Computer Application and Agri Informatics

Computer Application and Agri Informatics

credit : Subham Mandal ( Student )
B.Sc Horticulture , 2nd year
Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya

Disclaimer : I am also a student.. so read it at your own risk

TOPIC :

Logic Gate | Universal Gate (NAND / NOR) | Binary Conversion Mind Map
Role of IT in the field of Agriculture
Generations of Computer
CLASSIFICATION OF VARIOUS TYPES OF COMPUTER
MEMORY
Primary Memory vs. Secondary Memory
RAM V/S ROM
Secondary Storage Devices and Their Functionalities:
INTERNET
Computer Operating System
FLOW CHART
Draw a flow-chart to find the largest among three numbers A, B, C and develop an algorithm from the drawn flow-chart
Software
Programming Language
BLOCK DIAGRAM & Component of computer
System Call
IF…THEN…ELSE, WHILE…WEND, FOR…NEXT, DO…LOOP, GOTO.


SUMMARY:
- Universal gates, such as NAND and NOR, can be used to implement any other logic gate.
- IT plays a significant role in agriculture, including farm management systems, crop advisory services, precision agriculture, market information systems, agri-financing platforms, e-commerce platforms, supply chain management, and weather forecasting.
- Generations of computers include the first generation (using vacuum tubes), second generation (transistors), third generation (integrated circuits), fourth generation (microprocessors), and the ongoing fifth generation (advancements in parallel computing, AI, and quantum computing).
- Computers are classified based on size (micro, mini, mainframe, supercomputer), type (digital, analog, hybrid), and processing mode (batch processing, time sharing, multiprocessing, multiprogramming).
- Primary memory (RAM) is directly accessible by the CPU and stores actively used data, while secondary memory (e.g., HDD, SSD, optical disks) is for long-term storage.
- RAM is volatile and used for temporary storage, while ROM is non-volatile and contains permanent instructions.
- Various secondary storage devices include HDD, SSD, optical disks, and flash drives.
- Register types include instruction register, program counter, memory address registers, memory data register, and general registers.
- Internet components include HTML (HyperText Markup Language), HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), DNS (Domain Name System), IP (Internet Protocol), and URL (Uniform Resource Locator).
- The internet allows for communication, information sharing, online shopping, social networking, and entertainment.
- Flow charts and algorithms are used in computer programming to solve problems.
- Software and programming languages are essential for developing computer applications.
- System calls allow programs to interact with the operating system.
- Common programming constructs include IF...THEN...ELSE, WHILE...WEND, FOR...NEXT, DO...LOOP, and GOTO.

1. AST201
ComputerApplicationandAgriInformatics
SubhamMandal(Student)
B.ScHorticulture,2ndyear
UttarBangaKrishiViswavidyalaya

2. LogicGate|UniversalGate(NAND/NOR)|BinaryConversionMindMap
UniversalGate:Auniversalgateisatypeoflogicgate,suchasNANDorNOR,thatcanbeusedtoimplementany
otherlogicgate.Theyarecalleduniversalbecausetheycanperformallpossiblelogicoperationsandarecapableof
expressinganyBooleanfunction.

3. RoleofITinthefieldofAgriculture(5)
1.FarmManagementSystems:Thesesoftwaresolutionsassistfarmersinmanagingtheirfarmseffectively.Theyprovidefeaturessuchascropplanning,
resourcemanagement,inventorytracking,andrecord-keeping.SomepopularfarmmanagementsystemsinIndiaincludeAgriERP,FarmERP,andFarmLogs.
2.CropAdvisoryServices:ITplatformsoffercropadvisoryservicestofarmers,providingthemwithpersonalizedrecommendationsbasedonweather
conditions,soilhealth,pestanddiseasemanagement,andbestagriculturalpractices.CompanieslikeCropInandAgroStarprovidemobileapplicationsand
helplinestodelivertheseservices.
3.PrecisionAgriculture:PrecisionagricultureinvolvesusingtechnologieslikeGeographicInformationSystems(GIS),GlobalPositioningSystems(GPS),and
remotesensingtooptimizeresourceutilizationandincreasecropyield.Itenablesfarmerstomakeinformeddecisionsregardingirrigation,fertilization,and
pesticideapplication.CompanieslikeMahindraAgriSolutionsandTAFE'siRideofferprecisionfarmingsolutions.
4.MarketInformationSystems:TheseITservicesprovidefarmerswithreal-timemarketinformation,includingcommodityprices,marketdemand,andsupply
trends.Farmerscanmakeinformeddecisionsoncropselection,timingofsales,andidentifyingpotentialbuyers.ExamplesincludeAgmarknetande-NAM
(NationalAgriculturalMarket)platform.
5.Agri-financingPlatforms:Severaldigitalplatformsconnectfarmerswithfinancialinstitutionsandprovidethemwithaccesstocredit,insurance,andother
financialservices.CompanieslikeAgriBazaarandGramCoverfacilitateeasyaccesstoloans,cropinsurance,andassistanceininsuranceclaimsettlement.
6.E-commercePlatforms:Onlinemarketplacesforagriculturalproduceenablefarmerstodirectlyconnectwithbuyers,eliminatingmiddlemenandimproving
theirincome.PlatformslikeBigHaat,DeHaat,andNinjacartprovideamarketplaceforfarmerstoselltheirproduceandaccessawidercustomerbase.
7.SupplyChainManagement:ITservicesareusedtooptimizesupplychainoperationsinagriculture.Thesesolutionstrackthemovementofgoodsfromfarm
tomarket,ensuringtimelydelivery,minimizingwastage,andimprovingefficiency.CompanieslikeNinjacartandWayCoolFoodsoffersupplychain
managementsolutions.
8.WeatherForecasting:Accurateweatherinformationiscrucialforfarmers.ITservicesprovidereal-timeweatherupdates,forecasts,andearlywarning
systemsforextremeweatherevents.TheIndiaMeteorologicalDepartment(IMD)offersweatherinformationthroughitswebsiteandmobileapps.

