Content_analysis_in_qualitative_research.pptx

content analysis

1. Content Analysis in qualitative research By Aysha Mohd Sharif

2. What is content analysis? Shannon (2005) defined qualitative content analysis as “a research method for the subjectivist interpretation of text and data through the systematic classification process of coding and identifying themes or patterns” (p. 12). According to Mayring (2000), qualitative content analysis is “an approach of empirical, methodological controlled analysis of texts within their context of communication, following content analytic rules and step-by-step models, without rash quantification” (p. 23). Qualitative content analysis allows researchers to understand social reality in a subjective, yet scientific manner; explore the meanings underlying physical messages; and is inductive, grounding the examination of topics and themes, as well as inferences drawn from them, in data (Kaid, 1989; Patton, 2002; Zhang & Wildenmuth, 2009)

3. Characteristics of content analysis One unique characteristic of qualitative content analysis is the flexibility of using Inductive or deductive approaches or a combination of both approaches in data analysis. An inductive approach is appropriate when prior knowledge regarding the phenomenon under investigation is limited or fragmented (Elo & Kyngäs , 2008). In the inductive approach, codes, categories, or themes are directly drawn from the data. The deductive approach starts with preconceived codes or categories derived from prior relevant theory, research, or literature. The deductive approach is appropriate when the objective of the study is to test existing theory or retest existing data in a new context. Second is the ability to extract manifest and latent content meaning . manifest content means the researcher codes the visible and surface content of text, latent content means that the researcher codes the underlying meaning of the text (Graneheim & Lundman , 2004 ).

4. Advantages and disadvantages Forman and Damschroder (2008) posited that the greatest advantage of qualitative content analysis is that it is “a more hands-on approach to research than quantitative content analysis” (p. 60). McNamara (2006) maintained that qualitative content analysis relies heavily on “researcher reading and interpretation of texts” (p. 5). The author should note that this is also a disadvantage of qualitative content analysis, as it places a profound emphasis on researcher bias.

5. Qualitative and quantitative Qualitative content analysis, compared against quantitative content analysis, is often referred to as “latent level analysis, because it concerns a second-level, interpretative analysis of the underlying deeper meaning of the data” (Dörnyei, 2007, p. 246); while the latter is usually described as “manifest level analysis”, providing an objective and descriptive overview of the “surface meaning of the data.” The techniques of data sampling are different, as the quantitative approach requires random sampling or other techniques of probability to ensure validity, while qualitative analysis uses intentionally chosen texts. There are different products of the two approaches; while quantitative analysis caters for statistical methods and numerical results, the qualitative approach brings descriptions.

6. Mixing of both Mixing qualitative and quantitative methods is known as one of the ways of using triangulation, which, according to Flick (2010, p. 405), is “used as a strategy of improving the quality of qualitative research …”. Despite of these differences, it has been highlighted by numerous scholars that, in research practice, the two approaches are often applied in combination (Dörnyei, 2007; Flick, 2007; Zhang & Wildemuth, 2009).

7. Why to use content analysis? Researchers use qualitative content analysis to illustrate the range of meanings of phenomena, describe the characteristics of message content, and identify themes or categories within a body of text. Bryman (2008) maintained that qualitative content analysis comprises a searching out of underlying themes in the texts being analyzed by researchers. Researchers , if they intend to better explain the characteristics of message content, or understand phenomena, must possess an encyclopedic knowledge of qualitative content analysis.

8. Three approaches to content analysis

9. CONVENTIONAL CONTENT ANALYSIS Conventional content analysis is generally used with a study design whose aim is to describe a phenomenon. This type of design is usually appropriate when existing theory or research literature on a phenomenon is limited. Researchers avoid using preconceived categories (Kondracki & Wellman, 2002), instead allowing the categories and names for categories to flow from the data . Researchers immerse themselves in the data to allow new insights to emerge (Kondracki & Wellman, 2002 ). With a conventional approach to content analysis, relevant theories or other research findings are addressed in the discussion section of the study. The discussion would include a summary of how the findings from her study contribute to knowledge in the area of interest and suggestions for practice, teaching , and future research. The advantage of the conventional approach to content analysis is gaining direct information from study without imposing preconceived categories. One challenge of this type of analysis is failing to develop a complete understanding of the context, thus failing to identify key categories. This can result in findings that do not accurately represent the data . Note : Many qualitative methods share this initial approach to study design and analysis.

