class PPT.pptx on the topic of behavioral finance

This topic basically related with the psychology regarding the use of financial investment decision in the economy or in financial market.

1. Behavioral Finance By Sudeshna Dutta Assistant Professor BIITM

2. Behavioural Finance It's hard not to think of the  stock market  as a person It has moods that can turn from irritable to euphoric; it can also react hastily one day and make amends the next. But can psychology help us understand financial markets? Does analyzing the mood of the market provide us with any hands-on strategies?  Behavioral finance  theorists suggest that it can.

3. Introduction Since the mid-1950s, the field of finance has been dominated by the traditional finance model developed by the economists of the University of Chicago. Standard Finance theories are based on the premise that investor behaves rationally and stock and bond markets are efficient. Central assumption of the traditional finance model is that the people are rational. Cognitive error and extreme emotional bias can cause investors to make bad investment decisions, thereby acting in irrational manner. Since the past few decade, field of Behavioural finance has evolved to consider how personal and social psychology influence financial decisions and behaviour of investors in general. . The finance field was reluctant to accept the view of psychologists who had proposed the Behavioural finance model. Behavioural finance was considered first by the psychologist Daniel Kahneman and economist Vernon Smith, who were awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics in 2002

4. What is Behavioural Finance Behavioural finance is a concept developed with the inputs taken from the field of psychology and finance. It tries to understand the various puzzling factors in stock markets to offer better explanations for the same. To answer the increased number and types of market anomalies, a new approach to financial markets had emerged- the Behavioural finance. Behavioural finance is defined as the study of the influence of socio-psychological factors on an asset’s price. It focuses on investor behavior and their investment decision-making process. It also includes the subsequent effects on the markets. It focuses on the fact that investors are not always rational, have limits to their self-control, and are influenced by their own biase .

5. Behavioural Finance Concepts Mental accounting refers to the propensity for people to allocate money for specific purposes. Herd behavior states that people tend to mimic the financial behaviors of the majority of the herd. Herding is notorious in the  stock market as the cause behind dramatic rallies and sell-offs. The emotional gap refers to decision making based on extreme emotions or emotional strains such as anxiety, anger, fear, or excitement. Oftentimes, emotions are a key reason why people do not make rational choices. Anchoring refers to attaching a spending level to a certain reference. Examples may include spending consistently based on a budget level or rationalizing spending based on different satisfaction utilities. Self-attribution refers to a tendency to make choices based on a confidence in self-based knowledge. Self-attribution usually stems from intrinsic confidence of a particular area. Within this category, individuals tend to rank their knowledge higher than others.

6. Nature of Behavioural Finance Heuristics / Information processing errors : Heuristics are referred as rule of thumb, which applies in decision making to reduce the cognitive resources to solve a problem. These are mental shortcuts that simplify the complex methods to make a judgment. Framing: The perceptions of choices that people have are strongly influenced by how these choices are framed. It means choices depend on how question is framed, even though the objective facts remain constant Emotions: Emotions and associated human unconscious needs, fantasies, and fears drive much decision of human beings. How these needs, fantasies, and fears influence financial decision? Behavioural finance are cognise the role Keynes’s“animal spirit”plays in explaining investor choices, and thus shaping financial markets Market Impact: Indeed, main attraction of behavioural finance field was that market prices did not appear to be fair. How market anomalies fed an interest in the possibility that they could be explained by psychology?

7. SCOPE OF BEHAVIOURAL FINANCE To understand the reasons of market anomalies: Though standard finance theories are able to justify the stock market to a great extent, still there are many market anomalies that take place in stock markets, including creation of bubbles, the effect of any event, calendar effect on stock market trade etc. These market anomalies remain unanswered in standard finance but behavioral finance provides explanation and remedial actions to various market anomalies. To identify investor’s personality: An exhaustive study of Behavioural finance helps in identifying the different types of investor personality. Once the biases of the investor’s actions are identified, by the study of investor’s personality, various new financial instruments can be developed to hedge the unwanted biases created in the financial markets. Behavioural finance provides explanation to various corporate activities

8. SCOPE OF BEHAVIOURAL FINANCE To enhance the skill set of investment advisors: This can be done by providing better understanding of the investor’s goals, maintaining a systematic approach to advise, earn the expected return and maintain a win-win situation for both the client and the advisor Helps to identify the risks and develop hedging strategies: Because of various anomalies in the stock markets, investments these days are not only exposed to the identified risks, but also to the uncertainty of the retur n

9. Differences between Standard Finance and Behavioural Finance Traditional finance assumes that people process data appropriately and correctly Traditional Finance presupposes that people view all decision through the transparent and objective lens of risk and return Traditional finance assumes that people are guided by reasons and logic and independent judgment Traditional finance argues that markets are efficient, implying that the price of each security is an unbiased estimate of its intrinsic value. Behavioural finance recognizes that people employ imperfect rules of thumb (heuristics) to process data which induces biases in their belief and predisposes them to commit errors. Behavioural finance postulates that perceptions of risk and return are significantly influenced by how decision problem is framed Behavioural finance, recognises that emotions and herd instincts play an important role in influencing decisions. Behavioural finance contends that heuristic-driven biases and errors, frame dependence, and effects emotions and social influence often lead to discrepancy between market price and fundamental value.

10. Significance of Behavioural Finance Trivia : The Boston-based Dalbar in its 2007 report “Quantitative Analysis of Investor Behaviour ” found that in the past 20 years the American S&P 500 Index returned on average11.8% pa, while the average investor earned 4.3 % pa–substantially lower returns. The main reasons for the variance were the tendency for the average investor to sell after a stock price has fallen along way and then buy back in to the market after it has already risen a large amount. Effectively the average investor is buying high and selling low, and thus making losses .

