Each kidney has large numbers of filtration units called nephrons
packed close together.
Bowman's capsule Glomerulus , Tubular part of
ers * At the end of each
nephron, a cup-shaped
structure called Bowman’s
capsule is seen. It encloses
a cluster of very thin-walled
blood capillaries called
glomerulus.
* In glomerulus, blood is
filtered and the Bowman's
capsule collects the filtrate.
‘Urinary bladder
Urethra Structure of a nephron
bankofbiology.con
+ Each kidney has large numbers of filtration units called nephrons
packed close together.
Bowman's capsule Glomerulus , Tubular part of
ers * At the end of each
nephron, a cup-shaped
structure called Bowman’s
capsule is seen. It encloses
a cluster of very thin-walled
blood capillaries called
glomerulus.
* In glomerulus, blood is
filtered and the Bowman's
capsule collects the filtrate.
‘Urinary bladder
Urethra Structure of a nephron
bankofbiology.con
XCRETION
In selective reabsorption, —, z E .
odian, mins acids ond glucosa Glucose, amino acids, salts & major amount
are reabsorbed from the of water in the initial filtrate are selectively
filtrate back into the blood reabsorbed as the urine flows along the tube.
+ Ina healthy adult, the initial filtrate is about
180 L daily. However, only 1-2 litre/day is
excreted out because the remaining filtrate is
reabsorbed in the kidney tubules.
Glomerulus
* Water is reabsorbed based on amount of
excess water in the body and amount of
dissolved waste is to be excreted.
bankofbiology.com
In selective reabsorption, —, z E .
odian, mins acids ond glucosa Glucose, amino acids, salts & major amount
are reabsorbed from the of water in the initial filtrate are selectively
filtrate back into the blood reabsorbed as the urine flows along the tube.
+ Ina healthy adult, the initial filtrate is about
180 L daily. However, only 1-2 litre/day is
excreted out because the remaining filtrate is
reabsorbed in the kidney tubules.
Glomerulus
* Water is reabsorbed based on amount of
excess water in the body and amount of
dissolved waste is to be excreted.
bankofbiology.com
CRETION
* The urine from each kidney
enters a long tube (ureter),
which then passes to urinary
bladder and stored in it.
Kidney
As the bladder expands, pressure
increases that leads to the urge
to urinate through the urethra.
The bladder is muscular, so it is
under nervous control. As a
result, we can control the urge to
urinate.
Urinary bladder
Urethra
bankofbiology.com
* The urine from each kidney
enters a long tube (ureter),
which then passes to urinary
bladder and stored in it.
Kidney
As the bladder expands, pressure
increases that leads to the urge
to urinate through the urethra.
The bladder is muscular, so it is
under nervous control. As a
result, we can control the urge to
urinate.
Urinary bladder
Urethra
bankofbiology.com
CRETION
Artificial kidney (Hemodialysis)
ie * Kidney failure leads to accumulation of poisonous wastes
in the body. In this case, an artificial kidney is used. It is a
device to remove nitrogenous wastes from the blood
through dialysis.
Artificial kidneys contain many semi-permeable tubes
suspended ina tank filled with dialysing fluid (it has same
osmotic pressure of blood, but no nitrogenous wastes).
When patient's blood is passed through these tubes, the
waste products from blood diffuses into dialysing fluid.
* The purified blood is pumped back into the patient.
* This is similar to the function of the kidney, but there is no
reabsorption involved.
bankofbiology.com
Artificial kidney (Hemodialysis)
ie * Kidney failure leads to accumulation of poisonous wastes
in the body. In this case, an artificial kidney is used. It is a
device to remove nitrogenous wastes from the blood
through dialysis.
Artificial kidneys contain many semi-permeable tubes
suspended ina tank filled with dialysing fluid (it has same
osmotic pressure of blood, but no nitrogenous wastes).
When patient's blood is passed through these tubes, the
waste products from blood diffuses into dialysing fluid.
* The purified blood is pumped back into the patient.
* This is similar to the function of the kidney, but there is no
reabsorption involved.
bankofbiology.com
CRETION Excretion in Human Beings
Organ donation
* Any people can donate their organ or tissue
regardless of age or gender.
* Transplantation is required when recipient's organ
has been damaged or failed by disease or injury.
* In organ transplantation, the organ is surgically
removed from one person (organ donor) and
transplanted to another person (recipient).
* Most organ and tissue donations occur just after
the death or brain death of the donor. But some
organs (kidney, part of a liver, lung, etc.) and tissues
can be donated while the donor is alive.
bankofbiology.com
Organ donation
* Any people can donate their organ or tissue
regardless of age or gender.
* Transplantation is required when recipient's organ
has been damaged or failed by disease or injury.
* In organ transplantation, the organ is surgically
removed from one person (organ donor) and
transplanted to another person (recipient).
* Most organ and tissue donations occur just after
the death or brain death of the donor. But some
organs (kidney, part of a liver, lung, etc.) and tissues
can be donated while the donor is alive.
bankofbiology.com
ETION
+ Oxygen is formed as a waste product of
photosynthesis.
+ O,, CO, & excess water are removed by
transpiration.
+ Many other waste products are stored in
vacuoles.
+ Waste products may be stored in leaves
that fall off.
+ Some waste products are stored as resins
and gums, especially in old xylem.
* Plants also excrete some waste substances
into the soil around them.
bankofbiology.com
+ Oxygen is formed as a waste product of
photosynthesis.
+ O,, CO, & excess water are removed by
transpiration.
+ Many other waste products are stored in
vacuoles.
+ Waste products may be stored in leaves
that fall off.
+ Some waste products are stored as resins
and gums, especially in old xylem.
* Plants also excrete some waste substances
into the soil around them.
bankofbiology.com
CONTROL AND COORDINATION
CA Aa
* In organisms, many movements are responses to changes in the environment or to use changes
in environment. E.g.
+ Plants grow out into the sunshine.
>
Children get pleasure and fun out of swinging.
+ Buffaloes chew cud for better digestion.
> Falling light on eyes or touching a hot object cause responses.
* Such movements are carefully controlled and coordinated by specialised tissues. Also, they are
connected to recognition of various events in the environment.
CA Aa
* In organisms, many movements are responses to changes in the environment or to use changes
in environment. E.g.
+ Plants grow out into the sunshine.
>
Children get pleasure and fun out of swinging.
+ Buffaloes chew cud for better digestion.
> Falling light on eyes or touching a hot object cause responses.
* Such movements are carefully controlled and coordinated by specialised tissues. Also, they are
connected to recognition of various events in the environment.
NIMALS - NERVOUS M
Sain — & A — á
ÿ * In animals, control and coordination are provided
Nerves f | | N by nervous and muscular tissues.
HAN MAN * Nervous tissue is made up of a network of nerve
1) ARM meme sus Touch cells (neurons). It conducts information (electrical
impulses) from one part of the body to another.
* Some nerve cells have specialised tips called
receptors. They are usually located in sense
organs to detect information from environment.
E.g. gustatory receptors detect taste, olfactory
receptors detect smell.
* General perception of taste is jointly created by
tongue (taste) and nose (smell). That’s why if
nose is blocked or we have cold, there is a
difference in taste of foods.
Sain — & A — á
ÿ * In animals, control and coordination are provided
Nerves f | | N by nervous and muscular tissues.
HAN MAN * Nervous tissue is made up of a network of nerve
1) ARM meme sus Touch cells (neurons). It conducts information (electrical
impulses) from one part of the body to another.
* Some nerve cells have specialised tips called
receptors. They are usually located in sense
organs to detect information from environment.
E.g. gustatory receptors detect taste, olfactory
receptors detect smell.
* General perception of taste is jointly created by
tongue (taste) and nose (smell). That’s why if
nose is blocked or we have cold, there is a
difference in taste of foods.
NIMALS - NERVOUS TEM
Transmission of nerve impulse |
Neuromuscular
Axon junetion
©
Synapse
Muscle
fibre
Capillary
Mitochondrion
Neuromuscular junction
Information from receptors > dendritic tip of nerve cell > sets off a chemical reaction >
generation of electrical impulse > impulse to cell body > axon > axonal end releases some
chemicals > chemicals cross the gap (synapse) > generation of electrical impulse in dendrite of
the next neuron > impulses deliver to muscles cells or gland.
Transmission of nerve impulse |
Neuromuscular
Axon junetion
©
Synapse
Muscle
fibre
Capillary
Mitochondrion
Neuromuscular junction
Information from receptors > dendritic tip of nerve cell > sets off a chemical reaction >
generation of electrical impulse > impulse to cell body > axon > axonal end releases some
chemicals > chemicals cross the gap (synapse) > generation of electrical impulse in dendrite of
the next neuron > impulses deliver to muscles cells or gland.
IMALS - NERVOUS SY M
What happens in Reflex Actions? |
PA
Thinking
region
+ Reflex actions are sudden unconscious actions of the body in response to a stimulus in the
environment. E.g.
Y Withdrawal of hand when we touch a flame.
Y” Blinking of eyes when light falls on them.
* Here there is no thinking as it needs immediate response.
* Thinking needs complicated interaction of many nerve impulses from many neurons.
What happens in Reflex Actions? |
PA
Thinking
region
+ Reflex actions are sudden unconscious actions of the body in response to a stimulus in the
environment. E.g.
Y Withdrawal of hand when we touch a flame.
Y” Blinking of eyes when light falls on them.
* Here there is no thinking as it needs immediate response.
* Thinking needs complicated interaction of many nerve impulses from many neurons.
NIMALS - NERVOUS SY M
What happens in Reflex Actions? |
PA
Thinking
region
* In brain, thinking tissue sits in the forward end of the skull. It receives signals from all over the
body and thinks about before responding to them.
* If thinking part is to instruct muscles to move, nerves must carry this signal back to different parts
of the body. It takes much time and prevents quick response. E.g. when we touch a hot object, it
would take much time to withdraw the hand if thinking tissue is involved.
What happens in Reflex Actions? |
PA
Thinking
region
* In brain, thinking tissue sits in the forward end of the skull. It receives signals from all over the
body and thinks about before responding to them.
* If thinking part is to instruct muscles to move, nerves must carry this signal back to different parts
of the body. It takes much time and prevents quick response. E.g. when we touch a hot object, it
would take much time to withdraw the hand if thinking tissue is involved.
ANIMALS - NERVOUS SYSTEM
| What happens in Reflex Actions?
a a Ms * Pathway of impulses in a reflex action is called
reflex arc. It includes receptor, sensory neuron,
CNS, motor neuron & effector (muscle or gland).
* Nerves from all body parts meet in spinal cord
on their way to the brain,
* Reflex arcs evolved as a function in the absence
of thought processes in animals. However, after
complex neuron networks have evolved, reflex
arcs continue for quick responses.
* Sequence of events (reflex arc) of focussing bright light on eyes are given below:
CPE PTE PES
bankofbiolog:
com
| What happens in Reflex Actions?
a a Ms * Pathway of impulses in a reflex action is called
reflex arc. It includes receptor, sensory neuron,
CNS, motor neuron & effector (muscle or gland).
* Nerves from all body parts meet in spinal cord
on their way to the brain,
* Reflex arcs evolved as a function in the absence
of thought processes in animals. However, after
complex neuron networks have evolved, reflex
arcs continue for quick responses.
* Sequence of events (reflex arc) of focussing bright light on eyes are given below:
CPE PTE PES
bankofbiolog:
com
NIMALS - NERVOUS M
Human Brain
* Brain & spinal cord constitute the central nervous
system (CNS). They receive information from all
parts of the body and integrate it.
* Brain is protected in a fluid-filled balloon (shock
absorber) inside the bony box (cranium).
* Spinal cord is protected in vertebral column
(backbone).
* Brain is the main coordinating centre of the body. It
involves more complex mechanisms & neural
connections for complex processes such as thinking.
* Spinal cord contains nerves which supply information
to think about.
Human Brain
* Brain & spinal cord constitute the central nervous
system (CNS). They receive information from all
parts of the body and integrate it.