4. GenerationsofComputer(10)
1.FirstGeneration
●Thefirstgenerationofcomputersemergedinthe1940sandwascharacterizedbytheuseofvacuumtubesforelectroniccircuitry.
●Thesecomputerswerelarge,cumbersome,andconsumedasignificantamountofelectricity.
●Theyreliedonpunchedcardsandmagnetictapeforinputandoutput.
●ExamplesincludetheENIACandUNIVACmachines.
2.SecondGeneration
●Thesecondgenerationofcomputersmarkedashiftfromvacuumtubestotransistors.
●Transistorsweresmaller,morereliable,andconsumedlesspowercomparedtovacuumtubes.
●Thisledtothedevelopmentofsmallerandfastercomputersthatwerecommerciallyviable.
●Magneticcorememorywasintroducedduringthisgeneration.
●Examplesofsecond-generationcomputersincludetheIBM1401andDECPDP-8.
3.ThirdGeneration
●Thethirdgenerationofcomputerssawtheinventionofintegratedcircuits(ICs),whichintegratedmultipletransistorsontoasinglesiliconchip.
●Thisgenerationalsowitnessedthedevelopmentofhigh-levelprogramminglanguagessuchasCOBOLandFORTRAN.
●Mainframesandminicomputersbecamepopularduringthisera.
●IBMSystem/360andDECVAXseriesarenotableexamples.
4.FourthGeneration
●Thefourthgenerationofcomputerswascharacterizedbytheadventofmicroprocessors.
●Microprocessorscombinedthefunctionsofthecentralprocessingunit(CPU)ontoasinglechip,makingcomputersevenmorepowerfulandcompact.
●Personalcomputers(PCs)becameaccessibletoindividuals,leadingtoawidespreadrevolutionincomputing.
●Thedevelopmentofgraphicaluserinterfaces(GUIs)andtheintroductionofthemousefurtherenhanceduserinteraction.
●ExamplesincludetheAppleII,IBMPC,andCommodore64.
5.FifthGeneration
●Thefifthgenerationofcomputersisongoingandismarkedbyadvancementsinparallelcomputing,artificialintelligence,andquantumcomputing.
●Parallelprocessingallowsmultipleprocessorstoworksimultaneouslyonaproblem,significantlyincreasingcomputationalspeed.
●AItechnologies,suchasmachinelearningandnaturallanguageprocessing,havemadesignificantprogress.
●Quantumcomputershavethepotentialtosolvecomplexproblemsexponentiallyfasterthanclassicalcomputers.
●Thisgenerationisstillevolving,andnewtechnologiescontinuetoshapethefutureofcomputing.