11. Significance of Behavioural Finance Behavioural Finance seeks to account for this behavior, and covers the rationality or otherwise of people making financial investment decisions. Understanding Behavioural Finance helps us to avoid emotion-driven speculation leading to losses, and thus devise an appropriate wealth management strategy. Behavioural Finance covers “individual and group emotion, and behaviour in markets. The field brings together specialists in personality, social, cognitive and clinical psychology; psychiatry; organizational behaviour;accounting;marketing;sociology;anthropology;behavioural economics ;finance and the multidisciplinary study of judgment and decision making”.

12. Application of Behavioural Finance Behavioural finance actually equips finance professionals with a set of new lenses, which allows them to understand and overcome many proven psychological traps that are present involving human cognition and emotions. Behavioural traps exist and occur across all decision spectrums because of the psychological phenomena of heuristics and biases. These phenomena and factors are systematic in nature and can move markets for prolonged periods. It applies to: 1. Investors 2. Corporations 3. Markets 4. Regulators 5. Educations

13. Behavioural Finance and Investment Decisions Decision making is a complex process which can be defined as a process of choosing a particular alternative among a number of possible courses of actions after careful evaluation of each. Most crucial challenges to investors is to make investment decision, having a difference in their profile, like demographic factors, socio economic factors, educational levels, age, gender, and race. Given the run up in stock (capital) market in 2004 to the end of 2007 and subsequent downturn of financial market, understanding irrational investor behaviour is as important as it has ever been. In present scenario behavioural finance becomes integral part of decision making process due to its influence on performance of investment stock market as well as mutual funds. Most critical issue is market participant cannot behave rationally always, they deviate from rationality and expected utility assumption, while really making investment decisions. Therefore, behavioural finance helps the investors as well as the market participants to understand biases and other psychological constraints in their interplay in market

14. What is Expected Utility? Expected utility is a theory in economics that estimates the utility of an action when the outcome is uncertain. It advises choosing the action or event with the maximum expected utility. At any point in time, the expected utility will be the weighted average of all the probable utility levels that an entity is expected to reach under specific circumstances. The expected utility theory considers it a logical choice to choose the event with the maximum expected utility. However, in case of risky outcomes, decision-makers may not choose the action with a higher expected utility. The decision to choose an action will also depend on the entity’s  risk aversion   and other entities’ utility. While some entities choose the option with the riskier highest expected utility, some highly risk-averse entities prefer the low-risk option even if it shows a lower expected value. Expected utility theory also helps to explain the reason for people taking out  insurance policies . It is a situation where the payback is not immediate; however, insurance policies cover individuals for several risks. Insurance policyholders receive tax benefits and a certain income at the expiry of a predetermined period. Hence, when one compares the expected utility to be received from paying insurance premiums with the expected utility of investing the amount on other products, insurance appears to be a better choice.

15. What is Expected Utility? The concepts of marginal utility and expected utility are related. The expected utility of wealth or a reward reduces when the entity possesses sufficient wealth. Such entities may go for the safer alternative instead of the riskier ones. The addition of $1,000 to the income may not impact the marginal utility of two different entities in the same way. For example, if the annual income of a low-earning family is increased from $1,250 to $2,250, it will improve their quality of life as well as the marginal utility. On the contrary, if the income of a high-earning family increases from $120,000 to $121,000 in a year, there is a very small utility improvement.  

16. Assumptions of EUT Neumann and Morgenstern (1947) states that according to EUT , investots are: Completely rational Able to deal with complex choices Risk averse Wealth maximising

17. BUILDING BLOCKS OF BEHAVIOURAL FINANCE Behavioral finance is built on three main building blocks Sentiments/ Cognitive Psycology Behavioral preference Limit to arbitrage

18. BUILDING BLOCKS OF BEHAVIOURAL FINANCE Sentiments/ Cognitive Psycology In stock market sentiments can be equated with investors error Psychology is the second building block of behavioral finance. Behavioral economists typically turn to the extensive experimental evidence compiled by cognitive psychologists on the biases that arise when people form beliefs, and on people's preferences, or on how they make decisions, given their beliefs. The following portion discusses the recent development of psychology theories, which are directly related to behavioral finance field In terms of people's beliefs, there are several psychological factors that affect investors' decision-making process: (1)Overconfidence: People are poorly calibrated when estimating probabilities. The confidence intervals people assign to their estimates of quantities are far too narrow. Overconfidence may in part stem from two other biases: self-attribution and hindsight bias. For example, investors might become overconfident after several quarters of investing success.

19. BUILDING BLOCKS OF BEHAVIOURAL FINANCE Optimism and Wishful Thinking: Most people display unrealistically rosy views of their abilities and prospects. Over 90% people surveyed predict that tasks will be completed much sooner than they actually are. Representativeness: Much of the time, representativeness is a helpful heuristic, but it can generate some severe biases. Representativeness also leads to another bias, sample size neglect. Sample size neglect means that in cases where people do not initially know the data-generating process, they will tend to infer it too quickly on the basis of too few data. Anchoring: When forming estimates, people often start with some initial, possibly arbitrary value, and then adjust away from it. People "anchor" too much on the initial value. Availability Biases: When judging the probability of an event, people often search their memories for relevant information. While this is a perfectly sensible procedure, it can produce biased estimates because not all memories are equally retrievable or "available

20. BUILDING BLOCKS OF BEHAVIOURAL FINANCE 2. Preferences : Investors have a number of behavior preferences which work against accepted theories. Stock market often move in response many factors unrelated to the true value of individual stock. For example , reporting of lesser than expected GDP, by official leaders results in substantial loss of value in the stock market. In reality this reduction in the market value would have nothing to do with finances, profits or individual corporates that would have lost ground. It all happens due to the working of certain investor moods associated with irrational fear. This mood creates pessimism about the future economic condition in the minds of the investors, thereby making them of favor selling to buying. The challenges for BF is to find the solutions to such irrational behaviors and find way to help investors not to go with the crowd , and not to be suspectable to the errors of the intuitive mind.