10. DIRECT CONTENT ANALYSIS The goal of a directed approach to content analysis is to validate or extend conceptually a theoretical framework or theory. Existing theory or research can help focus the research question. It can provide predictions about the variables of interest or about the relationships among variables, thus helping to determine the initial coding scheme or relationships between codes . Using existing theory or prior research, researchers begin by identifying key concepts or variables as initial coding categories (Potter & Levine- Donnerstein , 1999). Operational definitions for each category are determined using the theory. The second strategy that can be used in directed content analysis is to begin coding immediately with the predetermined codes. The main strength of a directed approach to content analysis is that existing theory can be supported and extended. Disadvantages Researchers might be more likely to find evidence that is supportive rather than non-supportive of a theory. Second , in answering the probe questions, some participants might get cues to answer in a certain way or agree with the questions to please researchers. Third , an overemphasis on the theory can blind researchers to contextual aspects of the phenomenon.

11. SUMMATIVE CONTENT ANALYSIS A study using a summative approach to qualitative content analysis starts with identifying and quantifying certain words or content in text with the purpose of understanding the contextual use of the words or content. A summative approach to qualitative content analysis goes beyond mere word counts to include latent content analysis. Latent content analysis refers to the process of interpretation of content (Holsti, 1969). In this analysis, the focus is on discovering underlying meanings of the words or the content (Babbie, 1992 ;). Researchers report using content analysis from this approach in studies that analyze manuscript types in a particular journal or specific content in textbooks. In a summative approach to qualitative content analysis, data analysis begins with searches for occurrences of the identified words by hand or by computer. Word frequency counts for each identified term are calculated, with source or speaker also identified . It allows for interpretation of the context associated with the use of the word or phrase. Researchers try to explore word usage or discover the range of meanings that a word can have in normal use . ADVANTAGES: It is an unobtrusive and nonreactive way to study the phenomenon of interest (Babbie , 1992). It can provide basic insights into how words are actually used. DISADVANTAGES: The findings from this approach are limited by their inattention to the broader meanings present in the data. this type of study relies on credibility.

12. Methodology All approaches to qualitative content analysis require a similar analytical process of seven classic steps, including formulating the research questions to be answered, selecting the sample to be analyzed, defining the categories to be applied, outlining the coding process and the coder training, implementing the coding process, deter mining trustworthiness, and analyzing the results of the coding process ( Kaid,1989). Different research purposes require different research designs and analysis techniques (Knafl & Howard, 1984). The question of whether a study needs to use a conventional , directed, or summative approach to content analysis can be answered by matching the specific research purpose and the state of science in the area of interest with the appropriate analysis technique.

13. Validity Validity may be addressed in terms of correspondence and generalizability. Correspondence refer to agreement between two sets of measurement procedures for a particular construct or a concept. Generalizability refers to the extent to which the results are consistent with existing theory or predictive of associated events. Face validity: the most common form of validity, weakest because it relies on subjective than objective, quantitative or methods of evaluation. Construct validity: it refers to the extent which a measure either corresponds or is discriminant from related to measures or construct. Hypothesis validity refers correspondence between the categorization procedure and existing theories. Predictive validity refers to the extent to which the measurement forecast future events. Semantic validity refers to the examination of the text by persons who are familiar with the content and to the extent of their agreement and on categorization procedure.

14. reliability Reliability here refers to replicability or consistency in the coding or interpretation of content or portions of content. R eliability issues associated in content analysis are with the ambiguity of word meanings or coding rules. Three types of reliability are relevant to content analysis which are: Stability refers to the extent which content classification in invariant over time. Stability can be ascertained when the same content is coded more than once by the same coder.it is relatively weak form of reliability. Reproducibility (inter-coder reliability) refers to the extent to which content classification produces the same results when the same text is coded by more than one coder. High reproducibility is the minimum standard of for content analysis. Accuracy the strongest form of reliability refers to the extent to which the classification of text corresponds to the a particular standard or norm.

15. Readings and references Fang Hseih, Hsiu., Shannon, Sarah. E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis , Qualitative Health Research- Sage Publications, Vol. 15, No. 2, pg. 1277-1285. Sandorova, Zuzuna. (2014). Content analysis as a research method in investigating the cultural components in foreign language textbooks , Journal of language and culture education, pg. 95-123 . http://www.utsc.utoronto.ca/~ kmacd/IDSC10/Readings/Readings/text%20analysis/CA.pdf http :// www.zoltandornyei.co.uk/uploads/2012-dornyei-csizer-rmsla.pdf http://www.paxamerica.org/2012/09/01/qualitative-content-analysis-in-social-research-an-epigrammatic-summation-of-presidential-state-of-the-union-addresses / http://www.utsc.utoronto.ca/~ kmacd/IDSC10/Readings/Readings/text%20analysis/CA.pdf http://www.utsc.utoronto.ca/~ kmacd/IDSC10/Readings/Readings/text%20analysis/CA.pdf