* Brain is protected in a fluid-filled balloon (shock
absorber) inside the bony box (cranium).
* Spinal cord is protected in vertebral column
(backbone).
* Brain is the main coordinating centre of the body. It
involves more complex mechanisms & neural
connections for complex processes such as thinking.
* Spinal cord contains nerves which supply information
to think about.
ANIMALS - NERVOUS SYSTEM
| Human Brain
+ Brain sends messages to muscles to control
voluntary actions such as writing, talking, moving,
clapping etc.
* Communication between CNS and other parts of
the body is facilitated by the peripheral nervous
system (PNS). It consists of cranial nerves (from
brain) and spinal nerves (from spinal cord).
3 Regions of Brain |
; [ 1 ,
| Forebrain | | Midbrain | | Hindbrain |
bankofbiology.com
| Human Brain
+ Brain sends messages to muscles to control
voluntary actions such as writing, talking, moving,
clapping etc.
* Communication between CNS and other parts of
the body is facilitated by the peripheral nervous
system (PNS). It consists of cranial nerves (from
brain) and spinal nerves (from spinal cord).
3 Regions of Brain |
; [ 1 ,
| Forebrain | | Midbrain | | Hindbrain |
bankofbiology.com
| Human Brain
Human Brain Corcbrum
ns
ll fA
It is the main thinking part of the brain. It has the
following regions:
+ Sensory regions: They receive sensory impulses of
hearing, smell, sight etc.
+ Association areas: They interpret sensory
information by associating with information from
other receptors and previously stored information.
Thus, a decision is made to respond. This
information is passed to the motor areas which
control the movement of voluntary muscles.
+ Centre of hunger: It gives sensations such as
feeling full when food is eaten.
bankofbiology.com
Human Brain Corcbrum
ns
ll fA
It is the main thinking part of the brain. It has the
following regions:
+ Sensory regions: They receive sensory impulses of
hearing, smell, sight etc.
+ Association areas: They interpret sensory
information by associating with information from
other receptors and previously stored information.
Thus, a decision is made to respond. This
information is passed to the motor areas which
control the movement of voluntary muscles.
+ Centre of hunger: It gives sensations such as
feeling full when food is eaten.
bankofbiology.com
ANIMAL
Human Brain | Midbrain & Hindbrain
Human Brain — cerebrum * In our body, there are involuntary actions between
= simple reflex actions and thought-out actions. We do
not have thinking control on them. E.g. salivation,
heartbeat etc. They are controlled by mid-brain and
Fore
pra hind-brain.
ti
bro + Medulla in hindbrain controls involuntary actions
such as blood pressure, salivation, vomiting etc.
* Cerebellum in hindbrain controls voluntary actions
Hypothalarnus
Pituitary gland like walking, riding a bicycle, picking up a pencil etc.
‘Spinal cord It also maintains the posture and balance of the
body.
bankofbiol
Human Brain | Midbrain & Hindbrain
Human Brain — cerebrum * In our body, there are involuntary actions between
= simple reflex actions and thought-out actions. We do
not have thinking control on them. E.g. salivation,
heartbeat etc. They are controlled by mid-brain and
Fore
pra hind-brain.
ti
bro + Medulla in hindbrain controls involuntary actions
such as blood pressure, salivation, vomiting etc.
* Cerebellum in hindbrain controls voluntary actions
Hypothalarnus
Pituitary gland like walking, riding a bicycle, picking up a pencil etc.
‘Spinal cord It also maintains the posture and balance of the
body.
bankofbiol
ANIMALS - NERVOUS SYSTEM
How does Nervous Tissue cause Action?
Neuromuscular
Junction
+ When a nerve impulse reaches the muscle, the
muscle fibres (muscle cells) move by changing
their shape so that they shorten.
Muscle
fibre
* Muscle cells have special proteins that change
their shape and arrangement in response to
Mitochondrion
Neuromuscular junction nervous electrical impulses. This gives the muscle
cells a shorter form.
* Voluntary muscles: The muscles attached to
skeleton, They can be moved as we decide.
+ Involuntary muscles: The muscles found in visceral
organs. They are not under our control.
How does Nervous Tissue cause Action?
Neuromuscular
Junction
+ When a nerve impulse reaches the muscle, the
muscle fibres (muscle cells) move by changing
their shape so that they shorten.
Muscle
fibre
* Muscle cells have special proteins that change
their shape and arrangement in response to
Mitochondrion
Neuromuscular junction nervous electrical impulses. This gives the muscle
cells a shorter form.
* Voluntary muscles: The muscles attached to
skeleton, They can be moved as we decide.
+ Involuntary muscles: The muscles found in visceral
organs. They are not under our control.
COORDINATION IN PLAN
* Plants have no nervous system or muscles. But they can respond to stimuli.
+ Like animals, plants show 2 types of movement:
+ Dependent on growth: E.g. When a seed germinates, root goes down and stem comes up.
+ Independent of growth: E.g. When we touch the leaves of a chhui-mui (the ‘sensitive’ or
‘touch-me-not’ of Mimosa family), they quickly fold up and droop.
* Plants have no nervous system or muscles. But they can respond to stimuli.
+ Like animals, plants show 2 types of movement:
+ Dependent on growth: E.g. When a seed germinates, root goes down and stem comes up.
+ Independent of growth: E.g. When we touch the leaves of a chhui-mui (the ‘sensitive’ or
‘touch-me-not’ of Mimosa family), they quickly fold up and droop.
COORDINATION IN P Immediate Response to Stimulus
* In sensitive plant, movement happens at a point different from the point of touch. It means
information about touch is communicated. Plants use electrical-chemical means to conduct
information from cell to cell.
* In animals, muscle proteins help to change the shape of cells, But plant cells change the shape
(swelling or shrinking) by changing amount of water in them.
* In sensitive plant, movement happens at a point different from the point of touch. It means
information about touch is communicated. Plants use electrical-chemical means to conduct
information from cell to cell.
* In animals, muscle proteins help to change the shape of cells, But plant cells change the shape
(swelling or shrinking) by changing amount of water in them.
COORDINATION IN PLANTS Movement Due to Growth
* Some plants (e.g. pea) have tendrils to climb up or fence. They are sensitive to touch.
* When tendrils contact with a support, the touching part does not grow as rapidly as the part
away from object. So, tendril circles around and clings to the object.
* Plants respond to stimuli slowly by growing in a direction. Because of the directional growth, it
appears as if the plant is moving.
* Environmental triggers such as light, gravity etc. change the directions of plant growth. They are
called tropic (directional) movements. These can be towards the stimulus (positive), or away
from it (negative).
* Some plants (e.g. pea) have tendrils to climb up or fence. They are sensitive to touch.
* When tendrils contact with a support, the touching part does not grow as rapidly as the part
away from object. So, tendril circles around and clings to the object.
* Plants respond to stimuli slowly by growing in a direction. Because of the directional growth, it
appears as if the plant is moving.
* Environmental triggers such as light, gravity etc. change the directions of plant growth. They are
called tropic (directional) movements. These can be towards the stimulus (positive), or away
from it (negative).
COORDINATION IN PLANTS Movement Due to Growth
Types of tropic movements
Phototropism Geotropism Hyarotropism emo
Types of tropic movements
Phototropism Geotropism Hyarotropism emo
COORDINATION IN PLANTS Movement Due to Growth
Types of tropic movements Phototropism
* It is the tropic movement in response to light.
Response of the plant
to the direction of light * Shoots respond by bending towards light
(positive).
* Roots respond by bending away from light
(negative).
Types of tropic movements Phototropism
* It is the tropic movement in response to light.
Response of the plant
to the direction of light * Shoots respond by bending towards light
(positive).
* Roots respond by bending away from light
(negative).
| COORDINATION IN PLANTS | IN PLANTS Movement Due to Growth
| Types of tropic movements | Phototropism
Response of the plant
to the direction of light
It can be proved by the following activity.
Fill a conical flask with water and cover its neck with a wire
mesh having 2-3 freshly germinated bean seeds.
Keep the flask in a cardboard such that its open side faces
light coming from a window,
* After 2 or 3 days, it is noticed that the shoots bend towards
light and roots away from light.
Now turn the flask so that shoots are away from light and
roots towards light. Leave it for a few days.
* The old parts of the shoot and root have no noticeable change
in direction. But new growth parts show change in direction.
i.e., shoot bends towards light and roots bend away from it.
| Types of tropic movements | Phototropism
Response of the plant
to the direction of light
It can be proved by the following activity.
Fill a conical flask with water and cover its neck with a wire
mesh having 2-3 freshly germinated bean seeds.
Keep the flask in a cardboard such that its open side faces
light coming from a window,
* After 2 or 3 days, it is noticed that the shoots bend towards
light and roots away from light.
Now turn the flask so that shoots are away from light and
roots towards light. Leave it for a few days.
* The old parts of the shoot and root have no noticeable change
in direction. But new growth parts show change in direction.
i.e., shoot bends towards light and roots bend away from it.
COORDINATION IN PLANTS
Movement Due to Growth
Types of tropic movements Geotropism
Negatively { i
Plant showing "Pi mé
geotropism
ta Positively geotropic
À à
+ Movement in response to the pull of earth or
gravity.
* Roots always grow downwards (positive).
* Shoots grow upwards and away from earth
(negative).
Movement Due to Growth
Types of tropic movements Geotropism
Negatively { i
Plant showing "Pi mé
geotropism
ta Positively geotropic
À à
+ Movement in response to the pull of earth or
gravity.
* Roots always grow downwards (positive).
* Shoots grow upwards and away from earth
(negative).
COORDINATION IN PLANTS Movement Due to Growth
[ Types of tropic movements | Hydrotropism & Chemotropism
Dj —Pollen grain * Movement of a plant toward
or away from water.
* E.g. Roots bend towards the
moist soil.
PEL poiten tube
Hydrotropism
‘Ovals * Movement of plant towards
or away from chemicals
* E.g. growth of pollen tubes
Chemotropism towards ovules.
SE Carpel
Controlled movements can be either slow or fast. E.g.
v Sensitive plant quickly moves in response to touch.
Y” Sunflowers slowly move in response to day or night.
Y” Growth-related movements of plants are slower.
[ Types of tropic movements | Hydrotropism & Chemotropism
Dj —Pollen grain * Movement of a plant toward
or away from water.
* E.g. Roots bend towards the
moist soil.
PEL poiten tube
Hydrotropism
‘Ovals * Movement of plant towards
or away from chemicals
* E.g. growth of pollen tubes
Chemotropism towards ovules.
SE Carpel
Controlled movements can be either slow or fast. E.g.
v Sensitive plant quickly moves in response to touch.
Y” Sunflowers slowly move in response to day or night.
Y” Growth-related movements of plants are slower.
| COORDINATION IN PLANTS | IN PLANTS Movement Due to Growth
* In animal bodies also have controlled directions to
growth. E.g. growth of arms & fingers.
* For fast responses to stimuli, information must be
transferred very quickly. Electrical impulses are an
excellent means for this. But it has some limitations:
© They reach only the cells having connection with
nervous tissue,
o Once an impulse is generated and transmitted, the
cell will take some time to reset its mechanism to
generate a new impulse. So, cells cannot
continually create and transmit electrical impulses.
* So most multicellular organisms use chemical
(hormone) communication between cells.
* In animal bodies also have controlled directions to
growth. E.g. growth of arms & fingers.
* For fast responses to stimuli, information must be
transferred very quickly. Electrical impulses are an
excellent means for this. But it has some limitations:
© They reach only the cells having connection with
nervous tissue,
o Once an impulse is generated and transmitted, the
cell will take some time to reset its mechanism to
generate a new impulse. So, cells cannot
continually create and transmit electrical impulses.
* So most multicellular organisms use chemical
(hormone) communication between cells.
| COORDINATION IN PLANTS | IN PLANTS Movement Due to Growth
Nat Auxin * In chemical communication, stimulated cells
release a hormone and it diffuses around the
== original cell. Other cells detect hormone using
Light special molecules on their surfaces. Then they
a recognise information and transmit it.