21. BUILDING BLOCKS OF BEHAVIOURAL FINANCE 3 . Limit to arbitrage Behavioural finance states that there is a limit on arbitrage. . Arbitrage is an investment strategy that offers riskless profits at no cost. The hypothesis that actual prices reflect fundamental values is the Efficient Markets Hypothesis (EMH). In an efficient market, there is "no free lunch": No investment strategy can earn excess risk-adjusted average returns, or average returns greater than are warranted for its risk. Arbitrageurs normally take opposite arbitrage position when they discover an asset that is wrongly priced in the market. Thus, a quick and effective arbitrage due to avaibility of enough and adequate substitute will help restore a quick equilibrium .

22. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF BEHAVIOURAL BIASES Psychologists have documented systematic patterns of bias on how people form views and take decisions. These biases influence how decision makers form investment opinions, and then how investors take investment decisions. Information processing may be correct but individual tend to make less rational decisions using that information. Nevertheless, most of the financial decisions are driven by people‘s emotions and associated universal human unconscious needs, fears and psychological traits. Thus bias arises and it can be divided into ( i ) Prospect theory and Framing (ii) Heuristics and Biases (iii) other biases. These biases sit deep within our psyche and as fundamental parts of human nature; they affect all types of investors, both professionals as well as private.

23. FRAME DEPENDENCE AND PROSPECT THEORY: FRAMING The term Frame dependence means the way people behave depends on the way that their decision problems are framed. There is much evidence that variation in the framing of options, in terms of gains and losses, yield systematically different preference. Framing is the way in which a question is structured with regard to the issue being evaluated Economists argue that framing is transparent; implying that investors can see through all the dif fe r e nt w a y s c as h flo w s mi g ht be d e s c rib e d. Ac c o r ding to Mod i g li a ni a n d M ill e r a pproa c h ― if you transfer a dollar from your right pocket to your left pocket, you are no wealthier ‖.

24. PROSPECT THEORY: Prospect theory has done more to bring psychology into the heart of economic analysis than any other approach. It theorizes how an individual or group of individuals behaves, on average, in a world of uncertainty The prospect theory is proposed by Daniel Kahneman and Tversky. They describe how people frame and value decision involving uncertainty According to Prospect theory, people look at choices in terms of potential gains or losses in relation to specific reference point, which is often a purchase price. People feel more strongly about the pain from loss then the pleasure from equal gain. Three unique features of prospect theory:   Prospect theory assumes that choice decisions are based upon a subjectively determined reference point independent of the decision maker‘s state of wealth. Subjective reference points introduce a frame to a prospect, which affects choice behaviour . A kink exists at the reference point of prospect theory‘s value function, assuming individuals losses at above twice that of gains

25. PROSPECT THEORY: The figure shows value function- this is prospect theory‘s equivalent of classical economic utility function. However, it is defined over gains and losses around a reference point. The reference point is determined by the subjective feelings of the individual. It is the individuals‘ point of reference, the benchmark against which all comparison is made. Value function is concave for gains and convex for losses. This means that value function is steeper for losses than for gains- this is referred as loss aversion.

26. Mental Accounting Mental accounting describes the tendency of people to place particular events into different mental accounts based on superficial attributes. People separate money and financial risk into mental accounts‘ putting wealth into various buckets. They place their money into separate parts on a variety of subjective criteria, like the source of money, and intend of each account, which has an often irrational and detrimental effect on their consumption decision and other behaviours . For example, investors may feel free to take risk in their own account rather than their children

27. Loss Aversion: Loss Aversion is a pervasive phenomenon in human decision making under risk and uncertainty, according to which people are more sensitive to losses than gains. A typical financial example is in investor‘s difficulty to realize losses. This phenomenon is called ‗Get- evenities ‘ that is, people hope that markets will work in their advantage and they will be able to terminate their investment without incurring losses . The human tendency to take extreme measures to avoid loss leads to some behaviour that can inhibit investment success. So the human attitude to risk and reward can be very complex and subtle, which changes over time and in different circumstances

28. Disposition Effect: The tendency to sell winning stock too early and holding on to losing stocks for too long is termed as disposition effect. This effect was first described by Shefrin and Statman in 1995. According to Ofdean (1998), disposition effect occurs due to: The notion that realizing profit allows one to maintain self esteem but realizing causes one to implicitly admit an erroneous investment decision, and hence is avoided. When disposition effect is in operation , people avoid realizing losses and seek to realize gain. Grinblatt and Keloharju (2001) conducted a detailed study on the trading activity of Finnish investors and conformed that they exhibited disposition effect. Kaustia (2004) established the presence of disposition effect in the context of IPO markets as the offer price is the common purchase.

29. (ii) HEURISTICS AND BIASES Representativeness: Representative heuristic is a judgment based on stereotypes. It is also referred as drawing conclusions from little data. Representativeness refers to the tendency to form judgment based on stereotypes. For example, you may form an opinion about a student to perform academically in college on the basis of how he has performed academically in school. While representativeness may be a good rule of thumb, it can also lead people astray. This heuristic leads people to judge the stock market changes as bull or bear market without valuing that the likelihood that particular sequences happen rarely. In the same way it could lead the investors to be more optimistic about the past winners and more pessimistic about the past losers which may assume that a recent trend in price movements will definitely continue into the future.