6. CLASSIFICATIONOFVARIOUSTYPESOFCOMPUTER(10)
Dependingonthesizeofcomputers,
1)Microcomputer:
●Small-sizedcomputersutilizingmicroprocessors,withtheCPUusuallycontainedononechip.
●Microcomputershavelowstoragecapacityandareslowinoperation.
●Initiallyusedfordedicatedapplicationslikeexperimentalcontrol,followingafixedprogramforasingletask.
●Wordlength:8-16/32|CPUSpeed:500KIPS|Storagecapacity:256kb-16mb|Example:IBM-PC,Apple,BBCMicro
2)Minicomputer:
●General-purposecomputersystemswithreducedstoragecapacityandperformancecomparedtomainframes.
●OperateatCPUspeedsofafewmillioninstructions/sec.
●Thesecomputerscanalsoacceptalltypesofhigh-levellanguages,andtheirwordlengthis16or32bits.
●Theycansupportuptoabout20terminals.
●Wordlength:16-32|Storagecapacity:8-96mb|Example:PDP11,HP2000
3)Mainframecomputer:
●Large-scalegeneral-purposecomputersystemswithoriginsinearly,large-sizedcomputers.
●Requirealargeframeworkforhousing.
●Mainframeshavelargestoragecapacitiesinseveralmillionwords,withsecondarystoragecapacitiesintheorderofseveralbillionwords.
●TheyhaveoneormoreCPUsandsupportalargenumberofterminals(upto100ormore).
●Mainframesoperateathighspeeds(approx.100millioninstructions/sec)andcanacceptalltypesofhigh-levellanguages.
●Wordlength:32-64|CPUSpeed:30-100MIPS|Storagecapacity:8mb-256mb|Example:HP9000,CYBER170
4)Supercomputer:
●Largegeneral-purposecomputerscapableofexecutingmorethan100millioninstructions/sec.
●Theyhaveastoragecapacityofmillionsofbits.
●Supercomputersachievehighspeedsbyusingmultipleprocessorsworkinginparallel,
●highstoragedensitiesareobtainedthroughmagneticbubblememoriesandcharge-coupleddevices,reducingstoragecosts.
●Wordlength:64-96|CPUSpeed:400-10000MIPS|Storagecapacity:256mbandmore|Example:CRAY-XMP14,ETA10

7. Dependingontheprincipleofworking,
1)Digitalcomputer:Alloperationsaredoneusingbinarydigits&itoperatesbycounting.
2)AnalogComputer:Theanalogcomputeroperatesbymeasuringtheelectricalsignalsrepresentingaphysicalprocess.
3)Hybridcomputer:Ahybridcomputeriscombinationofbothanaloganddigitalcomputers.Itcanacceptinputdatabothinanaloganddigitalform.
Dependingontheprocessingmode,
1)Batchprocessing:
●Computerprocessesjobsinsequencefromthereception.
●Whenonejobfinishes,anotheristakenfromthequeue.
●Usersprepareafileofcommandsandrequestexecutionasabatch.
●
2)Timesharing:
●AllowsallprogramstohavebriefsharesoftheCPUinturn.
●Eachjobhasashortperiodofsolecontrolovertheprocessor,knownasatimesliceortimeslot(typically10milliseconds).
3)Multiprocessing:
●Eachuserhastheirownseparateprograminmemory.
●TheCPUrapidlyswitchesbetweenprograms,givingtheimpressionofindividualcomputerswhilesharingonecomputeramongmultipleusers.
●TruemultiprocessinghasmultipleCPUssharingmemoryandperipherals.
●Looselycoupledsystemsassignjobsbasedonrequirementsandpolicies,
4)Multiprogramming:
●UsefulforI/Oboundprograms,allowingmultipleprogramstoresideincentralmemorysimultaneously.
●WhileoneprogramperformsI/Ooperations,anotherprogramcanbeexecuted,increasingCPUutilization.

8. MEMORY
Memoryhirarchy

9. PrimaryMemoryvs.SecondaryMemory:
PrimaryMemory:
●-Alsoknownasmainmemory
●-DirectlyaccessiblebytheCPU.
●-StoresdataandinstructionsthatareactivelyusedbytheCPU
duringprogramexecution.
●-Volatilememory,ornonvolatilememory
●-Fasteraccessspeedcomparedtosecondarymemory.
●ProvidealimitedshortstorageforRAMbutmorestorageinROM
●-Examplesincludecachememory,registermemory,andmain
systemmemory(RAM),ROM.
SecondaryMemory:
●-Alsoreferredtoasauxiliarymemoryorstorage.
●-IndirectlyaccessiblebytheCPU,dataneedstobetransferred
betweensecondarymemoryandprimarymemoryforprocessing
●-Usedforlong-termstorageofdataandprograms,evenwhenthe
computerispoweredoff.
●-Non-volatilememory,retainsdataevenwhenpoweristurnedoff.
●-Sloweraccessspeedcomparedtoprimarymemory.
●-Provideslargerstoragecapacitycomparedtoprimarymemory.
●-Examplesincludeharddiskdrives(HDD),solid-statedrives
(SSD),opticaldisks(CDs,DVDs),andflashdrives(USBdrives).

