Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation by Rabindra

Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation by Rabindra

1. UNIT 3: CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION AND ADAPTATION

2. Contents UNIT 3: CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION AND ADAPTATION [8] 3.1 Concept of climate change adaptation and mitigation 3.2 Account of climate change mitigation strategies within various sectors 3.3 Understanding mitigation greenhouse gas emission and stabilization targets; 3.4 GHG’s mitigation practices in Nepal ( eg. renewable energy, low carbon pathways, technology transfer) 3.5 Understanding adaptation: the need for adaptation; understanding the limits to adaptation 3.6 Mal-adaptation, maldevelopment; relevance of adaptation and mitigation strategies in Nepal 3.7 Sector wise adaption practices (forestry, water, agriculture, energy)

3. Concept of climate change adaptation and mitigation C limate change adaptation IPCC: The IPCC defines adaptation as the “process of adjustment to actual or expected climate and its effects, to moderate harm or exploit beneficial opportunities.” UNFCCC: The UNFCCC frames adaptation as a “means to protect people, livelihoods, and ecosystems by reducing vulnerability to climate impacts.” EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency): The EPA defines adaptation as “anticipating and preparing for climate impacts through proactive measures.” World Bank: For the World Bank, adaptation is “building economic and social resilience in vulnerable regions.” UNDP (United Nations Development Programme ): The UNDP views adaptation as “safeguarding human development gains from climate disruptions.”

4. Concept of climate change adaptation and mitigation C limate change mitigation IPCC: The IPCC defines mitigation as  “human interventions to reduce emissions or enhance carbon sinks.”   UNFCCC: Actions to achieve the long-term goals of the Paris Agreement, including limiting global warming to 1.5°C and reaching net-zero emissions by 2050. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency): Regulatory and technological efforts to reduce GHG emissions from sectors like energy, transport, and industry. World Bank : Financing low-carbon transitions in developing economies to decouple growth from emissions. UNDP: Integrating emission reductions with sustainable development to ensure equitable progress.

5. C limate change mitigation strategies Energy Sector: Energy Saving Policies: Implementing policies that promote energy conservation across various sectors. Enhancing Energy Efficiency: Improving energy efficiency in industries through methods such as cogeneration. Renewable Energy Technologies: Promoting the use of renewable energy sources like solar, wind, and hydro power. Solar PV systems, rooftop PV systems, solar thermal systems, biogas plants, and wind farming have been identified as high-priority options. Electric Cooking and Advanced Lighting: Encouraging the use of electric cooking and advanced lighting systems in residential areas. Clean Energy in Transportation: Prioritizing clean energy-based transportation systems such as railways, ropeways, and cable cars. Promoting cycling by developing cycle lanes. Emission Control Measures: Introducing and enforcing emission control measures for vehicles

6. C limate change mitigation strategies AFOLU (Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Use) Sector: Agricultural Conservation Practices: Promoting practices such as mulching, crop rotation, residue management, and conservation agriculture. Climate-Smart Agriculture: Adopting climate-smart technologies to reduce GHG emissions. Forest Management: Reducing deforestation, afforestation, and community-based forestry. Livestock Management: Improving animal fertility and productivity, and managing grazing lands.

7. C limate change mitigation strategies IPPU (Industrial Processes and Product Use) Sector: Cleaner Production: Implementing cleaner production processes and using alternative raw materials. Energy Efficiency: Improving energy efficiency in the cement industry and replacing high-carbon fuels with low-carbon fuels. Retrofitting: Retrofitting infrastructure to improve efficiency

8. C limate change mitigation strategies Waste Sector: Reduce Open Burning: Reduction and control of open burning of waste. Reduce Landfilling: Minimizing land-filling through proper waste disposal and treatment. Waste Recycling: Promoting waste recycling and prevention of waste generation. Landfill Gas Recovery: Implementing landfill gas recovery systems.