30. (ii) HEURISTICS AND BIASES Representativeness: ( cont …) Actions which is explaining representativeness bias: Investors often try to detect patterns in data which is random number. Investors extrapolate past returns which actually follow randomness. Investors may be drawn to MFs with good track record because such funds are believed to be representative of well –performing funds. They forget that even unskilled manager can earn higher return by chance. Investors are overly optimistic about past winners. Good companies -good stock syndrome

31. (ii) HEURISTICS AND BIASES Overconfidence Confidence can be described as the ―belief in oneself and one‘s abilities with full conviction‖ while ―overconfidence can be taken one step further in which overconfidence talks this self – reliant behaviour to an extreme. As a human being people have tendency to overestimate their skills and predictions for success. Overconfidence stems partly from illusion of knowledge. The human mind is perhaps designed to extract as much information as possible from what is available. Investment with overconfidence, can lead to inappropriate or risky investments. Overconfidence causes investors to overestimate their knowledge, underestimate risks, and exaggerate their ability to control events .

32. (ii) HEURISTICS AND BIASES Overconfidence ( cont …..) Overconfidence will result in: Mistaking luck for skill Too much risk Too much trading So people tend to overestimate their belief and ability. Overconfidence suggests that investors overestimate their ability to predict market events, and because of this they often take risk without actually receiving proportionate returns

33. (ii) HEURISTICS AND BIASES SAB & Confirmation Bias: Self-attribution bias theory is attributed to Heider , who observed how people tend to attribute successful outcome from decisions to their own actions and bad outcome to external factors. SAB emerge from two important human traits: Self-protecting and Self enhancement. Self- protecting, which is the desire to have positive self-image and self enhancement, which is the desire for others to see us positively. Confirmation bias is the people‘s desire to find information that agrees with their existing view. Any information that conflicts with the null is ignored, whilst information that reinforces the null is over-weighted. In investing, the confirmation bias suggests that an investor would be more likely to look for information that supports their original ideas about an investment rather than seek out information that contradicts it. Due to this kind of investor‘s tendency, it often results into wrong decision.

34. (ii) HEURISTICS AND BIASES Availability Bias: According to availability bias, people tend to base their decisions more on recent information rather than any detailed study of past events and thereby become biased to that latest news. Availability Heuristics refers to how easily an event comes to mind. In Availability Heuristics more recent and salient events will weigh more heavily and distort the thought process. The classic study in this regard conducted by Tversky and Kehneman , two lists of names were read to the subjects. The first one had 19 famous men 20 less famous women. The second one had 19 famous women and 20 less famous women. When aske to recollect , the subjects reported that there were more men that women in the first list; and more women that men in the second list. This was because the famous names were recalled easily than the less famous ones, thus resulting is an overestimate. Thus, in availibity heuristics, people tend to be influenced by “attention grabbing information” and make decision based on association that facilitate easy recall.

35. (ii) HEURISTICS AND BIASES Availability Bias: For investors availability heuristics could lead to systematic biases with disastrous effects and also results in reduced return. While choosing stocks , investors tend to consider only those stocks that have recently caught their attention like those with positive / negative news, high trading volume, jump in price etc .

36. (ii) HEURISTICS AND BIASES Cognitive Dissonance A form of self-deception stems from the fact that people seek consistency. The mental discord, that arises when the memory of an event conflicts with a positive self-perception or conflict between perception and reality. Cognitive Dissonance is the mental conflicts that people experience when they are presented with evidence that their belief or assumptions are wrong; people have an incredible degree of self-denial. Conservatism: Conservatism is a tendency to cling tenaciously to a view or a forecast. Once the position has been stated most people find it very hard to move away from the view. When movement does occur it is only very slow, which creates under-reaction to events. Conservatism is a tendency to cling tenaciously to a view or a forecast. Once the position has been stated most people find it very hard to move away from the view. When movement does occur it is only very slow, which creates under-reaction to events. Such bias would give rise to momentum in stock market return. The investors take very conservative approach to changing their minds after taking a decision, despite new contradictory information. For example, investors also tend to look at short term investment performance and believe it will continue, rather than lake a long view

37. (ii) HEURISTICS AND BIASES b)Regret Aversion: Regret is the emotion individual feels if they can easily imagine having acted in a way that would have led to a more favourable outcome. Classical e.g. of it is fall in price of investment. Regret is the emotion experienced for not having made the right decision. It is the feeling of responsibility for loss. It is also related with preference for dividend in financing consumer expenditures, because selling a stock that may rise in the future carries a huge potential for regret. c)Anchoring and Adjustment Anchoring can be explained as the tendency to attach or ‗anchor‘ our thought to a reference point even though it may have no logical relevance to the decision at hand. After forming an opinion, people are often unwilling to change it, even though they receive new information that is relevant. Suppose that investors have formed and opinion that company X has above average long term earnings prospect. Suddenly, X reports much lower earning that expected. Thanks to anchoring (conservatism), investors will persist in the belief that the company is above average and will not react sufficiently to bad news.

38. (ii) HEURISTICS AND BIASES d) Aversion to Ambiguity: (Familiarity Bias) Familiarity bias is an inclination or prejudice that alters an individuals‘ perception of risk. Familiarity is a mental short-cut that treats the familiar things as better than less familiar things. People are comfortable with things that are familiar to them. The human brain often uses the familiarity short cuts in choosing investments. That is why people tend to invest more in the stock of their neighbour companies, employer companies, as well as domestic companies.