+ This is slower process but can reach all cells and
can be done steadily and persistently.
* Plant hormones can coordinate growth,
development and responses to the environment.
They are synthesised at some places and diffuse
to the area of action,
E ate * Plant hormones include growth promoters
Auxin diffuses Auxin diffuses (Auxin, Gibberellins, Cytokinin) and growth
U onthe shady side inhibitors (Abscisic acid etc.).
Nat Auxin * In chemical communication, stimulated cells
release a hormone and it diffuses around the
== original cell. Other cells detect hormone using
Light special molecules on their surfaces. Then they
a recognise information and transmit it.
+ This is slower process but can reach all cells and
can be done steadily and persistently.
* Plant hormones can coordinate growth,
development and responses to the environment.
They are synthesised at some places and diffuse
to the area of action,
E ate * Plant hormones include growth promoters
Auxin diffuses Auxin diffuses (Auxin, Gibberellins, Cytokinin) and growth
U onthe shady side inhibitors (Abscisic acid etc.).
COORDINATION IN PLANTS Movement Due to Growth
Some Plant Hormones
i E * Regulates growth in plants.
É * When plants detect light, auxin, synthesised at the shoot
i=. tip, helps the cells to grow longer. When light is coming
from one side of the plant, auxin diffuses towards the shady
A side of the shoot. As a result, cells on the shady side grow
te longer. Thus, the plant bends towards light.
- ae =
\ à.
ALE + Help in the growth of the stem.
+ Promote cell division. They are mostly
Cytokinins present in areas of rapid cell division,
such as fruits and seeds.
ETAT * Inhibits growth. Causes wilting of leaves.
Some Plant Hormones
i E * Regulates growth in plants.
É * When plants detect light, auxin, synthesised at the shoot
i=. tip, helps the cells to grow longer. When light is coming
from one side of the plant, auxin diffuses towards the shady
A side of the shoot. As a result, cells on the shady side grow
te longer. Thus, the plant bends towards light.
- ae =
\ à.
ALE + Help in the growth of the stem.
+ Promote cell division. They are mostly
Cytokinins present in areas of rapid cell division,
such as fruits and seeds.
ETAT * Inhibits growth. Causes wilting of leaves.
HORMONES IN ANIMALS (ENDOCRINE SYSTEM)
* Electrical impulses can instruct only few
tissues to prepare for an activity. So, in
animals, there is another way of control &
coordination called Endocrine system.
+ It includes endocrine glands and their
secretions called hormones (chemical
signals). They can reach all cells and provide
wide-ranging changes. E.g. Adrenal glands
secretes adrenaline.
right adrenal N
zu oe
mm 4 |
Endocrine glands: In male In female
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* Electrical impulses can instruct only few
tissues to prepare for an activity. So, in
animals, there is another way of control &
coordination called Endocrine system.
+ It includes endocrine glands and their
secretions called hormones (chemical
signals). They can reach all cells and provide
wide-ranging changes. E.g. Adrenal glands
secretes adrenaline.
right adrenal N
zu oe
mm 4 |
Endocrine glands: In male In female
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HORMONES IN ANIMALS (ENDOCRINE SYSTEM)
* Adrenaline prepares body to cope with emergency situations.
E.g. a scary animal such as squirrels prepare to fight or run
away. It needs more energy. Though fighting & running are
different, both have some common preparations.
* Adrenaline is secreted into blood and carried to different body
parts. As a result, the following events occur:
v Heart beats faster to supply more oxygen to muscles,
Y” Blood to the digestive system and skin is reduced by
contracting muscles around small arteries in these organs.
This diverts the blood to skeletal muscles.
¥ Breathing rate increases due to the contraction of
diaphragm and rib muscles.
* These responses prepare the body to deal with the situation
(fighting and running).
* Adrenaline prepares body to cope with emergency situations.
E.g. a scary animal such as squirrels prepare to fight or run
away. It needs more energy. Though fighting & running are
different, both have some common preparations.
* Adrenaline is secreted into blood and carried to different body
parts. As a result, the following events occur:
v Heart beats faster to supply more oxygen to muscles,
Y” Blood to the digestive system and skin is reduced by
contracting muscles around small arteries in these organs.
This diverts the blood to skeletal muscles.
¥ Breathing rate increases due to the contraction of
diaphragm and rib muscles.
* These responses prepare the body to deal with the situation
(fighting and running).
HORMONES IN ANIMALS (ENDOCRINE SYSTEM)
* The timing and amount of hormone
released are regulated by feedback
seat mechanisms.
Hy
Patry
+ E.g. if the blood sugar level increases, it is
detected by cells of pancreas and produce
more insulin. As the blood sugar level falls,
insulin secretion is reduced.
Tyros
Arena
Levi
E Y À
Endocrine glands: In male In female
Ovary
PANCREAS
* The timing and amount of hormone
released are regulated by feedback
seat mechanisms.
Hy
Patry
+ E.g. if the blood sugar level increases, it is
detected by cells of pancreas and produce
more insulin. As the blood sugar level falls,
insulin secretion is reduced.
Tyros
Arena
Levi
E Y À
Endocrine glands: In male In female
Ovary
PANCREAS
HORMONES IN ANIMALS (ENDOCRINE SYSTEM)
| | _ SOME IMPORTANT HORMONES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS _
Endocrine Gland &
Hormone
Functions & other info
Stimulates pituitary gland to release
Hypothalamus hormones.
Releasing E.g. growth hormone releasing factor
hormones stimulates pituitary gland to release
Growth hormone (GH).
=. Gigantism
Sultan Koser
atttin
Stimulates growth & development of the
Pituitary gland body. ls]
oa | * Dwarfism: Deficiency of GH in childhood. E
(GH) * Gigantism: Overproduction of GH in = dure
20527 in
childhood,
| | _ SOME IMPORTANT HORMONES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS _
Endocrine Gland &
Hormone
Functions & other info
Stimulates pituitary gland to release
Hypothalamus hormones.
Releasing E.g. growth hormone releasing factor
hormones stimulates pituitary gland to release
Growth hormone (GH).
=. Gigantism
Sultan Koser
atttin
Stimulates growth & development of the
Pituitary gland body. ls]
oa | * Dwarfism: Deficiency of GH in childhood. E
(GH) * Gigantism: Overproduction of GH in = dure
20527 in
childhood,
HORMONES IN ANIMALS (ENDOCRINE SYSTEM)
SOME IMPORTANT HORMONES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
* Regulates carbohydrate,
protein & fat metabolism for
balanced growth.
* lodine is essential for
: synthesis of thyroxin. lodised
jhyroxine salts provide iodine.
Thyroid gland
* Deficiency of iodine causes
goitre. Swollen neck is the
main symptom,
SOME IMPORTANT HORMONES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
* Regulates carbohydrate,
protein & fat metabolism for
balanced growth.
* lodine is essential for
: synthesis of thyroxin. lodised
jhyroxine salts provide iodine.
Thyroid gland
* Deficiency of iodine causes
goitre. Swollen neck is the
main symptom,
HORMONES IN ANIMALS (ENDOCRINE SYSTEM)
!
* Regulates blood sugar level. F 5 y
* Deficiency of insulin causes A 1d
diabetes (sugar level increases), pe , ú 4 a
* Such patients are given insulin ee 4 =
lada fi
POF NT HORMONES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
injections.
!
* Regulates blood sugar level. F 5 y
* Deficiency of insulin causes A 1d
diabetes (sugar level increases), pe , ú 4 a
* Such patients are given insulin ee 4 =
lada fi
POF NT HORMONES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
injections.
HORMONES IN ANIMALS (ENDOCRINE SYSTEM)
* Changes during puberty.
* Development of male sex
Testosterone :
organs, behaviour etc,
+ Changes during puberty.
DEUEAUMEUCIIN + Development of female sex
Oestrogen organs, regulates menstrual
cycle, etc.
* Changes during puberty.
* Development of male sex
Testosterone :
organs, behaviour etc,
+ Changes during puberty.
DEUEAUMEUCIIN + Development of female sex
Oestrogen organs, regulates menstrual
cycle, etc.
* Reproduction is the production of offspring
that are biol ally similar to the parent
organism.
An individual organism needs no
reproduction to maintain its life but it is
y for the existence and continuity
m
nec
of life of each species. So an organ
Js much energy to create more
spe
individuals.
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that are biol ally similar to the parent
organism.
An individual organism needs no
reproduction to maintain its life but it is
y for the existence and continuity
m
nec
of life of each species. So an organ
Js much energy to create more
spe
individuals.
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ORGANISMS CREATE EXACT COPIES HEMSELVES?
Protein Body design
* Chromosomes in cell nucleus contain DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid). It contains information
(blueprints) of body designs that inherit from parents to offspring.
+ DNA is the information source for making proteins. If the information is changed, different
proteins will be made. It leads to change in body designs. Therefore, creation of a DNA copy is
the basic event in reproduction.
Protein Body design
* Chromosomes in cell nucleus contain DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid). It contains information
(blueprints) of body designs that inherit from parents to offspring.
+ DNA is the information source for making proteins. If the information is changed, different
proteins will be made. It leads to change in body designs. Therefore, creation of a DNA copy is
the basic event in reproduction.
DO ORGANISMS CREATE EXACT COPIES OF THEMSELVES?
A * A reproducing cell creates two DNA copies
and additional cellular apparatus. Then they
separate, and the cell divides into two.
/ \ * In each process of DNA copying, some
variations are created. As a result, DNA
copies will be similar, but not identical to
the original.
if large variations occur, the new DNA copy
EN EN
may not work with the cellular apparatus. So,
the new-born cell will die,
* If variations are mild, cells are survived.
Variation during reproduction is the basis of
DNA copying illustration of inheritance of variation evolution.
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A * A reproducing cell creates two DNA copies
and additional cellular apparatus. Then they
separate, and the cell divides into two.
/ \ * In each process of DNA copying, some
variations are created. As a result, DNA
copies will be similar, but not identical to
the original.
if large variations occur, the new DNA copy
EN EN
may not work with the cellular apparatus. So,
the new-born cell will die,
* If variations are mild, cells are survived.
Variation during reproduction is the basis of
DNA copying illustration of inheritance of variation evolution.
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DO ORGANISMS CREATE EXA
COPIES OF THEMSELVES
The Importance of Variation
A bacterial population
Normal
bacteria
Variant
(heat resistant)
Temperature is
increased
* Consistent DNA copying maintains body design. It helps the organism
to use a particular niche. So, reproduction is linked to the stability of
populations of species.
* However, niches can change due to many reasons. E.g. change in
temperature and water level, meteorite hits etc.
* If a niche is drastically altered, the population not suited to that niche
is wiped out. Individuals having variations may be survived. E.g.
Consider a bacterial population in temperate waters. If the water
temperature is increased by global warming, most of the bacteria die,
but the few variants resistant to heat survive. Variation is thus useful
for the survival of species over time.
COPIES OF THEMSELVES
The Importance of Variation
A bacterial population
Normal
bacteria
Variant
(heat resistant)
Temperature is
increased
* Consistent DNA copying maintains body design. It helps the organism
to use a particular niche. So, reproduction is linked to the stability of
populations of species.
* However, niches can change due to many reasons. E.g. change in
temperature and water level, meteorite hits etc.
* If a niche is drastically altered, the population not suited to that niche
is wiped out. Individuals having variations may be survived. E.g.
Consider a bacterial population in temperate waters. If the water
temperature is increased by global warming, most of the bacteria die,
but the few variants resistant to heat survive. Variation is thus useful
for the survival of species over time.
MODES OF REPRODUCTION USED BY SINGLE ORGANISMS
> io
* The modes reproduction by various
organisms depends on their body design,
. A FRAGMENTATION
* Creation of new generations from a single
individual is called asexual reproduction.
[a] REGENERATION
A BUDDING
Types of DAS É =
| Asexual ] Bs VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
reproduction E J
Br SPORE FORMATION |
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> io
* The modes reproduction by various
organisms depends on their body design,
. A FRAGMENTATION
* Creation of new generations from a single
individual is called asexual reproduction.