9. Understanding mitigation greenhouse gas emission and stabilization targets Climate change mitigation strategies involve reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and deploying technologies to capture and sequester atmospheric carbon Conventional Mitigation: Renewable Energy: Includes photovoltaic solar power, concentrated solar power, solar thermal power, onshore and offshore wind power, hydropower, marine power, geothermal power, biomass power, and biofuels. Nuclear Power: 450 nuclear energy plants were operational as of 2018, with a total global installed capacity of 396.4 GW. Nuclear power prevents approximately 1.2–2.4 Gt CO2 emissions annually

10. Understanding mitigation greenhouse gas emission and stabilization targets Conventional Mitigation: Carbon Capture, Storage, and Utilization (CCS/CCU): Separates and captures CO2 from fossil fuel processes, transporting it for storage in geological reservoirs or utilizing it for other purposes Fuel Switching: Switching from coal to natural gas in the power sector is a short-term approach to transition to a low-carbon economy. Renewable fuels are a more sustainable approach for industry, transportation, and building sectors Efficiency Gains: Achieved through improvements in thermal power plants, waste heat recovery. The transportation sector can improve through enhanced thermal engines, hybrid and electric vehicles.

11. Understanding mitigation greenhouse gas emission Negative Emissions Technologies Bioenergy Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS): Integrates biopower and carbon capture and storage technologies. Biomass captures atmospheric CO2 through photosynthesis, is used for energy production, and the resulting CO2 emissions are captured and stored. Afforestation and Reforestation: Establishes new forests (afforestation) or re-establishes forests in deforested areas (reforestation). Trees capture CO2 during growth and store it in biomass and soils. Biochar: Produced from biomass via thermochemical conversion processes like pyrolysis, gasification, and hydrothermal carbonization. The resulting char is applied to soils for carbon storage.

12. Understanding mitigation greenhouse gas emission Negative Emissions Technologies Soil Carbon Sequestration: Promotes enhanced soil fertility, improves crop yields, and promotes organic carbon accumulation within soils. Direct Air Carbon Capture and Storage (DACCS): Uses chemical bonding to remove atmospheric CO2 directly from the air and store it in geological reservoirs or utilize it for other purposes Ocean Fertilization: Involves intentionally adding nutrients to the upper ocean to increase phytoplankton production, enhancing CO2 uptake through photosynthesis Ocean Alkalinity Enhancement : Increases oceanic alkalinity to enhance CO2 uptake through diffusion. Approaches include enhanced weathering, addition of alkaline silicate rocks, addition of lime (CaO), accelerated weathering of limestone, and electrochemical methods

13. Understanding mitigation greenhouse gas emission Negative Emissions Technologies Wetland Restoration and Construction: Wetlands facilitate atmospheric carbon sequestration through photosynthesis and storage in biomass and soil organic matter.

14. Understanding mitigation greenhouse gas emission Radiative Forcing Geoengineering Technologies Stratospheric Aerosol Injection: Injects reflecting aerosol particles into the stratosphere to mimic the cooling effect of volcanic eruptions. Marine Sky Brightening: Enhances cloud reflectivity by spraying seawater into the air, creating small droplets that increase low-altitude cloud reflectivity above oceans Space-Based Mirrors: Reflects part of the incoming solar radiation using space mirrors or reflectors placed in orbit around the Earth or at the Lagrangian L1 location. Surface-Based Brightening: Brightens the Earth's surface to increase albedo by painting urban roofs and roads white, covering deserts and glaciers with reflective plastic sheets, and placing reflective floating panels over water bodies Cirrus Cloud Thinning: Injects aerosols into cirrus clouds to reduce their optical thickness and increase terrestrial radiation emission to space

15. Stabilization targets The relationship between greenhouse gas concentrations and global temperature increase forms the scientific foundation for climate policy targets. Temperature targets emerged gradually in climate policy discourse. The 2°C target first gained scientific recognition in the 1970s through work by economist William Nordhaus, who suggested it as a rough threshold beyond which unprecedented climate conditions would occur (Nordhaus, 1977). The target was further proven by the Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases in 1990, which identified 2°C as a potential threshold for severe impacts ( Rijsberman & Swart, 1990). It gained political recognition at the 2009 Copenhagen Accord and was formally adopted in the 2015 Paris Agreement.

16. Stabilization targets The more ambitious 1.5°C target emerged primarily through advocacy from Small Island Developing States and Least Developed Countries. The IPCC Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5°C (2018) subsequently provided scientific validation by demonstrating substantial benefits of limiting warming to 1.5°C compared to 2°C, particularly for vulnerable ecosystems and communities (IPCC, 2018). The fundamental relationship between greenhouse gas concentrations and temperature increase is governed by radiative forcing principles and climate sensitivity.