39. (iii) OTHER BIASES: Innumeracy: Innumeracy refers to people confuse between nominal change and real change. People find difficulty in figuring out probabilities. They also give attention to big numbers and give less weight to small figures People have difficulty with numbers. Trouble with numbers is reflected in the following People tend to pay more attention to big numbers and give less weight to small figures. People estimate the likelihood of an event on the basis of how vivid the past examples are and not on the basis of how frequently the event has actually occurred. Illusion: A Natural way for people to think about money is in terms of nominal rather than inflation- adjusted values. Thus under hyperinflation people will view nominal wage increase more favourably than it really is.

40. Behavioural Portfolios While investors understand the principle of diversification, they don‘t form portfolios in the manner suggested by Harry Markowitz portfolio theory. According to Hersh Shefrin and Meir Statman, the psychological tendencies of investors prod them to build their portfolios as pyramid of assets as under: Investors have several goals such as safety, income, and growth, often in that sequence. Each layer in the pyramid represents assets meant to meet a particular goal. Investors have separate mental accounts for each investments goal and they are willing to assume different levels of risk for each goal. The asset allocation of an investor‘s portfolio is determined by the amount of money assigned to each assets class by the mental accounts

41. Limitations/Criticisms of Behavioural Finance: Although behavioural finance had been gaining support in recent years, it is not without its critics. Some supporter of EMH and standard finance theory criticise the behavioural finance approach. Critics of behavioural finance contend that behavioural finance is more a collection of anomalies than true branch of finance and these anomalies will eventually be priced out of the market or explained by appeal to market microstructure arguments It is argued that the puzzle simply arises due to entry barriers, that have traditionally impeded entry by individuals into the stock market, and that returns between stock and bonds should stabilize as electronic resources open up the stock market to a greater number of traders. Even though there are some anomalies that cannot be explained by modern financial theory, market efficiency should not be totally abandoned in favour of behavioural finance

42. MODULE III

43. RATIONALITY IN INVESTMENT DECISION It’s relatively easy to prescribe an investment plan that is likely to work well if it’ followed diligently rather than derailing from ones won plan. One of the biggest mistake an investors make is underestimating the power of their emotions. Many investors get in and out of the stock market from time to time depending on whether they think prices are relatively high or relatively low. Most conventional theories are created and used under the assumption all individuals taking part in an action/activity are behaving rationally. Rational behaviour does not necessarily always involve receiving the most monetary or material benefit because the satisfaction received could be purely emotional. For a decision to be deemed rational, it must make logical sense, and often the decision is made without significant emotional response over the choice. Rational behaviour also does not necessarily require a person to attempt to get the highest return as it does allow for the consideration of risk.

44. I nvestor biases and suggestions Mentioned below are some common investor biases and suggestions on how to deal with them 1. Conservatism Bias and The Status Quo Bias: Investors who succumb to the conservatism bias tend to place more emphasis on the information used to form their original forecast than on new information. As a result, any new information that the investor receives is overshadowed by the information originally used to arrive at the forecast, leading investors to hold on to losing or winning positions for longer than feasible . Status quo bias is evident when people prefer things to stay the same by doing nothing or by sticking with a decision made previously (Samuelson, & Zeckhauser , 1988) A corollary to the conservatism bias is the status quo bias exhibited by investors who show an unwillingness to alter their current asset allocation rather than make a value-enhancing decision. This leads to undiversified portfolios It is a trap which most investors fall into, primarily because processing the new information without a bias requires one to accept that the previous information was either incorrect or is no longer valid.

45. I nvestor biases and suggestions The best way to avoid this behavioural trap is to always be amenable to new information, especially if it is contesting our existing hypothesis. Rather than look at new information in the same light as the previous one, an investor should carefully examine the new information to determine its value.

46. I nvestor biases and suggestions 2. Anchoring and Adjustment Bias: Such investors seem to be anchored to previously forecast values and even with the receipt of new information, tend to stay close to their original forecast. The best way to tackle this bias is to view new information first in isolation, determine its impact on our forecasts and then integrate it with a previous forecast. T his would help the investor in gaining a more holistic perspective .

47. I nvestor biases and suggestions 3. Confirmation Bias: In such case, investors only notice information that agrees with their existing perceptions. They are constantly looking for confirming evidence while discounting or even ignoring evidence that contradicts existing perceptions. This can lead to skewed and undiversified portfolios. The best way to avoid falling into this trap is to actively seek out information that seems to contradict existing perceptions and analyse it carefully

48. I nvestor biases and suggestions 4. Greed & Fear: Over the years I have observed that most investors are influenced by the twin evils of greed and fear. Greed makes us hold on to losing positions till they take the shirt off our backs and fear makes one avoid or exit winning positions, way before their true potential has been realised . Often investors tend to react with extreme emotion when confronted with losses. Such investors, in an effort to avoid more losses, become risk seekers. On the other extreme are investors who, after taking severe losses start suffering from the regret aversion bias by showing a tendency to stay focused on low-risk investments? Many investors who completely exit the markets after enduring significant losses and only re-enter with low risk, low return investments. They tend to pass up perfectly good opportunities, as a result of which their portfolios have limited upside. At the other end of the spectrum are investors who have developed such a level of over- confidence in their ability to forecast and pick the winning stocks that they refuse to book profits even after the investment has exceeded its target price and they have no new information to support a further upside.

49. I nvestor biases and suggestions The best way to avoid these emotional biases is to trade or invest with discipline and not pull the trigger during extreme market movements. It is also prudent to seek the help of professionals like mutual funds managers who are trained to invest in markets and are governed by strict regulatory rules and code of ethics.