10. RAMV/SROM
RAM(RandomAccessMemory):
●-RAMstandsforRandomAccessMemory.
●-Volatilememory,meaningitscontentsarelostwhenthecomputer
ispoweredofforrestarted.
●-Usedfortemporarystorageofdataandprograminstructionsthat
areactivelybeingusedbytheCPU.
●-Allowsforrandomaccessandmodificationofdata.
●-Providesfasterreadandwritespeedscomparedtosecondary
storagedevices.
●-DatacanbereadfromandwrittentoRAM.
●-CommontypesofRAMincludeDRAM(DynamicRAM)andSRAM
(StaticRAM).
ROM(Read-OnlyMemory):
●-ROMstandsforRead-OnlyMemory.
●-Itisatypeofnon-volatilememory.Retainsitscontentsevenwhen
thecomputerispoweredofforrestarted.
●-Containspermanentorsemi-permanentinstructionsordatathatare
typicallynotmodifiedduringnormalcomputeroperation.
●-DatastoredinROMcannotbeeasilymodifiedordeleted.
●-Allowsforread-onlyaccesstothestoredinformation.
●-ProvidessloweraccessspeedscomparedtoRAM.
●-CommontypesofROMincludePROM(ProgrammableROM),
EPROM(ErasableProgrammableROM),andEEPROM(Electrically
ErasableProgrammableROM).

11. SecondaryStorageDevicesandTheirFunctionalities:
1)HardDiskDrive(HDD):
1.Harddiskdriveismadeupof
aseriesofcirculardisks
calledplattersarrangedone
overtheotheralmost½
inchesapartarounda
spindle.
2.Disksaremadeof
non-magneticmateriallike
aluminumalloyandcoated
with10-20nmofmagnetic
material.
3.Provideshighstorage
capacityatarelativelylow
cost.
4.Suitableforlong-termstorage
oflargeamountsofdata,
suchasoperatingsystems,
softwareapplications,and
userfiles.
2)Solid-StateDrive(SSD):
1.-Usesflashmemory
technologytostoredata
electronically.
2.Fasteraccessspeed
comparedtoHDDs.
3.Moredurableand
shock-resistantduetothe
absenceofmovingparts.
4.Idealforimprovingoverall
systemperformanceby
storingfrequentlyaccessed
data.
3)OpticalDisks(CDs,DVDs,
Blu-ray):
1.Utilizeslasertechnologyto
readandwritedataonoptical
disks.
2.Providesportablestorage
anddistributionofdata.
3.CDsandDVDsare
commonlyusedformusic,
movies,softwareinstallation,
anddatabackup.
4.Blu-raydiscsofferhigher
storagecapacityandare
commonlyusedfor
high-definitionvideocontent.
4)FlashDrives(USBdrives):
1.Useslasertechnique
2.Compact,portablestorage
devicesusingflashmemory
technology.
3.Provideconvenientand
portablestorageforpersonal
files,documents,andmedia.
4.Plug-and-playfunctionality
allowseasytransferofdata
betweendifferentcomputers.
5.AlsoknownasPEN
drive…mostlyusednowdays

12. 1.Registerwithtypes:
Registersaresmall,high-speedmemoryunitswithinthecentralprocessingunit(CPU)ofacomputer.Theyareusedtostoretemporarydataand
instructionsthatareactivelybeingexecutedormanipulatedbytheCPU.RegistersaretypicallybuiltdirectlyintotheCPUandarefastertoaccess
comparedtomainmemory.
●1)Instructionregister(IR):Itcontainstheinstructionthatisbeingexecuted.Itsoutputisfedtothecontrolcircuit,whichgeneratethe
timingsignalsforcontroloftheactualprocessingcircuitsneededtoexecutetheinstruction.
●2)Programcounter(PC):Itkeepstrackoftheexecutionoftheprogram&containsthememoryaddressoftheinstructioncurrently
beingexecuted.
●3)Memoryaddressregisters(MAR):itholdstheaddressofthelocationfromwhichdataistobetransferred.
●4)Memorydataregister(MDR):Itcontainsthedatatobereadorwrittenoftheaddressedlocation.
●5)Generalregister(GR):Itisasetofregisterwhereeachregistercanfunctionasanaccumulator.
2.Cachememory:
-Small,fastest
memorybetween
CPUandmain
memory.
-Storesfrequently
accesseddataand
instructions.
-Reducesaccess
timefromslower
mainmemory.
3.Virtualmemory:
-Memory
management
technique.
-Usessecondary
storageasan
extensionofRAM.
-Createsillusionof
largermemory
space.
4.Protectedmemory:
-Isolates
programs/processes
fromeachother.
-Enhancesstability
andsecurity.
-Prevents
interferencewith
otherprograms.
5.Staticmemory:
-Allocatedand
reservedduring
compile/linking.
-Retainsmemory
throughoutprogram
execution.
-Usedforglobal
variablesand
constants.
6.Dynamicmemory:
-Allocatedand
releasedduring
runtime.
-Providesflexibility
andefficient
memoryutilization.
-Usedfordynamic
datastructures