17. Stabilization targets Δ T = λ × ln(C/C₀) / ln(2) Where: Δ T is the equilibrium temperature change λ is the equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS) C is the CO₂ concentration C₀ is the pre-industrial CO₂ concentration (approximately 280 ppm) Equilibrium climate sensitivity (λ), has been estimated through multiple lines of evidence including instrumental records, paleoclimate data, and climate models. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report narrowed the likely range (66% probability) to 2.5-4°C, with a best estimate of 3°C (IPCC, 2021).

18. Stabilization targets For the 1.5°C target: CO₂-only concentration: approximately 350-430 ppm CO₂-equivalent (including all GHGs): approximately 430-480 ppm For the 2°C target: CO₂-only concentration: approximately 450-500 ppm CO₂-equivalent: approximately 480-530 ppm Current atmospheric CO₂ concentrations have already reached approximately 417 ppm as of 2024, highlighting the challenge of meeting the 1.5°C target.

19. Stabilization targets Transient vs. Equilibrium Considerations An important distinction in stabilization targets is between transient and equilibrium warming. Due to the thermal inertia of the ocean, the full warming from a given concentration level may take centuries to materialize. The transient climate response (TCR) measures warming at the time of CO₂ doubling and is typically 50-60% of the equilibrium response. This means stabilization at a particular concentration level doesn't immediately stabilize temperature. For practical policy purposes, the transient response over decades to a century is often more relevant than the theoretical equilibrium response.

20. Stabilization targets Overshoot Scenarios Many pathways to the 1.5°C target now involve "overshoot" scenarios where temperatures temporarily exceed 1.5°C before returning below this threshold through negative emissions technologies. Such scenarios may still result in irreversible impacts even if temperature targets are eventually met.

21. Stabilization targets The evolution of greenhouse gas stabilization targets shows a remarkable progression from qualitative goals to specific quantitative targets over three decades. UNFCCC (1992) The initial foundation established a broad qualitative goal of "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system" (UNFCCC, 1992). This deliberately avoided specifying concentration levels due to scientific uncertainties and political considerations.

22. Stabilization targets Kyoto Protocol (1997) Rather than defining concentration targets directly, the Kyoto Protocol established specific emission reduction targets (5.2% below 1990 levels) for developed countries. This approach prioritized short-term emission reduction commitments over long-term concentration goals ( Bodansky , 2016). Temperature Target Emergence (2005-2010) The 2°C temperature target gained political traction through: EU formal adoption (2005): The EU Council formally adopted 2°C as its climate policy objective G8 recognition (2009): The L'Aquila Summit acknowledged the scientific view that warming should not exceed 2°C Copenhagen Accord (2009) explicit acknowledgment (COP15)

23. Stabilization targets Paris Agreement (2015) The Paris Agreement formalized temperature targets with specificity: "Well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels" "Pursuing efforts to limit temperature increase to 1.5°C" Crucially, it connected these temperature goals to emissions pathways by introducing the concept of "a balance between anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks" (net-zero) in the second half of the century (UNFCCC, 2015).

24. Stabilization targets Paris Agreement (2015)

25. Stabilization targets Post-Paris: Net-Zero Targets (2018-Present) The IPCC Special Report on 1.5°C (2018) provided critical scientific backing by establishing that: CO₂ emissions must reach net-zero by around 2050 to limit warming to 1.5°C All greenhouse gases must reach net-zero later in the century This catalyzed the widespread adoption of national net-zero targets, with countries representing over 90% of global GDP now having such commitments

26. Stabilization targets According to the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (2021), from the beginning of 2020: For the 1.5°C target: 500 GtCO ₂ for a 50% probability of limiting warming to 1.5°C 400 GtCO ₂ for a 67% probability 300 GtCO ₂ for an 83% probability For the 2°C target: 1350 GtCO ₂ for a 67% probability 1150 GtCO ₂ for an 83% probability Global CO₂ emissions currently around 40 GtCO ₂ per year, the 1.5°C budget with 67% probability could be exhausted within a decade without aggressive mitigation.