50. Watch out Watch out for Dalal Street Watch out for the media The restless client Market is too high and too low

51. RATIONAL DECISION MAKING PROCESS Rational decision making is a multi-step process for making choices between alternatives. The process of rational decision making favours logic, objectivity, and analysis over subjectivity and ins i g ht. The wo r d ― r a ti o n a l‖ in this c onte x t do e s not me a n sa ne or c lea r - h ea d e d a s i t do e s in the colloquial sense. The approach follows a sequential and formal path of activities. This path includes Formulating a goal(s) Identifying the criteria for making the decision Identifying alternatives Performing analysis Making a final decision

52. RATIONAL DECISION MAKING PROCESS Assumptions of the Rationality in Decision-Making: The rational model of decision making assumes that people will make choices that maximize benefits and minimize any costs. The idea of rational choice is easy to see in financial theory. For example, most people want to get the most useful products at the lowest price; because of this, they will judge the benefits of a certainobject (for example, how useful is it or how attractive is it) compared to those of similar objects. They will then compare prices (or costs). In general, people will choose the object that provides the greatest reward at the lowest cost. The rationality also assumes: An individual has full and perfect information on which to base a choice. An individual has the cognitive ability, time, and resources to evaluate each alternative against the others. The rational-decision-making model does not consider factors that cannot be quantified, such as ethical concerns or the value of altruism. It leaves out consideration of personal feelings, loyalties, or sense of obligation. Its objectivity creates a bias toward the preference for facts, data and analysis over intuition or desires

53. RATIONAL DECISION MAKING PROCESS Critiques Rationality in Decision-Making Critics of Rationality in Decision-Making claim that this model makes unrealistic and over- simplified assumptions. Their objections to the rational model include: People rarely have full (or perfect) information. For example, the information might not be available, the person might not be able to access it, or it might take too much time or too many resources to acquire. More complex models rely on probability in order to describe outcomes rather than the assumption that a person will always know all outcomes. Individual rationality is limited by their ability to conduct analysis and think through competing alternatives. The more complex a decision, the greater the limits are to making completely rational choices Rather than always seeking to optimize benefits while minimizing costs, people are often willing to choose an acceptable option rather than the optimal one

54. ELLSBERG’S PARADOXES Hum a n b e i n g s c r a v e c e r t a in t y a nd loath a mbi g ui t y . P e op l e n a tu r a l l y g ra v i tate tow a rds the ―sure thing‖ versus another option where the outcome is uncertain. Sometimes this is true even when the uncertain path may have huge upside. The Ellsberg’s paradox puzzled economist and psychologist since its presentation about sixty five years ago(Ellsberg , 1961) The example, which Daniel Ellsberg (of the Pentagon Papers fame), used to demonstrate the paradox involves an urn and red, black, and yellow balls. An individual is told that an urn contains 90 balls from which 30 are known to be red and the remaining 60 are either black or yellow. He is asked to choose between the following gambles: Gamble A: $100 if the ball is red Gamble B: $100 if the ball is black And one between the following: Gamble C: $100 if the ball is not black Gamble D: $100 if the ball is not red  

55. ELLSBERG’S PARADOXES In most cases people will choose A over B and D over C. It is thought that betting for or against the known information (red ball) is safer than betting for or against the unknown (black ball). Nevertheless, these choices of preferences result in a violation of the sure-thing principle, which would require the ordering of A to B to be preserved in C to D We can derive a series of conclusions from this paradox : how individuals are reluctant to play in complex games, which shows their aversion to ambiguity

56. Applications Ellsberg’s Paradoxes in Finance: The Ellsberg paradox shows us that can depart from rational decision-making, as informed by probabilities, since we are averse to ambiguity and avoid probabilities when they are difficult to assess. The degree of incompleteness of the market reaction increases monotonically with the level of information uncertainty, suggesting that investors tend to underreact more to new information when there is more ambiguity with respect to its implications for firm value We might favour preferred stock, with a dividend stream that has pay-outs of specific, fixed amounts, over an investment in common stock with more ambiguous pay-outs, including dividend increases and appreciation potential, which is hard to assess. Such a preference may be unduly affected by our aversion to ambiguity, rather than by a strictly rational assessment of each security, leading us to make the wrong decision. The p a r a dox d e monstr a t e s that wh e n f a c e d wit h a ―sur e thin g , ‖ w e ca n so m e times ov e r w e i g ht its value relative to other opportunities, since the possibility of downside outcomes is highly salient, and available to us. In other words, our concern about the possibility of a bad outcome is not consistent with its probability; we overweight the risks when certainty is an option.

57. The Allais Paradox The Ellsberg paradox highlights our natutal aversion of risk. The Allais paradox demonstrate what is known as the “ certainity effect” whereby when a certain outcome is avaible . Case I – A: Rs 100 million with probability of 11%, or Rs 0 with probability of 89% B: Rs 500 million with a probablitry of 10%, or Rs 0 with a probability of 90 % Case II- A:Rs 100 million with 100% probability of certainity B:Rs 500 million with a probability of 10%

58. Applications Allias Paradoxes in Finance: Consider a tender offer from a firm. You bought the stock at $5, and it has traded up to $10, and today, the company offers to repurchase your stock for today‘s $10. You have recently done valuation research suggesting that the intrinsic value of the firm is actually $15. Yet, because you h a ve a ― b i rd in h a nd,‖ a n o f f e r to b u y out y our e n t ire position a t the $10 p r ic e , y ou c o n c lude that you want to sell. Why? I would be too painful to see the stock trade back down below $10 and to h a ve to se ll a t s u c h a lo w e r p r i c e , w h e n y ou c ould h a ve sol d it a t $10, wh i c h is a ―su r e thin g . ‖ I n this case, you would be overemphasizing the downside risk, and discounting your own research, since you have a certain outcome available to you, which is distorting your judgment