13. INTERNET
1.HTML:
-HTMLstandsforHyperTextMarkupLanguageandisthestandardlanguageforcreatingwebpages.
-Itdefinesthestructureandcontentofawebpage,includingheadings,paragraphs,links,images,andotherelements.
-HTMLusestagstomarkupdifferentpartsofthecontent,allowingwebbrowserstointerpretanddisplaythepagecorrectly.
-ItisthefoundationoftheWorldWideWebandisessentialforcreatinganddesigningwebsites.
2.HTTP:
-HTTPstandsforHypertextTransferProtocolandistheprotocolusedforcommunicationbetweenawebbrowserandawebserver.
-ItenablestheretrievalofresourcessuchasHTMLdocuments,images,videos,etc.,byestablishingarequest-responsemodel.
-HTTPoperatesontopoftheTCP/IPprotocolandtypicallyusesport80forcommunication.
-Itisastatelessprotocol,meaningeachrequest-responsecycleisindependentofpreviousinteractions.
3.HTTPS:
-HTTPSstandsforHypertextTransferProtocolSecureandisanextensionofHTTPthatprovidessecurecommunicationovertheinternet.
-ItaddsanextralayerofencryptionusingSSL/TLSprotocolstoprotectsensitiveinformationtransmittedbetweenthewebbrowserandwebserver.
-HTTPSusesport443insteadofport80usedbyHTTP.
-Itiscommonlyusedforsecuretransactions,suchasonlinebanking,e-commerce,andanyotheractivityrequiringdataprivacyandintegrity.
4.Webbrowser:
-AwebbrowserisasoftwareapplicationthatallowsuserstoaccessandnavigatetheWorldWideWeb.
-Itretrievesanddisplayswebpages,interpretsHTML,executesscripts,andrendersmultimediacontent.
-PopularwebbrowsersincludeGoogleChrome,MozillaFirefox,MicrosoftEdge,Safari,andOpera.
-Webbrowsersalsosupportadditionalfeatureslikebookmarks,tabbedbrowsing,andextensionstoenhancethebrowsingexperience.
5.Webserver:
-Awebserverisacomputerprogramorhardwaredevicethathostswebsitesandserveswebpagestoclientrequests.
-ItrespondstoHTTPrequestsfromwebbrowsers,retrievestherequestedresources,andsendsthembacktotheclient.
-Webserversstorewebsitefiles,suchasHTML,CSS,JavaScript,images,andvideos,andmakethemaccessibleovertheinternet.
-PopularwebserversoftwareincludesApacheHTTPServer,NGINX,MicrosoftIIS,andLiteSpeed.

14. 6.IPandhowitworks:
-IPstandsforInternetProtocolandisafundamentalprotocolusedforcommunicationbetweendevicesontheinternet.
-Itprovidesauniqueaddressforeachdevice,knownasanIPaddress,whichallowsdatatobesentandreceived.
-IPworksinconjunctionwithotherprotocols,suchasTCP(TransmissionControlProtocol),toenablereliabledatatransmission.
-IPaddressescanbeeitherIPv4(32-bit)orIPv6(128-bit)andareusedtoroutedatapacketsacrossnetworks.
7.URL:
-URLstandsforUniformResourceLocatorandistheaddressusedtolocateresourcesontheweb.
-Itspecifiestheprotocol(HTTP,HTTPS),domainname(e.g.,www.example.com),andoptionalpathorqueryparameters.
-URLscanbeusedtoaccesswebpages,files,images,videos,oranyotherresourceavailableontheinternet.
-Forexample,"https://www.example.com/contact"isaURLthatdirectsthebrowsertothecontactpageoftheexample.comwebsite.
8.WWW:
-WWWstandsforWorldWideWebandreferstothecollectionofinterconnectedwebsitesandwebpagesaccessibleviatheinternet.
-ItwasdevelopedbyTimBerners-Leein1989andpopularizedtheconceptofhyperlinksfornavigatingbetweendifferentresources.
-TheWWWusesprotocolssuchasHTTPandHTTPStofacilitatetheexchangeofinformationovertheinternet.
-Ithasbecomeanintegralpartofmodernsociety,providingaccesstovastamountsofinformation,services,and
9.TCP:
1.TCP(TransmissionControlProtocol)isareliableandconnection-orientedprotocolthatensurestheorderedanderror-checkeddeliveryofdataover
IPnetworks.
2.Itbreaksdataintopackets,numbersandsequencesthem,andreassemblesthematthereceivingendtomaintaindataintegrity.
3.TCPusesathree-wayhandshakeprocesstoestablishandterminateconnectionsbetweendevices.
10.FTP:
1.FTP(FileTransferProtocol)isastandardnetworkprotocolusedfortransferringfilesbetweenaclientandaserveronacomputernetwork.
2.Itallowsuserstoupload,download,andmanagefilesonremoteservers,providingaconvenientwaytoshareandexchangefiles.
3.FTPoperatesonaclient-serverarchitecture,wheretheclientconnectstotheserverusingport21,anditsupportsauthenticationforsecureaccess
tospecificdirectoriesandfiles.