27. GHG’s mitigation practices in Nepal Residential Sub-sector Transport Sub-sector I. Energy Efficiency a. Porter System a. Improved cooking stove (mud, metallic) b. Primitive Railways b. Metallic stove (with Space Heating) d. Electric Motor Bike c. Metallic stove (without Space Heating) e. Bus Rapid Transit System d. Energy-efficient appliances f. Electric car e. Use of white LED for lighting g. Bicycle II. Renewable Energy h. Electric train a. Electric stoves i . Use of bio-diesel b. Solar water heating c. Biogas for cooking d. Briquette e. Induction cooker / Hot plate cooker f. Solar PV for lighting Existing and possible technologies in energy sector

28. GHG’s mitigation practices in Nepal Forest Protection and Management Sink Enhancement a. Forest Protection a. Analog forest b. Improvement of harvesting techniques b. Reforestation c. Improvements in the product conversion and utilization efficiency c. Afforestation (Short rotation forestry) d. Agroforestry e. Urban forest f. REDD Existing and Possible Technologies in the AFOLU Sector

29. GHG’s mitigation practices in Nepal Sector Mitigation Technology GHG Mitigation Potential & Benefits A. Livestock Management 1. Use of Local Crop Residue (LCR) for feeding ruminants - Reduces methane emissions by improving feed quality. - Enhances digestibility with ammonia or alkali treatment. - Provides economic and social co-benefits for rural communities. 2. Urea Molasses Multi-Nutrient Block (UMMB) - Reduces methane emissions by 27%. - Increases milk yield by 25%. - Improves feed conversion efficiency and productivity by 60%. B. Rice Cultivation 1. Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD) in rice cultivation - Reduces methane emissions by 50% compared to continuous flooding. - Saves 25% irrigation water. - Reduces diesel fuel consumption by 30L per hectare. - Increases rice yield by 500kg per hectare. 2. Direct Seeding in Rice Cultivation (DSR) - Reduces methane emissions by 16-22% compared to transplanting. - Saves water and labor. - Cost-effective and environmentally sustainable. 3. Nitrification Inhibitor - Nimin - Reduces both N₂O and CH₄ emissions. - Improves nitrogen use efficiency. - Suitable for deep-flooded rice fields. Agriculture Sector

30. Understanding adaptation Why is adaptation needed? Climate change adaptation has emerged as an essential strategy to reduce adverse effects of climate change that cannot be avoided anymore, as well as to exploit beneficial socioeconomic opportunities since no mitigation effort can prevent climate change impacts in the next few decades . The Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) of the IPCC stresses that, although global warming of 1.5°C is still preventable, some climate risks (sea-level rise, extreme heat, and biodiversity loss) are inevitable. These must be adapted to and vulnerabilities reduced to be able to manage these risks.

31. Understanding adaptation Why is adaptation needed? Climate change adaptation has emerged as an essential strategy to reduce adverse effects of climate change that cannot be avoided anymore, as well as to exploit beneficial socioeconomic opportunities since no mitigation effort can prevent climate change impacts in the next few decades . The Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) of the IPCC stresses that, although global warming of 1.5°C is still preventable, some climate risks (sea-level rise, extreme heat, and biodiversity loss) are inevitable. These must be adapted to and vulnerabilities reduced to be able to manage these risks. Adaptation Working Group II of the IPCC (2022) notes that adaptation can avoid exposure to climate hazards, preserve ecosystems, and preserve livelihoods.

32. Understanding adaptation Why is adaptation needed? Climate impacts are felt most acutely in communities that have the fewest resources to mitigate those impacts: low-income populations, indigenous peoples, and developing nations. Adaptation measures help to protect those who have contributed least to the problem but who would be hit hardest by it. Research consistently shows that investing in resilience before disasters strike saves substantial money in recovery costs, whereas proactive adaptation is often more cost-effective than reactive disaster response. Changing precipitation patterns, rising temperatures, and extreme weather events threaten agricultural productivity and water supplies globally. Adaptive strategies like drought-resistant crops, improved irrigation systems, and water conservation are necessary for food security.

33. Understanding adaptation Why is adaptation needed? Public health protection Infrastructure resilience: Existing infrastructure was designed to historical climate conditions that no longer apply. By upgrading building codes and retrofitting critical systems for new climate extremes. Reducing disaster impacts

34. Understanding adaptation Autonomous adaptation to climate change is essentially an unconscious process of system wise coping, most commonly understood in terms of ecosystem adjustments. Reactive adaptation , as the name implies, involves a deliberate response to climatic shock or impact, in order to recover and prevent similar impacts in the future. Anticipatory adaptation involves planned action, in advance of climate change, to prepare and minimize its potential impacts. Such actions can aim to enhance the buffering capacities of natural systems in the face of climate extremes.