[a] REGENERATION
A BUDDING
Types of DAS É =
| Asexual ] Bs VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
reproduction E J
Br SPORE FORMATION |
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MODES OF REPRODUCTION USED BY SINGLE ORGANISMS
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION | 1. FISSION |
Multiple fission in
Plasmodium
* It is the cell division of unicellular organisms to
form new individuals.
* E.g. Many bacteria and protozoa.
* Itis 2 types:
Binary fission
Multiple fission
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ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION | 1. FISSION |
Multiple fission in
Plasmodium
* It is the cell division of unicellular organisms to
form new individuals.
* E.g. Many bacteria and protozoa.
* Itis 2 types:
Binary fission
Multiple fission
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ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION 1. FISSION
Binary fission in Amoeba
* In this, parent cell divides into 2 daughter cells. E.g. S
Amoeba, Leishmania rs
“
Binary, * In Amoeba, binary fission takes place in any plane a
fission * Some unicellular organisms have complex body SRA i a. TS
non organisation. E.g. Leishmania (cause kala-azar), have |, fa} u {id (ie AA
a whip-like structure. Here, binary fission occurs in \ \ | {| i |
relation to these structures. N, ee)
Yon * Inthis, some single-celled organisms divide into many
Multiple daughter cells, Multiple fission in
fissior Plasmodium
* E.g. Plasmodium (malarial parasite).
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Binary fission in Amoeba
* In this, parent cell divides into 2 daughter cells. E.g. S
Amoeba, Leishmania rs
“
Binary, * In Amoeba, binary fission takes place in any plane a
fission * Some unicellular organisms have complex body SRA i a. TS
non organisation. E.g. Leishmania (cause kala-azar), have |, fa} u {id (ie AA
a whip-like structure. Here, binary fission occurs in \ \ | {| i |
relation to these structures. N, ee)
Yon * Inthis, some single-celled organisms divide into many
Multiple daughter cells, Multiple fission in
fissior Plasmodium
* E.g. Plasmodium (malarial parasite).
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MODES OF REPRODUCTION USED BY SINGLE ORGANISMS
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION 2. FRAGMENTATION
do | x $
Sepia.
Spiral Sy
chioroplast
* In this, an organism simply breaks up into smaller pieces (fragments) and they grow into new
individuals. E.g. Spirogyra (greenish, filamentous multicellular structures seen in pond or lake).
+ All multicellular organisms cannot simply divide cell-by-cell because the cells are organised as
tissues and organs. Here, different cell types perform different functions. So, reproduction is also
performed by a specific cell type. It can grow, proliferate and make other cell types.
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ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION 2. FRAGMENTATION
do | x $
Sepia.
Spiral Sy
chioroplast
* In this, an organism simply breaks up into smaller pieces (fragments) and they grow into new
individuals. E.g. Spirogyra (greenish, filamentous multicellular structures seen in pond or lake).
+ All multicellular organisms cannot simply divide cell-by-cell because the cells are organised as
tissues and organs. Here, different cell types perform different functions. So, reproduction is also
performed by a specific cell type. It can grow, proliferate and make other cell types.
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MODES OF REPRODUCTION USED BY SINGLE ORGANISMS
| ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION |] 3. REGENERATION |
Regeneration in a]
2 * In this, a differentiated
EN organism is cut into many
pieces and they grow into
ur separate individuals.
* E.g. Hydra 8: Planaria.
Regeneration in a
* During regeneration, some specialised cells proliferate to form a cell
Ys mass. From this, different cells undergo development to form
various cell types and tissues.
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| ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION |] 3. REGENERATION |
Regeneration in a]
2 * In this, a differentiated
EN organism is cut into many
pieces and they grow into
ur separate individuals.
* E.g. Hydra 8: Planaria.
Regeneration in a
* During regeneration, some specialised cells proliferate to form a cell
Ys mass. From this, different cells undergo development to form
various cell types and tissues.
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MODES OF REPRO TION USED BY SINGLE ORGANISMS
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION 4. BUDDING
* In this, a new Nucteus Budding in Yeast md
organism is
developed from a
small part of the
parent's body.
+ E.g. Yeast, Hydra etc. Parente
Budding in Hydra
AA + Dissolve about 10 gm sugar in 100 mL of water.
Yeast * Take 20 mL of this solution in a test tube and add some yeast granules. Put a cotton
PE plug on the mouth of the test tube and keep it for 1 - 2 hours in a warm place.
£
rt * Put a drop of yeast culture from the test tube on a slide and cover with a coverslip.
f Observe under microscope. We see yeast reproducing by forming buds.
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ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION 4. BUDDING
* In this, a new Nucteus Budding in Yeast md
organism is
developed from a
small part of the
parent's body.
+ E.g. Yeast, Hydra etc. Parente
Budding in Hydra
AA + Dissolve about 10 gm sugar in 100 mL of water.
Yeast * Take 20 mL of this solution in a test tube and add some yeast granules. Put a cotton
PE plug on the mouth of the test tube and keep it for 1 - 2 hours in a warm place.
£
rt * Put a drop of yeast culture from the test tube on a slide and cover with a coverslip.
f Observe under microscope. We see yeast reproducing by forming buds.
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MODES OF REPRODUCTION USED BY SINGLE ORGANISMS
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION | 4. BUDDING
Bud
Nugteus Budding in Yeast
6%) A
Bud
Budding in Hydra
* Organisms such as Hydra use regenerative cells for budding.
* In Hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at one specific site. Buds
develop into tiny individuals and when fully mature, detach from parent body and become new
individuals.
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ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION | 4. BUDDING
Bud
Nugteus Budding in Yeast
6%) A
Bud
Budding in Hydra
* Organisms such as Hydra use regenerative cells for budding.
* In Hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at one specific site. Buds
develop into tiny individuals and when fully mature, detach from parent body and become new
individuals.
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| MODES O! F REPRODUCTION USED BY
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION | 5.1
In this, plant parts
like root, stem &
leaves develop into pu Y
new plants under
appropriate
conditions,
Advantages:
* Used in layering or grafting to grow plants like sugarcane, roses or grapes for agricultural purposes.
* Plants raised by this method can bear flowers and fruits earlier than those produced from seeds.
* Seedless progenies can be produced. E.g. banana, orange, rose, jasmine etc.
+ All plants are genetically similar to the parent plant.
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ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION | 5.1
In this, plant parts
like root, stem &
leaves develop into pu Y
new plants under
appropriate
conditions,
Advantages:
* Used in layering or grafting to grow plants like sugarcane, roses or grapes for agricultural purposes.
* Plants raised by this method can bear flowers and fruits earlier than those produced from seeds.
* Seedless progenies can be produced. E.g. banana, orange, rose, jasmine etc.
+ All plants are genetically similar to the parent plant.
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| MODES OF REPRODUCTION N US
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Leat of Bryophyllum with buds.
* Potato tuber has buds for vegetative propagation.
+ Cut a potato into small pieces such that some pieces contain a notch or bud and some do not.
+ Place them on some wet cotton on a tray.
+ After few days, the potato pieces with buds give rise to fresh green shoots and roots,
* In Bryophylium, buds are produced in the notches along the leaf margin. They fall on the soil and
develop into new plants.
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ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Leat of Bryophyllum with buds.
* Potato tuber has buds for vegetative propagation.
+ Cut a potato into small pieces such that some pieces contain a notch or bud and some do not.
+ Place them on some wet cotton on a tray.
+ After few days, the potato pieces with buds give rise to fresh green shoots and roots,
* In Bryophylium, buds are produced in the notches along the leaf margin. They fall on the soil and
develop into new plants.
nkofbiology.co
> OF REPRODUCTION USED BY S
MOD!
[ ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION | 5. V
+ In money plants, vegetative propagation occurs
through stem cutting with at least one leaf (for
photosynthesis).
* Itcan be demonstrated by following activity:
+ Cut some pieces of a money-plant such that they
contain at least one leaf.
+ Cut out some other portions between two leaves.
+ Dip one end of all the pieces in water.
+ After few days, it is observed that portion of
Money plant with at least one leaf grows and
gives rise to fresh leaves, But money plant
without leaf dies.
nkofbiology.c
MOD!
[ ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION | 5. V
+ In money plants, vegetative propagation occurs
through stem cutting with at least one leaf (for
photosynthesis).
* Itcan be demonstrated by following activity:
+ Cut some pieces of a money-plant such that they
contain at least one leaf.
+ Cut out some other portions between two leaves.
+ Dip one end of all the pieces in water.
+ After few days, it is observed that portion of
Money plant with at least one leaf grows and
gives rise to fresh leaves, But money plant
without leaf dies.
nkofbiology.c
| MODES OF REPRODUCTION US
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
* Itis a method of growing tissues or cells from
a plant in artificial medium.
* Cells are divided rapidly to form callus (a small
group of cells), It is transferred to another
medium containing hormones for growth and
differentiation. Then the plantlets are placed
in the soil. They grow into mature plants.
* Thus, many plants can be grown in disease-
H free conditions. This technique is commonly
used for ornamental plants.
nkofbiology.co
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
* Itis a method of growing tissues or cells from
a plant in artificial medium.
* Cells are divided rapidly to form callus (a small
group of cells), It is transferred to another
medium containing hormones for growth and
differentiation. Then the plantlets are placed
in the soil. They grow into mature plants.
* Thus, many plants can be grown in disease-
H free conditions. This technique is commonly
used for ornamental plants.
nkofbiology.co
AD
| MODES OF REPRODUCTION USED BY Si
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION | | 6. SF
Spores
* It is present in organisms like bread mould (Rhizopus).
* Keep a slice of wet bread in a cool, moist and dark place.
* Observe it for a week.
+ A layer of white mass of thread-like structures is seen on
the slice. It is the hyphae of Rhizopus.
ole ) pores + Hyphae include some blob-on-a-stick structures. They are
y involved in reproduction. The blobs (sporangia) contain
IT / cells (spores) that can develop into new Rhizopus.
* Spores are covered by thick walls that protect them until
they come into contact with a moist surface and can begin
to grow.
SS Spore formation
in Rhizopus
nkofbiology.co
| MODES OF REPRODUCTION USED BY Si
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION | | 6. SF
Spores
* It is present in organisms like bread mould (Rhizopus).
* Keep a slice of wet bread in a cool, moist and dark place.
* Observe it for a week.
+ A layer of white mass of thread-like structures is seen on
the slice. It is the hyphae of Rhizopus.
ole ) pores + Hyphae include some blob-on-a-stick structures. They are
y involved in reproduction. The blobs (sporangia) contain
IT / cells (spores) that can develop into new Rhizopus.
* Spores are covered by thick walls that protect them until
they come into contact with a moist surface and can begin
to grow.
SS Spore formation
in Rhizopus
nkofbiology.co
It is the reproduction in which both sexes (male & female) are needed
to produce new generations.
to produce new generations.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTIO
Why Sexual Mode of Reproduction?
* The errors during DNA copying creates variations.
* Variations do not protect all individuals in a population but help for
survival of the species,
* If the DNA copying mechanisms are less accurate, the resultant DNA
cannot work with cellular apparatus and will die.
* But sexual reproduction can generate more variations and speed up the
making of new variants by combining DNA copies from two individuals.
+ All these variations are accumulated and inherited from generation to
generation. It produces individuals with different patterns of variations in
a population.
* But new generation will not have twice the amount of DNA. It is due to a
process of specialised cell division called meiosis. It occurs in sex organs.
nkofbiology.com
Why Sexual Mode of Reproduction?
* The errors during DNA copying creates variations.
* Variations do not protect all individuals in a population but help for
survival of the species,
* If the DNA copying mechanisms are less accurate, the resultant DNA
cannot work with cellular apparatus and will die.
* But sexual reproduction can generate more variations and speed up the
making of new variants by combining DNA copies from two individuals.
+ All these variations are accumulated and inherited from generation to
generation. It produces individuals with different patterns of variations in
a population.