15. ComputerOperatingSystem(OS):
Anoperatingsystemisasoftwarethatmanagesandcontrolscomputerhardwareandsoftwareresources.
Itprovidesasetofservicesandfunctionstofacilitatetheexecutionofprograms,managememory,handleinput/outputdevices,andprovideauserinterfacefor
interactionwiththecomputer.
SomepopularOSsoftwareusedinpresentdays:
1.MicrosoftWindows:Windows10,Windows11
2.macOS:macOSMojave,macOSBigSur
3.Linux:Ubuntu,Fedora,CentOS
4.Android:MobileOSusedinsmartphonesandtablets
5.iOS:MobileOSusediniPhonesandiPads
6.ChromeOS:OperatingsystemusedinChromebooks
FunctionsoftheOperatingSystem:
1.ProcessManagement:
-Controlaccesstosharedresources(file,memory,I/O,CPU)
-Controlexecutionofapplications
-Create,execute,anddeleteprocesses
-Cancelorresumeprocesses
-Scheduleprocesses
-Handlesynchronization,communication,anddeadlockforprocesses
4.DeviceManagement:
-Open,close,andwritedevicedrivers
-Communicate,control,andmonitordevicedrivers
2.MemoryManagement:
-Allocatememory
-Freememory
-Reallocatememorytoprograms
-Trackmemoryusage
5.ProtectionandSecurity:
-Protectsystemresources
-Userauthentication
-Fileattributes(read,write,encryption)
-Databackup
3.FileManagement:
-Createanddeletefilesanddirectories
-Provideaccesstofiles
-Allocatespaceforfiles
-Backupfiles
-Securefiles
6.UserInterfaceorCommandInterpreter:
-Provideinterfacebetweenuserandhardware
-Setofcommandsorgraphicaluserinterfaceforuserinteractionwithapplicationsand
hardware

16. TypeofOperatingSystem
1.BatchOperatingSystem:Userssubmitjobsonpunchcards,whicharebatchedtogetherandrunasagroup.Limiteduserinteraction,CPUidle
time,anddifficultyprovidingpriority.Userprepareshisjobonanoff-linedevicelikepunchcardsandsubmitsittothecomputeroperator.
2.TimeSharingOperatingSystem:MultipleusersshareCPUtime,providingquickresponseandreducingidletime.Processor'stimeisshared
amongmultipleuserssimultaneously.
3.DistributedOperatingSystem:Usesmultipleprocessorstoservereal-timeapplicationsandusers.Resourcesharing,fasterdataexchange,
faulttolerance,andloadreduction.Multiplecentralprocessorsareusedtoservemultiplereal-timeapplicationsandmultipleusers.
1.Client-ServerSystems
2.Peer-to-PeerSystems
4.NetworkOperatingSystem:Runsonservers,enablingsharedfileandprinteraccessinanetwork.Centralizedstability,security,andremote
access.OperatingSystemrunsonaserverandprovidestheserverthecapabilitytomanagedataandothernetworkingfunctions.
5.Real-TimeOperatingSystem:Executesprogramswithmultitasking,scheduling,hardwareabstraction,andcommunication.Usedinelectronic
deviceswithaminimaluserinterface.Timeintervalrequiredtoprocessandrespondtoinputsissosmallthatitcontrolstheenvironment.
6.ClusteredOperatingSystem:ConnectedcomputerssharingstorageviaLAN.CombinesdistributedOSandmultiprocessorsystemfeatures.
7.HandheldOperatingSystem:MobileOSforsmartphonesandtablets.CombinesPCOSfeatureswithmobile-specificfunctionslike
touchscreens,cellularconnectivity,GPS,etc.