35. Understanding adaptation Climate change analysts distinguish between ‘no-regrets’ and ‘co-benefits’ measures in assessing the economic efficiency of alternative adaptation strategies. “No-regret” strategies are those measures which reduce the vulnerability of non-climate change-related benefits exceed the costs of implementation. An example would be to enhance water use efficiency in municipal systems, enhancing the early warning systems for extreme weather, and enhancing building insulation. These measures help in reducing the costs and energy consumption and therefore prepares the infrastructure for the worst in case of droughts, storms or floods respectively. “Co-benefit” strategies , Other positive impacts that are gained in addition to the primary adaptation benefits, which address several issues at the same time and enhance the overall benefit-cost analysis. Example: Urban tree planting programs: They lower the urban heat island effect, improve air quality, mental health, property values and biodiversity. Wetlands restoration: It reduces flooding, provides wildlife habitat, improves water quality and is a potential recreation area.

36. Limits to adaptation Climate change adaptation limits are the levels beyond which climate change adaptation measures can no longer prevent unacceptable risks or damages to human and natural systems. These limits are due to biophysical, economic, institutional, social, and technological constraints on the ability to adjust to climate impacts. Dow et al. (2013) define an adaptation limit as "the point at which an actor’s objectives cannot be secured from intolerable risks through adaptive actions“ Hard Limits: Hard limits are reached when there are no more options available. They represent situations where no adaptive actions are possible to avoid intolerable risks Soft Limits: Soft limits exist where options might not be currently available but could be in the future. They occur temporarily and may be overcome due to improved adaptation knowledge, changing risk perceptions, or technological innovations. Soft limits are those options that are currently not available to avoid intolerable risks through adaptive action

37. Limits to adaptation Acceptable risks are risks deemed so low that additional risk reduction efforts are not seen as necessary. Tolerable risks relate to activities seen as worth pursuing for their benefits, but where additional efforts (adaptations) are required for risk reduction within reasonable levels. Intolerable risks are those which exceed a socially negotiated norm (e.g. the availability of clean drinking water) or a value (e.g. continuity of a way of life) despite adaptive action.

38. Limits to adaptation

39. Limits to adaptation Hard Limits Loss of habitable land – e.g., small islands becoming uninhabitable due to sea level rise and freshwater shortages. Ecosystem collapse – Some species and ecosystems are near or beyond their adaptive capacity. Extreme climate conditions – Rising temperatures, increased frequency of extreme events making adaptation ineffective. Irreversible changes – e.g., glacier loss, coral reef destruction, and permafrost thawing

40. Limits to adaptation Soft Limits (Can be overcome with resources and support) Financial constraints – Lack of funding for adaptation in many regions, especially developing countries. Institutional barriers – Weak governance, poor policy implementation, and lack of political commitment. Social and cultural barriers – Resistance to change, lack of awareness, and traditional land-use practices. Technological limitations – Inadequate access to innovative solutions and infrastructure. Knowledge gaps – Uncertainty in predicting climate risks and effectiveness of adaptation measures. Maladaptation risks – Some adaptation efforts may have unintended negative consequences (e.g., seawalls increasing long-term risk).

41. Maladaptation Maladaptation refers to actions taken with the intention of adapting to climate change that inadvertently increase vulnerability to its negative impacts. It is an action that results in undesirable and unintended outcomes, and it can aggravate the consequences of climate-related changes. Instead of reducing vulnerability, maladaptation increases it. The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report did not define maladaptation, although the earlier Third Assessment report did The IPCC describes maladaptation as action or inaction “. . . that may lead to increased risk of adverse climate-related outcomes, increased vulnerability to climate change, or diminished welfare, now or in the future” (WGII AR5, Glossary, page 1769).

42. Maladaptation Five types of maladaptation (Barnett and O’Neill (2010)) Increasing emissions of greenhouse gases Disproportionately burdening the most vulnerable High opportunity costs Reduce incentive to adapt Path dependency

43. Maladaptation Type of Maladaptation Description Example Increasing emissions of greenhouse gases Adaptation actions that lead to increased greenhouse gas emissions, contributing to the very problem they aim to address Large-scale mechanical forest thinning operations using diesel-powered heavy machinery to reduce wildfire risks, resulting in significant fossil fuel consumption and temporarily reduced carbon sequestration capacity Disproportionately burdening the most vulnerable Adaptation strategies that unfairly impact disadvantaged or marginalized groups Strict forest conservation policies that prohibit the harvesting of traditional forest products by indigenous and local communities while allowing commercial logging to continue through exemptions High opportunity costs Resource-intensive adaptation measures that prevent investment in other potentially more effective or broadly beneficial approaches Allocating Government’s budget on planting one monocultural “climate-resilient” tree species, at the expense of diverse adaptation options Reduce incentive to adapt Interventions that discourage proactive adaptation by separating actors from climate change impacts Government subsidies for post-fire timber salvage operations that guarantee income after fires, reducing incentives for forest companies to invest in preventative management practices Path dependency Adaptation choices that commit systems to rigid trajectories, limiting future adaptation options Investing heavily in irrigation infrastructure for commercial plantations of water-demanding exotic species such that it becomes unfeasible to transition to drought-adapted native species as climate conditions worsen.

44. Maldevelopment Maldevelopment is defined as unhealthy forms of economic development which focus on achieving rapid economic development without regard to the adverse effects that such development has on the environment especially on climate change. It implies development strategies that: Lead to unsustainable consumption of resources and emission of green house gases. Increase the vulnerability to climate impacts rather than enhancing resilience. Worsen social inequalities in climate risk exposure. Lock societies into high carbon infrastructure and technologies. Focus on short term economic gains ignoring future adaptation capacity.

45. Maldevelopment Unplanned urbanization in Kathmandu Valley that increases flood vulnerability by encroaching on natural drainage systems. Infrastructure development (roads, buildings) in mountainous regions without proper consideration of increased landslide risks due to changing precipitation patterns Hydropower projects designed using historical river flow data that fail to account for changing glacial melt patterns and increased sedimentation Tourism development in ecologically sensitive areas Heavy reliance on imported fossil fuels for energy and transportation, creating economic vulnerability while neglecting abundant renewable energy potential Road construction using "bulldozer development" approaches that destabilize hillsides, increasing landslide frequency during intensifying monsoon rains

46. Sector wise adaptation practices Forests and Biodiversity: The GoN is making efforts to reduce the vulnerability and impacts of climate change on forests and biodiversity via a strong policy-legal framework for biodiversity conservation, climate change adaptation, and mitigation measures. Initiatives include forest fire control programs in all districts, the Integrated Chure Conservation Programme , and various in-situ and ex-situ conservation activities to protect endangered, threatened, and rare wildlife. Mountain landscape management and the Terai Landscape Management and Conservation programs are initiated to promote biodiversity conservation at the ecosystem levels, both on protected and productive areas by involving local institutions. Activities to reduce the vulnerability of climate change on biodiversity and forest ecosystems include: sustainable and scientific forest management through watershed and landscape level planning and management. Also includes improved governance capacity, low cost soil and water conservation practices; control of forest fire; effective implementation of forest and biodiversity conservation legislation, proper monitoring of forest health through management of landscape-level ecosystem and corridor.

47. Sector wise adaptation practices Agriculture and Food Security: Initiatives from the GoN include the System of Rice Intensification (SRI), green manuring, and conservation tillage practices. Also includes the use of plastic houses and water sprinklers, sustainable agriculture soil and water conservation. Slope stabilization, landslide control, rainwater harvesting, rangeland and forage improvement, cultivation on riverbeds and shrub land, and livestock shed improvement. Bioenergy and the adoption of biogas. NAPA emphasizes awareness raising, capacity building, and technology transfer.

48. Sector wise adaptation practices Water Resources and Energy: Technological measures have been applied to reduce vulnerability of climate change on water resources. Early warning systems have been set up to forewarn communities. For example, the DHM has set up a GLOF early warning system downstream from Tsho Rolpa Glacial Lake. Climate-resilient water and energy infrastructure. Two potential options for adapting to the hydro-energy sector could be: retrofitting existing ones to reduce the risks of climate variability, and over-designing new plants to mitigate against all possible risks. The Ministry of Water Supply (MOWS) and the Department of Water Supply and Sewerage Management (DWSSM) have adopted water source conservation, rainwater harvesting, ground water recharge, water optimization and multiple use of water, as part of a principle of integrated water resource management in the core working strategy