59. 4 Ways the Ellsberg Paradox Inhibits in Decision-Making: Investors’ stick with a known situation, even if it’s bad for them: The Ellsberg Paradox suggests a reason: Human beings are so risk averse that we choose to stick with bad situations rather than face uncertainty. Uncertainty is scary. But is fear of the unknown going to keep you stuck in a situation you know is making you miserable. Investors Can’t Embrace Change: When change is outside of your control, the psychological barriers are even worse. Embracing change is one of the key strategies to live an agile lifestyle. Because the world around us is changing so quickly, only the agile among us will thrive. But being agile means getting comfortable with the vast amount of stuff that‘s outside your control. And that‘s hard. Investors Aim Low and Settle for Mediocre Results: That‘s how many of us treat our lives. W e st a y in mindless c o r por a te jobs for the ―s e c u ri t y ‖ a nd c limb the ladders othe r s s e t out for us, never thinking what heights we could reach if we were just a bit more comfortable with uncertainty. People Talk Out of Everything: While you‘re struggling with all this ambiguity, the other people in your life definitely won‘t get it. From the outside looking in, they‘ll never understand why you want to give up your high-prestige Fortune 500 job for the chaotic uncertainty of being an entrepreneur or an artist. Because they don‘t know the toll it‘s taking on you mentally, physically, or emotionally, they compare the things they can measure (salary, benefits, etc.) and figure you‘re crazy for going with the unknown.  

60. Types of Investors Only savers Regular Investors Seasonal Investors Angel Investors Business Investors Risk Takers

61. MARKET BUBBLES Bubbles typically refer to a situation where assets or financial instruments see a rapid increase in price – an increase in price which is driven by speculative demand and are unsustainable in the long run. At a certain price, the bubble “bursts” and prices come down to a level which more closely reflects the fundamental economic value A bubble strongly implies that psychological factors such as irrational exuberance and over-confidence play a role in increasing the value of the asset It is characterized by rapid escalation of asset prices followed by a contraction. It is formed by a surge in asset prices unwarranted by the fundamentals of the asset and driven by exuberant market behaviour . When no more investors are willing to buy at the elevated price, a massive selloff occurs, causing the bubble to deflate

62. MARKET BUBBLES A bubble may be defined loosely as a sharp rise in price of an asset or a range of assets in a continuous process, with the initial rise generating expectations of further rises and attracting new buyers – generally speculators interested in profits from trading in the asset rather than its use of earning capacity.

63. The most important phases of bubble formation 1) Initial Rise, Expectations of Further Rises : This can be different in different eras; either quantitative, like the discovery of a new continent, or qualitative, like a technical invention enhancing the effectiveness of production. 2)New Buyers: The demand for shares increases; more and more participants take part in trading, and the activity of the players grows. 3) Speculation: Investors do not buy with the aim of receiving dividend income, rather price gains. 4) Price Decline: The collapse of prices and the whole of the market may occur suddenly or gradually, with players leaving the market. 5) Financial Crisis: Although Kindleberger did not consider this to be a necessary consequence, the following discussion of historical examples will account for the positive and negative macroeconomic impacts as well

64. CAUSES OF BUBBLES Usually, bubbles start for some good economic reasons. For example in the early 2000s, low-interest rates and economic growth encouraged people to buy a house. In 1990s internet stocks did offer good potential growth for this new business . Irrational Exuberance: In certain circumstances, investors can buy assets because of strong psychological pressures which encourage them to ignore the fundamental value of the asset and believe that prices will keep rising. Herding Behaviour : People often assume the majority can‘t be wrong. Short Termism: People make decisions based on short-term rather than the long-term. Adaptive Expectations: People often judge the state of a market and economy by what has happened in the recent past. Hope they can beat the market: People believe they can beat the market and get out before the bubble pops. Cognitive Dissonance: A filtering out of the bad news and looking for views which reinforce their beliefs.

65. CAUSES OF BUBBLES Short Termism: People make decisions based on short-term rather than the long-term. Adaptive Expectations: People often judge the state of a market and economy by what has happened in the recent past. Hope they can beat the market: People believe they can beat the market and get out before the bubble pops. Cognitive Dissonance: A filtering out of the bad news and looking for views which reinforce their beliefs. Financial Instability Hypothesis: The theory that periods of economic prosperity cause investors to be increasingly reckless leading to financial instability. Monetary Policy: Sometimes bubbles occur as an indirect consequence of monetary policy. For example, the FED‘s decision to keep interest rates in the US low encouraged the credit bubble of the 2000s. Excess liquidity can more easily lead to bubbles because people need somewhere to put their money. Global Imbalances: Some argue the US financial bubble of the 2000s was caused by an inflow of currency from abroad. The US ran a trade deficit and attracted hot money inflows, leading to higher demand for US securities. This kept interest rates lower and values of US

66. DIFFERENT TYPES OF BUBBLES Market Bubble : When a particular market sees a rapid increase in price. For example, this could be a housing bubble. Commodity Bubble : When the price of one commodity or several commodities increases in price. For example, we might see a speculative bubble in the price of gold, e.g. in the 1970s and 1980. Stock Market Bubble: When the value of stocks and shares increase rapidly, e.g. prices increase faster than earnings. A stock market bubble is vulnerable to a crash, where market traders come to feel the bubble prices are over-inflated Credit Bubbles: A rapid growth in consumer and business credit to finance higher consumer spending. Economic Boom/Bubble: Related to the concept of market bubbles is the idea of a general economic boom. A boom implies that the economy expands at an unsustainably fast rate, leading to inflation (e.g. aggregate demand grows faster than productive capacity). Ultimately an economic boom usually proves unsustainable

67. IDENTIFYING STOCK MARKET BUBBLES Increasing effect of leverage Increasing activity on part of the economic policy Increasing number of corporate scandals, fraud and corruption Increasing number of corporate scandals, fraud and corruption