* But new generation will not have twice the amount of DNA. It is due to a
process of specialised cell division called meiosis. It occurs in sex organs.
nkofbiology.com
XUAL REPRODUCTION
Why Sexual Mode of Reproduction?
Female
gamete
Faget .
Similar E
gametes
Male
Some ‘eme
+ During meiosis, gametes (germ cells) are formed in which number of chromosomes and amount
of DNA are half as compared to the non-reproductive cells.
* Gametes from two individuals combine to form zygote that develops to a new individual. It
reestablishes the chromosome number & DNA content in new generation.
* In very simple organisms, the two germ cells are almost similar.
* In complex organisms, one germ cell is large and contains food-stores. It is called female gamete,
The other is small and motile. It is called male gamete.
bankofbiology.co
Why Sexual Mode of Reproduction?
Female
gamete
Faget .
Similar E
gametes
Male
Some ‘eme
+ During meiosis, gametes (germ cells) are formed in which number of chromosomes and amount
of DNA are half as compared to the non-reproductive cells.
* Gametes from two individuals combine to form zygote that develops to a new individual. It
reestablishes the chromosome number & DNA content in new generation.
* In very simple organisms, the two germ cells are almost similar.
* In complex organisms, one germ cell is large and contains food-stores. It is called female gamete,
The other is small and motile. It is called male gamete.
bankofbiology.co
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
5 :
Parts of a fiower
LRU
1. Sepals: Outermost part which
El protect the bud.
Style
|| 2. Petals: Brightly coloured to attract
pollinators.
ul
Omar >
ee Longitudinal
section of flower
Reproductive parts
a a | 1, Sepals
of angiosperms are ||
nile 2. Petals
located in f
3; nen
4. Pistil
ankofbiology.com
Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
5 :
Parts of a fiower
LRU
1. Sepals: Outermost part which
El protect the bud.
Style
|| 2. Petals: Brightly coloured to attract
pollinators.
ul
Omar >
ee Longitudinal
section of flower
Reproductive parts
a a | 1, Sepals
of angiosperms are ||
nile 2. Petals
located in f
3; nen
4. Pistil
ankofbiology.com
3. Stamen: Male reproductive part. Formed of anther and
filament. It produces yellowish and sticky pollen grains.
Pollen grains produce male germ cells.
4. figs Female reproductive part. It has 3 parts:
+ Ovary: Swollen bottom part. It contains ovules. Each
ovule has an egg cell (female gamete).
+ Style: Middle elongated part.
+ Stigma: Terminal part which may be sticky.
* Unisexual flower: Contains either stamens or pistil. E.g.
papaya, watermelon.
2 + Bisexual flower: Contains both stamens and pistil. E.g.
Hibiscus, mustard.
ankofbiology.com
filament. It produces yellowish and sticky pollen grains.
Pollen grains produce male germ cells.
4. figs Female reproductive part. It has 3 parts:
+ Ovary: Swollen bottom part. It contains ovules. Each
ovule has an egg cell (female gamete).
+ Style: Middle elongated part.
+ Stigma: Terminal part which may be sticky.
* Unisexual flower: Contains either stamens or pistil. E.g.
papaya, watermelon.
2 + Bisexual flower: Contains both stamens and pistil. E.g.
Hibiscus, mustard.
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SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
Pollination
+ Transfer of pollens from stamen to stigma.
(Seif Pollination *Htis 2 types:
$ + Self-pollination: Transfer of pollen in
men same flower.
E ‘Stigma
$ D Per Y AD a + Crosspollination: Transfer of pollen from
WM) EN N LA one flower to another by agents like
Y / Y Y Kr wind, water or animals.
el - x A
f
wa
Cross pollination
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Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
Pollination
+ Transfer of pollens from stamen to stigma.
(Seif Pollination *Htis 2 types:
$ + Self-pollination: Transfer of pollen in
men same flower.
E ‘Stigma
$ D Per Y AD a + Crosspollination: Transfer of pollen from
WM) EN N LA one flower to another by agents like
Y / Y Y Kr wind, water or animals.
el - x A
f
wa
Cross pollination
ankofbiology.com
SEXUAL REPRODUCTI
Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
Pollen grain . .
Stigma 3 Pollination
Mate germ-cell
+ After pollination, a pollen tube grows out of
Pollen tube Fertilisation :
1 the pollen grain and travels through the
Seed style and reach the ovary. Male germ cell
from pollen grain reaches the female germ
cells through this tube,
Ovary
| iS ) + Male germ cell fuses (fertilization) with the
fi mec ~ female gamete in the ovule to form zygote.
* Then the zygote divides several times to
form an embryo within the ovule.
Seed
Germination of polien
on stigma
ankofbiology.com
Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
Pollen grain . .
Stigma 3 Pollination
Mate germ-cell
+ After pollination, a pollen tube grows out of
Pollen tube Fertilisation :
1 the pollen grain and travels through the
Seed style and reach the ovary. Male germ cell
from pollen grain reaches the female germ
cells through this tube,
Ovary
| iS ) + Male germ cell fuses (fertilization) with the
fi mec ~ female gamete in the ovule to form zygote.
* Then the zygote divides several times to
form an embryo within the ovule.
Seed
Germination of polien
on stigma
ankofbiology.com
Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
* Ovule develops a tough coat and becomes a seed.
* Ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.
* Petals, sepals, stamens, style & stigma shrivel and fall off.
* Seed contains the embryo (future plant) which develops into a
seedling under suitable conditions (germination).
+ A cut-open germinated seed (e.g. Bengal gram, chana) shows the
following parts:
= (>) Ke
] Plumule
Y (future shoot} |
Cotyledon: aan
(food store) Radicle—»|
Seed (future root)
ankofbiology.com
* Ovule develops a tough coat and becomes a seed.
* Ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.
* Petals, sepals, stamens, style & stigma shrivel and fall off.
* Seed contains the embryo (future plant) which develops into a
seedling under suitable conditions (germination).
+ A cut-open germinated seed (e.g. Bengal gram, chana) shows the
following parts:
= (>) Ke
] Plumule
Y (future shoot} |
Cotyledon: aan
(food store) Radicle—»|
Seed (future root)
ankofbiology.com
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Reproduction in Human Beings
* In early teenage, the appearance and
proportions of body change and new features
and sensations appear. These changes
indicate the sexual maturation.
Changes common to boys and girls:
+ Thick hair grows in armpits and the genital
area which become darker in colour.
+ Thinner hair on legs, arms and face.
+ Skin frequently becomes oily that may cause
pimples,
ankofbiology.com
Reproduction in Human Beings
* In early teenage, the appearance and
proportions of body change and new features
and sensations appear. These changes
indicate the sexual maturation.
Changes common to boys and girls:
+ Thick hair grows in armpits and the genital
area which become darker in colour.
+ Thinner hair on legs, arms and face.
+ Skin frequently becomes oily that may cause
pimples,
ankofbiology.com
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Reproduction in Human Beings
Changes in girls
* Breast size increases and darkening of skin of
nipples.
* Menstruation.
Changes in boys
* Thick hair on the face.
+ Voice begins to crack.
+ Erection of penis in daydreams or at night.
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Reproduction in Human Beings
Changes in girls
* Breast size increases and darkening of skin of
nipples.
* Menstruation.
Changes in boys
* Thick hair on the face.
+ Voice begins to crack.
+ Erection of penis in daydreams or at night.
ankofbiology.com
Reproduction in Human Beings
+ All these changes occur slowly and gradually.
* The pattern and duration of these changes are
varied in different people. So, they have
different patterns of hair growth, size and
shape of breast or penis.
* Up to adult stage, resources of the body are
mainly used for growth, not for maturation.
Then the growth rate slows down and
reproductive tissues begin to mature. This
period during adolescence is called puberty.
* Changes during puberty are signals of sexual
maturity so that other individuals can identify
them for mating.
nkofbiology.com
+ All these changes occur slowly and gradually.
* The pattern and duration of these changes are
varied in different people. So, they have
different patterns of hair growth, size and
shape of breast or penis.
* Up to adult stage, resources of the body are
mainly used for growth, not for maturation.
Then the growth rate slows down and
reproductive tissues begin to mature. This
period during adolescence is called puberty.
* Changes during puberty are signals of sexual
maturity so that other individuals can identify
them for mating.
nkofbiology.com
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Reproduction in Human Beings (a) Male Reproductive System
+ It consists of two testes and ducts to
deliver germ cells.
Testes
+ In these, germ cells (sperms) are
formed.
+ Testes are located in scrotum because
sperm formation requires a lower
temperature than body temperature.
* Testes also secrete a hormone,
testosterone. It regulates formation
of sperms and changes in boys during
puberty.
ankofbiology.com
Ureter Seminal vesicle
Reproduction in Human Beings (a) Male Reproductive System
+ It consists of two testes and ducts to
deliver germ cells.
Testes
+ In these, germ cells (sperms) are
formed.
+ Testes are located in scrotum because
sperm formation requires a lower
temperature than body temperature.
* Testes also secrete a hormone,
testosterone. It regulates formation
of sperms and changes in boys during
puberty.
ankofbiology.com
Ureter Seminal vesicle
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Reproduction in Human Beings (a) Male Reproductive System
= Ducts
Head * Include vas deferens to deliver sperms which
unites with urethra coming from urinary
Middle bladder. Thus, urethra forms a common
plece passage for sperms and urine.
* Along the path of vas deferens, glands like
prostate and seminal vesicles release some
fluid secretions, These are mixed with sperms
to form semen. It makes sperm transport
easier and provides nutrition.
\ * Asperm consists of genetic material and a
ASperm A long tail that helps to move towards female
i germ cell (egg).
ankofbiology.com
Reproduction in Human Beings (a) Male Reproductive System
= Ducts
Head * Include vas deferens to deliver sperms which
unites with urethra coming from urinary
Middle bladder. Thus, urethra forms a common
plece passage for sperms and urine.
* Along the path of vas deferens, glands like
prostate and seminal vesicles release some
fluid secretions, These are mixed with sperms
to form semen. It makes sperm transport
easier and provides nutrition.
\ * Asperm consists of genetic material and a
ASperm A long tail that helps to move towards female
i germ cell (egg).
ankofbiology.com
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Reproduction in Human Beings (b) Female Reproductive System
+ It consists of 2 ovaries, 2 oviducts, uterus,
vagina etc.
+ Female germ cells (ovum or egg) are
made in the ovaries. They also produce
some hormones.
Female Organs
Fang Tubes
Human female
Reproductive
‘System
* The ovaries of a newly born girl contain
thousands of immature eggs. At puberty,
some of them starts maturing.
* One egg is produced every month by one
of the ovaries. It is carried from the ovary
to the womb (uterus - elastic & bag-like)
through a thin oviduct (fallopian tube).
ankofbiology.com
Reproduction in Human Beings (b) Female Reproductive System
+ It consists of 2 ovaries, 2 oviducts, uterus,
vagina etc.
+ Female germ cells (ovum or egg) are
made in the ovaries. They also produce
some hormones.
Female Organs
Fang Tubes
Human female
Reproductive
‘System
* The ovaries of a newly born girl contain
thousands of immature eggs. At puberty,
some of them starts maturing.
* One egg is produced every month by one
of the ovaries. It is carried from the ovary
to the womb (uterus - elastic & bag-like)
through a thin oviduct (fallopian tube).
ankofbiology.com
Reproduction in Human Beings (b) Female Reproductive System
SÉ
* Uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix.
* During sexual intercourse, sperms are transferred
into the vagina through penis.
* Sperms from vagina > travel via uterus > reach
the oviduct > meet the egg > fertilization >
zygote (fertilised egg) > divides > embryo >
implantation of embryo in the lining of uterus >
growth continues and organs develop > foetus.
* The uterus prepares every month to receive and
nurture the embryo. The lining becomes thick and
spongy. It has rich supply of blood to nourish the
embryo.
ankofbiology.com
SÉ
* Uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix.
* During sexual intercourse, sperms are transferred
into the vagina through penis.
* Sperms from vagina > travel via uterus > reach
the oviduct > meet the egg > fertilization >
zygote (fertilised egg) > divides > embryo >
implantation of embryo in the lining of uterus >
growth continues and organs develop > foetus.
* The uterus prepares every month to receive and
nurture the embryo. The lining becomes thick and
spongy. It has rich supply of blood to nourish the
embryo.
ankofbiology.com
| SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Reproduction in Human Beings (b) Female Reproductive System
| Placenta
Placenta.
* This is a disc of a special tissue
embedded in the uterine wall.
+ It connects foetus to mother.
* It contains villi on the embryo's side.
\ + On the mother’s side are blood spaces surrounding the villi,
É \ + Villi increase surface area.
ankofbiology.com
Reproduction in Human Beings (b) Female Reproductive System
| Placenta
Placenta.
* This is a disc of a special tissue
embedded in the uterine wall.
+ It connects foetus to mother.
* It contains villi on the embryo's side.
\ + On the mother’s side are blood spaces surrounding the villi,
É \ + Villi increase surface area.
ankofbiology.com
SEN 'REPRODUCTIO
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Reproduction in Human Beings (b) Female Reproductive System
Placenta Functions of placenta
Y” The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood.
v Transports glucose & oxygen from mother to embryo.
Y” Removes wastes from embryo into mother’s blood.
* Development of the child inside the
mother’s body takes about 9 months.
* The child is born as a result of rhythmic
contractions of the muscles in the uterus.
\ + After delivery, baby should be breast-fed.
ankofbiology.com
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Reproduction in Human Beings (b) Female Reproductive System
Placenta Functions of placenta
Y” The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood.
v Transports glucose & oxygen from mother to embryo.
Y” Removes wastes from embryo into mother’s blood.
* Development of the child inside the
mother’s body takes about 9 months.
* The child is born as a result of rhythmic
contractions of the muscles in the uterus.
\ + After delivery, baby should be breast-fed.
ankofbiology.com
[ _SEXUAL RE
Reproduction in Human Being (b) Female Reproductive System
What happens when the egg is not
fertilised?
* If the egg is not fertilised, it lives for about one
day.
* The lining of uterus slowly breaks and comes out
through the vagina as blood and mucus. This
cyclic process occurring every month is called
menstruation. It lasts for 2-8 days.
ankofbiology.com
Reproduction in Human Being (b) Female Reproductive System
What happens when the egg is not
fertilised?
* If the egg is not fertilised, it lives for about one
day.
* The lining of uterus slowly breaks and comes out
through the vagina as blood and mucus. This
cyclic process occurring every month is called
menstruation. It lasts for 2-8 days.
ankofbiology.com
[ SEXUAL REPR
DUCTION
[ Reproductive Health
+ A woman’s body & mind should be ready for sexual act, being pregnant bringing up children. If
not, her health will be adversely affected.
bankofbiology.co
DUCTION
[ Reproductive Health
+ A woman’s body & mind should be ready for sexual act, being pregnant bringing up children. If
not, her health will be adversely affected.
bankofbiology.co
* There are many sexually transmitted diseases,
« E.g. gonorrhoea & syphilis (bacterial
infections) and warts & HIV-AIDS (viral
infections).
+ They can be prevented by using condom for
the penis during sex.
nkofbiology.com
« E.g. gonorrhoea & syphilis (bacterial
infections) and warts & HIV-AIDS (viral
infections).
+ They can be prevented by using condom for
the penis during sex.
nkofbiology.com
Condoms
ENEE + Prevent meeting of sperm & egg. E.g. Condoms or covering worn in vagina.
* They change hormonal balance of the body, So eggs are not released and
fertilisation does not occur. It has side-effects due to hormonal imbalance.
* They are placed in uterus to prevent pregnancy. They cause side effects due
to irritation of the uterus.
ENEE + Prevent meeting of sperm & egg. E.g. Condoms or covering worn in vagina.
* They change hormonal balance of the body, So eggs are not released and
fertilisation does not occur. It has side-effects due to hormonal imbalance.
* They are placed in uterus to prevent pregnancy. They cause side effects due
to irritation of the uterus.
Reproductive Health | Contraceptive methods to avoid pregnancy
_ Surgical methods
FA, Fallopain tubes um
( ) LS ES ( y * Here, fertilisation is prevented by blocking
Ko»
$ ~~
5 gamete transport.
Ca) * In male, vas deferens is blocked to prevent
sperm transfer.
+ In female, fallopian tube is blocked to
prevent the egg reaching the uterus,
le * Surgical methods have long run safety. But
Tubectomy they cause infections & other problems if
not performed properly.
ankofbiology.com
_ Surgical methods
FA, Fallopain tubes um
( ) LS ES ( y * Here, fertilisation is prevented by blocking
Ko»
$ ~~
5 gamete transport.
Ca) * In male, vas deferens is blocked to prevent
sperm transfer.
+ In female, fallopian tube is blocked to
prevent the egg reaching the uterus,
le * Surgical methods have long run safety. But
Tubectomy they cause infections & other problems if
not performed properly.
ankofbiology.com
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Reproductive Health | Contraceptive methods to avoid pregnancy
+ Surgery can also be ed to remove unwanted pregnancy. But it is misused for illegal sex-
selective abortion (female foeticide). Due to this, female-male sex ratio is declined. So prenatal
sex determination is prohibited.
* By reproduction, population is increased. The birth and death rates in a given population
determine its size. Population explosion adversely affects people’s standard of living. However,
inequality in society is the main reason for poor standards of living.
bankofbiology.com
Reproductive Health | Contraceptive methods to avoid pregnancy
+ Surgery can also be ed to remove unwanted pregnancy. But it is misused for illegal sex-
selective abortion (female foeticide). Due to this, female-male sex ratio is declined. So prenatal
sex determination is prohibited.
* By reproduction, population is increased. The birth and death rates in a given population
determine its size. Population explosion adversely affects people’s standard of living. However,
inequality in society is the main reason for poor standards of living.
bankofbiology.com
HERE 8 EVOLUNON
» Heredity (inheritance) is the transmission of characters from parents to offspring.
» Evolution is the change in the characteristics of a species over several generations.
» Evolution is the change in the characteristics of a species over several generations.
CCUMULATION OF VARIATION DURING REPRODUCTI
* Inheritance from previous generation provides common basic body design & minute changes for
next generation. Second generation gets inherited differences and newly created differences.
* In asexual reproduction, the resultant individuals get only very minor differences due to small
inaccuracies in DNA copying. However, in sexual reproduction, greater diversity is generated.
* The variations in a species have no equal chances of surviving in the environment.
* Based on the nature of variations, different individuals would have different kinds of advantages.
E.g. Bacteria that can withstand heat will survive better in a heat wave.
* Selection of variants by environmental factors is the basis of evolution.
Creation of divers
over succeeding generations
through asexual reproduction
* Inheritance from previous generation provides common basic body design & minute changes for
next generation. Second generation gets inherited differences and newly created differences.
* In asexual reproduction, the resultant individuals get only very minor differences due to small
inaccuracies in DNA copying. However, in sexual reproduction, greater diversity is generated.
* The variations in a species have no equal chances of surviving in the environment.
* Based on the nature of variations, different individuals would have different kinds of advantages.
E.g. Bacteria that can withstand heat will survive better in a heat wave.
* Selection of variants by environmental factors is the basis of evolution.
Creation of divers
over succeeding generations
through asexual reproduction
HEREDITY
Inherited Traits
* A child bears all the basic features of a human being. However, it does not look exactly like its
parents.
* Human populations show a great variation. E.g. Variation in ear lobes.
* Most of the individuals have free ear lobes (dominant trait) and some have attached ear lobe
(recessive trait).
Free ear lobe Attached ear lobe
Inherited Traits
* A child bears all the basic features of a human being. However, it does not look exactly like its
parents.
* Human populations show a great variation. E.g. Variation in ear lobes.
* Most of the individuals have free ear lobes (dominant trait) and some have attached ear lobe
(recessive trait).
Free ear lobe Attached ear lobe
HEREDITY
Rules for the Inheritance of Traits - Mendel’s Contributions
* Father and mother contribute equal
amounts of genetic material to the child. i.e.,
each trait is influenced by paternal and
maternal DNA. Thus, for each trait there will
be two versions in each child.
* Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884) worked
out the main rules of such inheritance.
* Mendel used several contrasting visible
characters of garden peas. E.g.
round/wrinkled seeds, tall/short plants,
white/violet flowers etc.
Rules for the Inheritance of Traits - Mendel’s Contributions
* Father and mother contribute equal
amounts of genetic material to the child. i.e.,
each trait is influenced by paternal and
maternal DNA. Thus, for each trait there will
be two versions in each child.
* Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884) worked
out the main rules of such inheritance.
* Mendel used several contrasting visible
characters of garden peas. E.g.
round/wrinkled seeds, tall/short plants,
white/violet flowers etc.
HEREDITY
Rules for i Inheritance of Traits - Mendel’s Contributions
* He crossed a tall plant & a short plant. In first generation
(F1 progeny), all plants were tall. There were no halfway
À — characteristics (no medium-height plants). i.e., only one
us A Ava pri parental trait (tall) was expressed. The expressed trait is
e e called Dominant. The suppressed trait is called Recessive.
Pix FT
* The second-generation (F2) progeny was 75% tall and one
quarter (25%) short. This indicates that both traits (tall and
PR short) were inherited in the F1 plants, but only the tallness
trait was expressed. Thus he proposed that two copies of
au Tan pi Es Er» % factor (now called genes) control traits in sexually
e m om m am
Inhámtance of trates over tue penéritions reproducing organism. They may be identical or different,
Phenotypic ratio (Tall: Short) = 3:1 based on the parentage.
Genotypic ratio (TT: Tt: tt) = 1:2:1
Rules for i Inheritance of Traits - Mendel’s Contributions
* He crossed a tall plant & a short plant. In first generation
(F1 progeny), all plants were tall. There were no halfway
À — characteristics (no medium-height plants). i.e., only one
us A Ava pri parental trait (tall) was expressed. The expressed trait is
e e called Dominant. The suppressed trait is called Recessive.
Pix FT
* The second-generation (F2) progeny was 75% tall and one
quarter (25%) short. This indicates that both traits (tall and
PR short) were inherited in the F1 plants, but only the tallness
trait was expressed. Thus he proposed that two copies of
au Tan pi Es Er» % factor (now called genes) control traits in sexually
e m om m am
Inhámtance of trates over tue penéritions reproducing organism. They may be identical or different,
Phenotypic ratio (Tall: Short) = 3:1 based on the parentage.
Genotypic ratio (TT: Tt: tt) = 1:2:1
HEREDITY
Rules for the Inheritance of Traits - Mendel’s Contributions
x &
F1 hybrid (Tt) Recessive parent (tt)
* To confirm genotypic ratio, each F, plants are
crossed with a pure recessive (tt) variety. It is called
Test cross.
+ TT &Tt are tall plants, while tt is a short plant. It
means a single copy of ‘T’ can make the plant tall
Tt (Tall) Tt (Dwarf) (dominant trait), but two copies of ‘t’ (tt) is needed
to get short plant (recessive trait).
Rules for the Inheritance of Traits - Mendel’s Contributions
x &
F1 hybrid (Tt) Recessive parent (tt)
* To confirm genotypic ratio, each F, plants are
crossed with a pure recessive (tt) variety. It is called
Test cross.
+ TT &Tt are tall plants, while tt is a short plant. It
means a single copy of ‘T’ can make the plant tall
Tt (Tall) Tt (Dwarf) (dominant trait), but two copies of ‘t’ (tt) is needed
to get short plant (recessive trait).
HEREDITY
Rules for the Inheritance of Traits - Mendel’s Contributions
“La
Cross
| sion Cross of coloured flowered & white flowered plants
Fi & + Here, F1 produced all coloured flower. So it is dominant
trait and white flower is recessive.
Self * F2 produced coloured flowered plants and white
fertilisation flowered plants in 3:1 ratio.
AAP
3 :1 Ratio
Rules for the Inheritance of Traits - Mendel’s Contributions
“La
Cross
| sion Cross of coloured flowered & white flowered plants
Fi & + Here, F1 produced all coloured flower. So it is dominant
trait and white flower is recessive.
Self * F2 produced coloured flowered plants and white
fertilisation flowered plants in 3:1 ratio.
AAP
3 :1 Ratio
HEREDITY
Rules for the Inheritance of Traits - Mendel’s Contributions
Cross between pea plants showing two different characteristics
TTRR X ttrr + When a tall plant with round seeds and a short plant with
Gin Roser ide wrinkled-seeds is crossed, the F1 progenies will be tall and
jé 3 round seeded. i.e., tallness and round seeds are dominant traits.
CET TR] © * If the F1 progeny undergo self-pollination, the following types of
F2 progeny are produced:
TtRr
Tall, round
Parental type combination New combinations
o Tall, round seeds. o Tall, wrinkled seeds.
o Short, wrinkled seeds. o Short, round seeds.
Rules for the Inheritance of Traits - Mendel’s Contributions
Cross between pea plants showing two different characteristics
TTRR X ttrr + When a tall plant with round seeds and a short plant with
Gin Roser ide wrinkled-seeds is crossed, the F1 progenies will be tall and
jé 3 round seeded. i.e., tallness and round seeds are dominant traits.
CET TR] © * If the F1 progeny undergo self-pollination, the following types of
F2 progeny are produced:
TtRr
Tall, round
Parental type combination New combinations
o Tall, round seeds. o Tall, wrinkled seeds.
o Short, wrinkled seeds. o Short, round seeds.
HEREDITY
Rules for the Inheritance of Traits - Mendel’s Contributions
Round, green * } x Wonkled, yellow
= Rn Cross between pea plants showing two different characteristics
+ +
Gametes: 9,0 * New combinations are formed due to independent inheritance of
5 Q ss tall/short trait and round seed/wrinkled seed trait.
bs * Similarly, formation of new combinations of traits in F2 when
sem ce =) factors controlling for seed shape and seed colour recombine to
y form zygote leading to form F2 offspring.
315 round, yellow Le]
108 round, green Q
H|w/|wluw
101 wrinkled, yellow | O |
9
32 wrinkled, green
556 see:
Rules for the Inheritance of Traits - Mendel’s Contributions
Round, green * } x Wonkled, yellow
= Rn Cross between pea plants showing two different characteristics
+ +
Gametes: 9,0 * New combinations are formed due to independent inheritance of
5 Q ss tall/short trait and round seed/wrinkled seed trait.
bs * Similarly, formation of new combinations of traits in F2 when
sem ce =) factors controlling for seed shape and seed colour recombine to
y form zygote leading to form F2 offspring.
315 round, yellow Le]
108 round, green Q
H|w/|wluw
101 wrinkled, yellow | O |
9
32 wrinkled, green
556 see:
HEREDITY
How do these Traits get Expressed?
git u! * DNA is the information source to make proteins in
Chromosomes acell.
AVM" + A section of DNA that provides information for one
= protein is called the gene for that protein.
Cell
* Genes control traits producing proteins. E.g.
Plant height depends on a growth hormone. It is
synthesised due to an enzyme (protein). This
enzyme is synthesised due to a gene.
Efficient enzyme > more hormone > tall plant
Alteration of the gene > less efficient enzyme > less
hormone > short plant.
How do these Traits get Expressed?
git u! * DNA is the information source to make proteins in
Chromosomes acell.
AVM" + A section of DNA that provides information for one
= protein is called the gene for that protein.
Cell
* Genes control traits producing proteins. E.g.
Plant height depends on a growth hormone. It is
synthesised due to an enzyme (protein). This
enzyme is synthesised due to a gene.
Efficient enzyme > more hormone > tall plant
Alteration of the gene > less efficient enzyme > less
hormone > short plant.
HEREDITY
* According to Mendelian experiments, both
parents contribute DNA equally (copies of
same genes) to the progeny. Thus each pea
plant inherits 2 sets of all genes. For this,
each germ cell must have only one gene set.
* In Mendel's experiment, the characteristics
‘R’ and ‘y’ independently inherited because
they are not linked. This indicates that each
gene set is not in a single DNA thread (i.e.,
not in a whole gene set), but in separate
independent pieces, each called a
chromosome.
* According to Mendelian experiments, both
parents contribute DNA equally (copies of
same genes) to the progeny. Thus each pea
plant inherits 2 sets of all genes. For this,
each germ cell must have only one gene set.
* In Mendel's experiment, the characteristics
‘R’ and ‘y’ independently inherited because
they are not linked. This indicates that each
gene set is not in a single DNA thread (i.e.,
not in a whole gene set), but in separate
independent pieces, each called a
chromosome.
HEREDITY
How do these Traits get Expressed? Ï
axiom ,
Proton EX y) canas mr actos + Thus, each cell has two copies of each
chromosome, one each from male
(ASS
spt >= (paternal) & female (maternal) parents.
ep Y on MR Every germ cell takes one chromosome
ni Re (maternal or paternal).
Er] —— ey + When two germ cells combine, they restore
= the normal chromosome number in the
i Ñ À Ñ progeny. It ensures the stability of DNA of
a Y ea A Ae the species. Such a mechanism of
| Dee | inheritance is used by all sexually
f } f } f À ‘ 7 reproducing organisms. Asexually
ar ad if dp > (ar reproducing organisms also follow similar
l al | il I al il Al rules of inheritance.
How do these Traits get Expressed? Ï
axiom ,
Proton EX y) canas mr actos + Thus, each cell has two copies of each
chromosome, one each from male
(ASS
spt >= (paternal) & female (maternal) parents.
ep Y on MR Every germ cell takes one chromosome
ni Re (maternal or paternal).
Er] —— ey + When two germ cells combine, they restore
= the normal chromosome number in the
i Ñ À Ñ progeny. It ensures the stability of DNA of
a Y ea A Ae the species. Such a mechanism of
| Dee | inheritance is used by all sexually
f } f } f À ‘ 7 reproducing organisms. Asexually
ar ad if dp > (ar reproducing organisms also follow similar
l al | il I al il Al rules of inheritance.
HEREDITY
* There are different strategies for sex
coe \ ©) determination.
x Y x * Some species rely entirely on environmental
I cues. E.g. In a few reptiles, the temperature at
which fertilised eggs are kept determines
© (O whether they become male or female.
dió * In animals such as snails, individuals can
| pe + change sex. It indicates that their sex is not
À ry genetically determined.
Male Female 6? $ à. ‘ .
À Ba” In human beings, the sex is genetically
Sex determination one ) 8 determined. The genes inherited from parents
inhuman beings A ar
decide whether an individual be boy or girl.
* There are different strategies for sex
coe \ ©) determination.
x Y x * Some species rely entirely on environmental
I cues. E.g. In a few reptiles, the temperature at
which fertilised eggs are kept determines
© (O whether they become male or female.
dió * In animals such as snails, individuals can
| pe + change sex. It indicates that their sex is not
À ry genetically determined.
Male Female 6? $ à. ‘ .
À Ba” In human beings, the sex is genetically
Sex determination one ) 8 determined. The genes inherited from parents
inhuman beings A ar
decide whether an individual be boy or girl.
HEREDITY
Sex Determination
©) * All human chromosomes are not paired.
Gametes
+ = * Most human chromosomes have a maternal and a
x
paternal copy, and have 22 such pairs. But one
pair (sex chromosomes) is not always a perfect
® pair, Women have a perfect pair called XX. But
Zygote men have a mismatched pair. i.e., a normal sized X
| y y and a short Y chromosome (XY).
A Female y ) * Half the children will be boys and half will be girls.
Sex determination Offspring N
| | = All children inherit an X chromosome from their
in human beings Female & Mate à i
mother.
Sex of the children is determined by father. A child who inherits X chromosome from father
will be a girl, and one who inherits Y chromosome will be a boy.
Sex Determination
©) * All human chromosomes are not paired.
Gametes
+ = * Most human chromosomes have a maternal and a
x
paternal copy, and have 22 such pairs. But one
pair (sex chromosomes) is not always a perfect
® pair, Women have a perfect pair called XX. But
Zygote men have a mismatched pair. i.e., a normal sized X
| y y and a short Y chromosome (XY).
A Female y ) * Half the children will be boys and half will be girls.
Sex determination Offspring N
| | = All children inherit an X chromosome from their
in human beings Female & Mate à i
mother.
Sex of the children is determined by father. A child who inherits X chromosome from father
will be a girl, and one who inherits Y chromosome will be a boy.
ECOSYSTEM — WHAT ARE ITS COMPONE
* The biotic and abiotic factors which surrounds any living organism is called its environment.
* Organisms and physical surroundings interact with each other and maintain a balance in nature.
* All the interacting organisms in an area together with the non-living constituents form an
ecosystem.
| Biotic components + All living organisms.
* Physical factors like temperature,
| Abiotic components rainfall, wind, soil & minerals.
Natural ecosystems | + Forests, ponds, lakes etc.
EEE
Humanmade (artificial) | Gardens, crop-fields, aquarium
À etc,
* The biotic and abiotic factors which surrounds any living organism is called its environment.
* Organisms and physical surroundings interact with each other and maintain a balance in nature.
* All the interacting organisms in an area together with the non-living constituents form an
ecosystem.
| Biotic components + All living organisms.
* Physical factors like temperature,
| Abiotic components rainfall, wind, soil & minerals.
Natural ecosystems | + Forests, ponds, lakes etc.
EEE
Humanmade (artificial) | Gardens, crop-fields, aquarium
À etc,
ECOS M — WHAT ARE ITS COMPONENTS?
* Aquarium is a self-sustaining system because it includes biotic
factors (fishes, aquatic plants, animals, etc.) and abiotic factors
(free space, water, oxygen & food).
* Organisms can be grouped as producers, consumers and
decomposers.
* They make food from inorganic compounds. E.g.
Green plants and some bacteria.
Producers i Green plants make organic compounds (sugar &
starch) from inorganic substances using the solar
radiant energy in presence of chlorophyll, It is
called photosynthesis.
* Aquarium is a self-sustaining system because it includes biotic
factors (fishes, aquatic plants, animals, etc.) and abiotic factors
(free space, water, oxygen & food).
* Organisms can be grouped as producers, consumers and
decomposers.
* They make food from inorganic compounds. E.g.
Green plants and some bacteria.
Producers i Green plants make organic compounds (sugar &
starch) from inorganic substances using the solar
radiant energy in presence of chlorophyll, It is
called photosynthesis.
ECOSYSTEM AT ARE ITS COMPONE
Organisms that directly or indirectly depend on the
producers for food. They consume the food from
producers or by feeding on other consumers.
Types of Consumers
+ Herbivores: E.g. Grasshopper, Rabbits, Deer etc. Corner
* Carnivores: E.g. Frog, Tiger, lion etc.
* Omnivores: E.g. Human, bears, birds, dogs etc. ö
* Parasites: E.g. Roundworms, tapeworms, leech etc. decompose,
Organisms that directly or indirectly depend on the
producers for food. They consume the food from
producers or by feeding on other consumers.
Types of Consumers
+ Herbivores: E.g. Grasshopper, Rabbits, Deer etc. Corner
* Carnivores: E.g. Frog, Tiger, lion etc.
* Omnivores: E.g. Human, bears, birds, dogs etc. ö
* Parasites: E.g. Roundworms, tapeworms, leech etc. decompose,
OSYSTEM — WHAT ARE ITS COMPONENTS?
They break-down dead remains & waste products of organisms (complex
organic substances) into simple inorganic substances.
Inorganic substances go into the soil and are used up by the plants.
le y In an unclean aquarium, fishes & plants are died. The microorganisms
Decompose 5
E mposer: (bacteria & fungi) break-down the dead remains and waste products of
organisms.
* If decomposers are absent, the garbage, dead animals and plants will not
decompose. It leads to accumulation of organic materials causing pollution,
ie
a
UN
LS
They break-down dead remains & waste products of organisms (complex
organic substances) into simple inorganic substances.
Inorganic substances go into the soil and are used up by the plants.
le y In an unclean aquarium, fishes & plants are died. The microorganisms
Decompose 5
E mposer: (bacteria & fungi) break-down the dead remains and waste products of
organisms.
* If decomposers are absent, the garbage, dead animals and plants will not
decompose. It leads to accumulation of organic materials causing pollution,
ie
a
UN
LS
Ecos EM - WHAT ARE ITS COMPONE
* A food chain is the series of organisms feeding
on one another or organisms taking part at
various biotic levels.
+ Each step or level of the food chain forms a
trophic level.
+ Autotrophs (producers): First trophic level.
+ Herbivores (primary consumers): 2" trophic
level.
Food chain:
(a) in forest
(b) in grassiand
(c) in a pond
+ Small carnivores (secondary consumers):
Third trophic level.
+ Larger carnivores (tertiary consumers);
Fourth trophic level.
* A food chain is the series of organisms feeding
on one another or organisms taking part at
various biotic levels.
+ Each step or level of the food chain forms a
trophic level.
+ Autotrophs (producers): First trophic level.
+ Herbivores (primary consumers): 2" trophic
level.
Food chain:
(a) in forest
(b) in grassiand
(c) in a pond
+ Small carnivores (secondary consumers):
Third trophic level.
+ Larger carnivores (tertiary consumers);
Fourth trophic level.
ECOSYSTEM - WHAT ARE ITS COMPONEN
Sy
* The food is a fuel to provide energy. Thus the
Frog
Día / ve \
interactions among various components
involves flow of energy.
+ Autotrophs capture solar energy and convert sli. Food Chain sus
into chemical energy.
Tertary
Consumer
From autotrophs, energy goes to heterotrophs
and decomposers.
nm
SÓN
Decampasot
Sy
* The food is a fuel to provide energy. Thus the
Frog
Día / ve \
interactions among various components
involves flow of energy.
+ Autotrophs capture solar energy and convert sli. Food Chain sus
into chemical energy.
Tertary
Consumer
From autotrophs, energy goes to heterotrophs
and decomposers.
nm
SÓN
Decampasot
The study of flow of energy reveals that
Y” Green plants in a terrestrial ecosystem
capture about 1% of the solar energy
that falls on their leaves and convert it
into food energy.
Y” When primary consumers eat green
plants, a lot of energy is lost as heat,
some are used for metabolism, growth
and reproduction. About 10% of the
food is turned into body. It is the
average amount of organic matter Trophic levels
present at each step. It reaches the next
level of consumers.
Y” Green plants in a terrestrial ecosystem
capture about 1% of the solar energy
that falls on their leaves and convert it
into food energy.
Y” When primary consumers eat green
plants, a lot of energy is lost as heat,
some are used for metabolism, growth
and reproduction. About 10% of the
food is turned into body. It is the
average amount of organic matter Trophic levels
present at each step. It reaches the next
level of consumers.
The study of flow of energy reveals that
Y Food chains generally consist of only 3 or
4 steps since so little energy is available
for the next trophic level.
Y” There are generally so many individuals
at the lower trophic levels. Producers are
in greatest number.
v Each organism is generally eaten by two
or more kinds of organisms which in turn
are eaten by several other organisms.
This series of branching relationship of
food chains is called a food web.
Trophic levels
Y Food chains generally consist of only 3 or
4 steps since so little energy is available
for the next trophic level.
Y” There are generally so many individuals
at the lower trophic levels. Producers are
in greatest number.
v Each organism is generally eaten by two
or more kinds of organisms which in turn
are eaten by several other organisms.
This series of branching relationship of
food chains is called a food web.
Trophic levels
ECOSYSTEM — WHAT ARE ITS COMPONE
1. Energy flow is unidirectional, lt does not revert back from autotroph to
Features of
the Sun or consumer to autotroph.
Energy flow
diagram
2. Energy available at each trophic level gets diminished progressively due to
loss of energy at each level.
Top Carnivores =
Camivores. EM \
Diagram showing L à
flow of energy Gy,
in an ecosystem via Food Chain == >
Producers
: SE
Sunlight
1. Energy flow is unidirectional, lt does not revert back from autotroph to
Features of
the Sun or consumer to autotroph.
Energy flow
diagram
2. Energy available at each trophic level gets diminished progressively due to
loss of energy at each level.
Top Carnivores =
Camivores. EM \
Diagram showing L à
flow of energy Gy,
in an ecosystem via Food Chain == >
Producers
: SE
Sunlight
EM — WHAT ARE ITS COMPONE
od Chains and Webs
* Some harmful chemicals may enter the bodies through the food chain. E.g. Pesticides are washed
down into the soil or water. From the soil, plants absorb them. From the water bodies, aquatic
plants & animals take up them. Thus they enter the food chain.
parts per millor,
* The non-degradable chemicals get accumulated at each
trophic level. This is called biological magnification. Thus
cereals, vegetables, fruits & meat contain pesticide residues.
Their concentration is maximum in human body because
humans occupy the top level in any food chain.
od Chains and Webs
* Some harmful chemicals may enter the bodies through the food chain. E.g. Pesticides are washed
down into the soil or water. From the soil, plants absorb them. From the water bodies, aquatic
plants & animals take up them. Thus they enter the food chain.
parts per millor,
* The non-degradable chemicals get accumulated at each
trophic level. This is called biological magnification. Thus
cereals, vegetables, fruits & meat contain pesticide residues.
Their concentration is maximum in human body because
humans occupy the top level in any food chain.
ECOSYSTEM — WHAT ARE ITS COMPONENTS?
Food Chains and Webs
Y” Minimise the use of chemical pesticides.
v Wash fruits & vegetables thoroughly before use.
v Use organic fruits and vegetables.
re PAD
2)
PESTICIDE S AS
Food Chains and Webs
Y” Minimise the use of chemical pesticides.
v Wash fruits & vegetables thoroughly before use.
v Use organic fruits and vegetables.
re PAD
2)
PESTICIDE S AS
HOW OUR ACTIVITIES AFFECT THE ENVIRONMENT?
* Ozone (0,) is a deadly poison, However, at the higher levels of the atmosphere, ozone shields
the earth surface from dangerous ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun. UV radiation causes
harmful effects such as skin cancer.
* At the higher levels of the atmosphere, the higher energy UV radiations split some O, into free
oxygen (O) atoms. They combine with O, to form ozone (03),
> Normal atmosphere
> Pertorbed atmosphere
02—— 0+ 0 ' , o ces
00705 : j e
* Ozone (0,) is a deadly poison, However, at the higher levels of the atmosphere, ozone shields
the earth surface from dangerous ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun. UV radiation causes
harmful effects such as skin cancer.
* At the higher levels of the atmosphere, the higher energy UV radiations split some O, into free
oxygen (O) atoms. They combine with O, to form ozone (03),
> Normal atmosphere
> Pertorbed atmosphere
02—— 0+ 0 ' , o ces
00705 : j e
HOW DO OUR ACTIVITIES AFFECT THE ENVIRONMENT?
* In 1980s, the amount of ozone began to drop ® ar: = ap
ñ : * o + Dl
sharply. lt was due to chemicals like 1 oe e e”
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are used as Dr" js ae
refrigerants and in fire extinguishers. rer
* In 1987, the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) made an agreement to freeze BE
CFC production at 1986 level, It is now mandatory
to make CFC-free refrigerators. wo + dd —ÿ vd + Q
* Other ozone depleting substances: hiorine (ci) Ouone(D) Chiornemonoxidé(CiO] Oxygen(0,)
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), halons etc.
* The size of the ozone hole has reduced in recent Dd + d y E 0
years.
Chlorine monoxide(CIO] Cxygenatom(0) —_Chiorine oH) Oxygen(0;)
* In 1980s, the amount of ozone began to drop ® ar: = ap
ñ : * o + Dl
sharply. lt was due to chemicals like 1 oe e e”
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are used as Dr" js ae
refrigerants and in fire extinguishers. rer
* In 1987, the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) made an agreement to freeze BE
CFC production at 1986 level, It is now mandatory
to make CFC-free refrigerators. wo + dd —ÿ vd + Q
* Other ozone depleting substances: hiorine (ci) Ouone(D) Chiornemonoxidé(CiO] Oxygen(0,)
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), halons etc.
* The size of the ozone hole has reduced in recent Dd + d y E 0
years.
Chlorine monoxide(CIO] Cxygenatom(0) —_Chiorine oH) Oxygen(0;)
Managing the Garbage we Produce
* Garbage are the unwanted materials that people have thrown away.
* In organisms, specific enzymes are needed to break-down a particular substance. So, if we eat
coal, we do not get energy. Similarly, bacteria or other saprophytes have no enzymes to break
down artificial materials like plastics.
ud es |
* Garbage are the unwanted materials that people have thrown away.
* In organisms, specific enzymes are needed to break-down a particular substance. So, if we eat
coal, we do not get energy. Similarly, bacteria or other saprophytes have no enzymes to break
down artificial materials like plastics.
ud es |
* Substances that are broken down by biological
processes are called biodegradable. E.g. Fruits,
vegetables, leaves, meat, paper, rubber etc.
* Substances that are not broken down by biological
processes are called non-biodegradable. They are
inert and persist for a long time or may harm the
ecosystem. E.g. Plastics, glass, nylon etc.
Non-biodegrad:
substances
Glass bottle 500 years
Plastic bags 10-20 years
Plastic container 50-80 years
Plastic soda bottle 450 years
Nylon fabric 30-40 years
processes are called biodegradable. E.g. Fruits,
vegetables, leaves, meat, paper, rubber etc.
* Substances that are not broken down by biological
processes are called non-biodegradable. They are
inert and persist for a long time or may harm the
ecosystem. E.g. Plastics, glass, nylon etc.
Non-biodegrad:
substances
Glass bottle 500 years
Plastic bags 10-20 years
Plastic container 50-80 years
Plastic soda bottle 450 years
Nylon fabric 30-40 years
HOW DO OUR ACTIVITIES AFFECT THE ENVIRONMENT?
Managing the Garbage we Produce
Biodegradable pla:
s: Polylactic acid,
Polyhydroxyalkanoates, Polybutylene succinate etc,
Biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes
produced at home and class room should be
collected separately and treated properly.
The local body (panchayat, municipal corporation,
resident welfare association) have mechanisms to
treat biodegradable & nonbiodegradable wastes
separately.
Improvements in life-style and changes in attitude
have generated much amount of waste material.
Changes in packaging have resulted in much of our
waste becoming nonbiodegradable.
t SEGREGATE YOUR WASTE Y
a
Ta à 2
|
|
Managing the Garbage we Produce
Biodegradable pla:
s: Polylactic acid,
Polyhydroxyalkanoates, Polybutylene succinate etc,
Biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes
produced at home and class room should be
collected separately and treated properly.
The local body (panchayat, municipal corporation,
resident welfare association) have mechanisms to
treat biodegradable & nonbiodegradable wastes
separately.
Improvements in life-style and changes in attitude
have generated much amount of waste material.
Changes in packaging have resulted in much of our
waste becoming nonbiodegradable.
t SEGREGATE YOUR WASTE Y
a
Ta à 2
|
|
* Disposable plastic cups are non-biodegradable.
* An alternative was kulhads, (disposable clay cups). But
making these result in the loss of the fertile top-soil.
* Now disposable paper-cups are used. It is better than plastic
cups because it is biodegradable and do not affect the
property of drinks.
* An alternative was kulhads, (disposable clay cups). But
making these result in the loss of the fertile top-soil.
* Now disposable paper-cups are used. It is better than plastic
cups because it is biodegradable and do not affect the
property of drinks.
.
Include mobile phones, computers, televisions etc.
They contain dangerous chemicals such as mercury, lead,
cadmium, polybrominated flame retardants, barium and
lithium. They cause damage to brain, heart, liver, kidney
and skeletal system.
Include mobile phones, computers, televisions etc.
They contain dangerous chemicals such as mercury, lead,
cadmium, polybrominated flame retardants, barium and
lithium. They cause damage to brain, heart, liver, kidney
and skeletal system.
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