17. FLOWCHART
Aflowchartisavisualrepresentationordiagramthatillustratesthesequenceofstepsoractionsinaprocessoralgorithmusingvarioussymbolsandarrows
toshowtheflowofcontrol.

18. Drawaflow-charttofindthelargestamongthreenumbersA,B,Canddevelopanalgorithmfromthe
drawnflow-chart.
Algorithm:
Firstlywewillstartwithreadingallthreenumbers.ConsiderthethreenumbersbeA,BandC.wewillcomparefirsttwonumbersA>B?
IfA>BistruewewillcompareAwithC.|IfA>CistruethenAisthelargestnumber.|IfA>CisfalsethenCisthelargestnumber.
IfA>BisfalsewewillcompareBwithC.|IfB>CistruethenBisthelargestnumber.|IfB>CisfalsethenCisthelargestnumber.
Aftergettingtheresultstheflowchartgetsterminated
Diagram:

19. Software
Softwarereferstothecollectionofprograms,data,andinstructionsthatenableacomputersystemtoperformspecifictasksorfunctions.Itisintangible
andincludesapplications,operatingsystems,andotherprogramsthatrunoncomputerhardware.
Hardwarereferstothephysicalcomponentsofacomputersystemthatcanbetouchedandseen.Itincludesdevicessuchasthecentralprocessingunit
(CPU),memory,storagedevices,input/outputdevices,andotherphysicalcomponentsthatworktogethertosupporttheexecutionofsoftware.
1.SystemSoftware:Systemsoftwareisdesignedtomanageandoperatecomputerhardware.Examplesinclude:
-OperatingSystems:Windows,macOS,Linux,Android,iOS.
-DeviceDrivers:Softwarethatallowstheoperatingsystemtocommunicatewithhardwaredeviceslikeprinters,graphicscards,etc.
-Firmware:Softwareembeddedinhardwaredevices,suchasBIOSinacomputer.
2.ApplicationSoftware:Applicationsoftwareisusedtoperformspecifictasksorprovidespecificservicestousers.Examplesinclude:
-WordProcessors:MicrosoftWord,GoogleDocs.
-Spreadsheets:MicrosoftExcel,GoogleSheets.
-WebBrowsers:GoogleChrome,MozillaFirefox.
-MultimediaPlayers:VLCMediaPlayer,iTunes.
-GraphicDesignSoftware:AdobePhotoshop,CorelDRAW.
-VideoEditingSoftware:AdobePremierePro,FinalCutPro.
3.ProgrammingSoftware:Programmingsoftwareisusedtodevelop,debug,andmaintainsoftwareapplications.Examplesinclude:
-IntegratedDevelopmentEnvironments(IDEs):VisualStudio,Eclipse,Xcode.
-TextEditors:Notepad++,SublimeText,Atom.

20. Language
1.AssemblyLanguage:
-Definition:Low-levellanguageusingmnemonicsformachineinstructions.
-Application:Embeddedsystems,devicedrivers,operatingsystems.
-Advantage:Control,optimizationforspecifictasks.
-Disadvantage:Architecture-specific,lessportable,complexsyntax.
-Example:Intelx86AssemblyLanguage,ARMAssemblyLanguage.
2.MachineLanguage:
-Definition:Lowest-levellanguageconsistingofbinaryinstructions.
-Application:CPUexecution,programtranslation.
-Advantage:Directhardwarecontrol,efficiency.
-Disadvantage:Difficulttoread/write,architecture-specific,non-portable.
-Example:Binarymachinecodespecifictoaparticularprocessor.
3.High-LevelLanguage:
-Definition:Human-readablelanguagewithabstractions.
-Application:Applicationdevelopment,webdevelopment,scientificcomputing.
-Advantage:Readability,productivity,codereuse.
-Disadvantage:Potentialperformanceoverhead,limitedhardwareaccess,interpreter/compilerdependency.
-Example:C,C++,Java,Python,Ruby.
4.ScriptingLanguages:Scriptinglanguagesareusedtoautomatetasksandprovideahigh-levelinterfaceforexecutingcommands.Theyareoften
interpretedandarecommonlyusedforwebdevelopment,systemadministration,andautomation.ExamplesincludeJavaScript,Perl,PHP,andRuby.
5.Object-OrientedLanguages:Object-orientedlanguagesarebasedontheconceptofobjects,whichencapsulatedataandtheoperationsthatcanbe
performedonthem.Theypromotemodularandreusablecodeandprovidefeatureslikeinheritance,encapsulation,andpolymorphism.Examplesinclude
Java,C++,C#,andPython.
6.MarkupLanguages:Markuplanguagesareusedtoannotateandstructuretextforpresentationordataexchange.Theyusetagstodefineelementsand
theirattributes.ExamplesincludeHTML(HypertextMarkupLanguage),XML(eXtensibleMarkupLanguage),andMarkdown.

21. BLOCKDIAGRAM&Component
-CPU(CentralProcessingUnit):TheCPUistheprimarycomponentofacomputerresponsibleforexecutinginstructionsandperformingcalculations.It
consistsofthearithmeticlogicunit(ALU),controlunit(CU),andregisters.TheCPUfetches,decodes,andexecutesinstructions,andperformsvarious
operationsondata.
-CU(ControlUnit):TheControlUnitisacomponentoftheCPUthatmanagesandcoordinatestheactivitiesoftheothercomponents.Itcontrolstheflowof
dataandinstructionswithintheCPUandcommunicateswithotherdevices.Thecontrolunitinterpretsinstructions,generatescontrolsignals,anddirectsthe
operationoftheALUandotherunits.
-ALU(ArithmeticLogicUnit):TheALUisapartoftheCPUthatperformsarithmeticandlogicaloperationsondata.Ithandlesmathematicalcalculations,such
asaddition,subtraction,multiplication,anddivision.Italsoperformslogicaloperations,suchascomparisonsandbitwiseoperations.
-MemoryUnit:Amemoryunitisacomponentinacomputersystemthatstoresandretrievesdataandinstructions.Itprovidestemporaryorpermanent
storagefordataandinstructionsthatareactivelyusedbytheCPUduringprogramexecution.
-PCB(ProcessControlBlock):TheProcessControlBlock,alsoknownastheTaskControlBlock,isadatastructureusedbytheoperatingsystemtomanage
andstoreinformationaboutaprocess.Itcontainsinformationsuchastheprocessstate,programcounter,registervalues,memoryallocation,andother
detailsnecessaryforprocessmanagement.ThePCBallowstheoperatingsystemtotrackandcontroltheexecutionofprocesses.

22. SystemCall
Asystemcallisamechanismprovidedbytheoperatingsystemthatallowsuser-levelprocessestorequestservicesfromthe
kernel.Itservesasaninterfacebetweenuserapplicationsandtheunderlyingoperatingsystem,enablingprogramstoperform
privilegedoperationsandaccesssystemresources.
Types
1.ProcessControlSystemCalls:Create,terminate,andmanipulateprocesses(e.g.,fork(),exec(),exit()).
2.FileManagementSystemCalls:Create,open,read,write,andclosefiles(e.g.,open(),read(),close()).
3.DeviceManagementSystemCalls:Accessandcontroldevices(e.g.,read(),write(),ioctl()).
4.InformationMaintenanceSystemCalls:Retrievesystemandprocessinformation(e.g.,getpid(),getcwd(),stat()).
5.CommunicationSystemCalls:Facilitateinter-processcommunicationandsynchronization(e.g.,pipe(),socket(),send(),recv()).
6.MemoryManagementSystemCalls:Managememoryallocationanddeallocation(e.g.,malloc(),free(),mmap()).

23. IF…THEN…ELSE, WHILE…WEND, FOR…NEXT,DO…LOOP,GOTO.(5)
1.IF...THEN...ELSE:Aconditionalstatementthatallowstheprogramtoexecuteoneblockofcodeifaconditionistrueandanotherblockofcodeifthe
conditionisfalse.
10IFconditionTHEN
20'codetoexecuteifconditionistrue
30ELSE
40'codetoexecuteifconditionisfalse
50ENDIF
2.WHILE...WEND:Aloopstatementthatallowstheprogramtorepeatablockofcodewhileaconditionistrue.
10WHILEcondition
20'codetorepeatwhileconditionistrue
30WEND
3.FOR...NEXT:Aloopstatementthatallowstheprogramtorepeatablockofcodeforaspecifiednumberoftimes.
10FORvariable=startTOend[STEPstep]
20'codetorepeat
30NEXTvariable
4.DO...LOOP:
DO...LOOPWHILE:Thecodeblockisexecutedwhiletheconditionistrue.Theconditionischeckedatthebeginningoftheloop.
DOWHILEcondition
'codetorepeat
LOOP
DO...LOOPUNTIL:Thecodeblockisexecutedfirst,andthentheconditionischecked.Theloopcontinueswhiletheconditionisfalse.
DO
‘codetorepeat
LOOPUNTILcondition
5.GOTO:Astatementthatallowstheprogramtojumptoaspecifiedlinenumberorlabel.
10GOTOlabelorlinenumber