68. EXTERNAL FACTORS AND INVESTORS’ BEHAVIOUR EXTERNAL FACTORS INFLUENCING INVESTORS’ BEHAVIOUR Industry performance: Often, the stock price of the companies in the same industry will move in tandem with each other. This is because market conditions generally affect the companies in the same industry the same way. But sometimes, the stock price of a company will benefit from a piece of bad news for its competitor if the companies are competing for the same market. Investor sentiment: Investor sentiment or confidence can cause the market to go up or down, which can cause stock prices to rise or fall. The general direction that the stock market takes can affect the value of a stock: Bull Market: A strong stock market where stock prices are rising and investor confidence is growing. It’s often tied to economic recovery or an economic boom, as well as investor optimism. Bear Market: A weak market where stock prices are falling and investor confidence is fading. It often happens when an economy is in recession and unemployment is high, with rising prices.

69. EXTERNAL FACTORS AND INVESTORS’ BEHAVIOUR Interest Rates: The RBI can raise or lower interest rates to stabilize or stimulate the Indian economy. This is known as monetary policy. If a company borrows money to expand and improve its business, higher interest rates will affect the cost of its debt. This can reduce company profits and the dividends it pays shareholders. As a result, its share price may drop. And, in times of higher interest rates, investments that pay interest tend to be more attractive to investors than stocks. Economic Outlook: If it looks like the economy is going to expand, stock prices may rise. Investors may buy more stocks thinking they will see future profits and higher stock prices. If the economic outlook is uncertain, investors may reduce their buying or start selling. Inflation: Inflation means higher consumer prices. This often slows sales and reduces profits. Higher prices will also often lead to higher interest rates. For example, the RBI may raise interest rates to slow down inflation. These changes will tend to bring down stock prices. Commodities however, may do better with inflation, so their prices may rise

70. EXTERNAL FACTORS AND INVESTORS’ BEHAVIOUR Economic and Political Shocks: Changes around the world can affect both the economy and stock prices. For example, a rise in energy costs can lead to lower sales, lower profits and lower stock prices. An act of terrorism can also lead to a downturn in economic activity and a fall in stock prices. Changes in Economic Policy: If a new government comes into power, it may decide to make new policies. Sometimes these changes can be seen as good for business, and sometimes not. They may lead to changes in inflation and interest rates, which in turn may affect stock prices. The value of the Indian Rupee: Many Indian companies sell products to buyers in other countries. If the Indian Rupee rises, their customers will have to spend more to buy Indian goods. This can drive down sales, which in turn can lead to lower stock prices. When the price of the Indian Rupee falls, it makes it cheaper for others to buy our products. This can make stock prices rise.

71. EXTERNAL FACTORS AND INVESTORS’ BEHAVIOUR Company News and Performance: Here are some company-specific factors that can affect the investment decision:  News releases on earnings and profits, and future estimated earnings  Announcement of dividends  Introduction of a new product or a product recall  Securing a new large contract  Employee layoffs  Anticipated takeover or merger  A change of management  Accounting errors or scandals

72. EMOTIONS IN FINANCIAL MARKETS: FEAR AND GREED There is an old saying that the market is driven by just two emotions: fear and greed. Although this is an oversimplification, it can often be true. Succumbing to these emotions can have a profound and detrimental effect on investors’ portfolios and the stock market. However, it is the influence of fear and greed on the markets that traders really need to understand.

73. THE INFLUENCE OF GREED Greed is usually described as an irresistible craving to possess more of something (money, material goods) than one actually needs. A central component in investing is the accumulation of wealth in the shortest amount of time. This is the desire of most people in the trading world The lure of fast and easy income is strong among investors. Many ignore the rules and guidelines as well as the basic fundamentals of investing that they establish in their investment plans. In the time of dot.com bubble, exorbitant prices of new Internet companies motivated investors to invest into companies whose business plans included a "dot com" domain. Investors became greedy, creating further greed, resulting in securities being heavily overpriced, which eventually created a bubble

74. THE INFLUENCE OF FEAR Emotion of fear is usually characterised as an inconvenient, stressful state, triggered by impending peril and awareness of hazard F ear can also have a negative influence over the market. Fear is defined as an unpleasant emotion elicited by the awareness of danger When stocks experience losses for an extended period, it can cause traders to become more fearful of sustaining large losses. Therefore, fear can be just as costly as greed. Following the dot-com bubble burst in early 2001 and global financial crisis of late 2007, a wave of fear permeated the market In order to curb their losses, investors turned away from equity markets and sought out markets that were less risky

75. Fear 2: The fears of Investing : The emotion of fear when investing can be broken down into 2 sub-categories: Fear of losing money, and fear of under-performing the market (or more commonly known as, the fear of under-performing your friends or FOMO (the fear of missing out)).

76. Fear 2: The fears of Investing : Everyone is familiar with the fear of losing money. Whether it is money which was lost by falling out of your pocket, lost at the poker table, or lost by investing in a bad investment, unless you have an endless supply The second part of fear is FOMO, the fear of missing out, under-performing, or not doing as well as your peers. While this should be rather irrelevant to a rational person, the drive to compete or “fit in” with one’s peers, often overpowers a person’s better judgment. This fear causes people to buy big houses (that are much bigger than they need), buy expensiv e cars (because they can afford the "payment"), buy boats, and other expensive items. This also happened in 2005-2008 when the housing boom had peaked, but people kept buying as many homes as they could to take advantage of the housing boom. While the fear of losing money is natural and important to retain, this second part of fear is extremely hard to overcome. It takes years and persistent hard work to master this fear.

77. HOW TO CONQUER YOUR FEAR AND GREED Limit Your Losses Stop Losses Hedging your portfolio: Options: