Crude Oil Refinery Processes and Product flow

Understanding crude oil refinery processes and product flow involves delving into the intricate operations of converting crude oil into valuable products like gasoline, diesel, jet fuel, and various petrochemicals. A typical refinery is a complex industrial facility designed to handle a wide range of crude oils and produce a spectrum of refined products. This overview will cover the fundamental processes involved, the technological advancements, environmental considerations, and the economic significance of oil refining.

### Introduction to Crude Oil Refining

Crude oil, also known as petroleum, is a naturally occurring mixture of hydrocarbons found beneath the Earth's surface. It is extracted from reservoirs and transported to refineries for processing. The refining process is essential because crude oil itself is not useful in its raw form for most industrial and consumer applications. Refineries play a crucial role in transforming crude oil into usable products that fuel transportation, power industries, and provide materials for various everyday products.

### Crude Oil Composition and Properties

Crude oil composition varies widely depending on its source, but it primarily consists of hydrocarbons (compounds made of hydrogen and carbon atoms) along with sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen, and trace elements. The specific composition affects the refining process and the types of products that can be derived.

### Overview of Refinery Processes

#### 1. **Distillation**

Distillation is the initial step in refining crude oil. It separates crude oil into different fractions based on their boiling points. The process takes advantage of the fact that different hydrocarbons boil at different temperatures. The main fractions include:

- **Naphtha**: Used as feedstock for gasoline production and as a solvent.
- **Gasoline**: Used as fuel for automobiles.
- **Kerosene and Jet Fuel**: Used for aviation and heating purposes.
- **Diesel**: Used for diesel engines in transportation and industry.
- **Lubricating Oils**: Used for lubrication in engines and machinery.
- **Heavy Fuel Oil**: Used in industrial boilers and marine engines.
- **Residuals and Bitumen**: Used for asphalt and other heavy-duty applications.

#### 2. **Conversion Processes**

After distillation, various conversion processes are employed to further refine and enhance the properties of these fractions:

- **Catalytic Reforming**: Converts low-octane naphtha into high-octane gasoline blending components.
- **Hydrocracking**: Breaks down heavy hydrocarbons into lighter, more valuable products such as gasoline and diesel.
- **Coking**: Processes heavy residues into lighter products and solid coke.
- **Hydrotreating**: Removes sulfur, nitrogen, and other impurities to produce cleaner fuels.

#### 3. **Treatment Processes**

- **Desulfurization**: Removes sulfur compounds from fuels to meet environmental regulations.
- **Hydrogenation**: Adds hydrogen to unsaturated hydrocarbons to improve stability

1. 　　　　 　　 Joint SPC-APEC Regional Workshop on Energy Statistics and Modeling for the SDG7 and the COP21 INDC Energy Targets 14-18 March 2016 Nuku’alofa, Kingdom of Tonga Oil Statistics Edito Barcelona Energy Statistics and Training Office Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre

2. Outline Introduction A few concepts e.g. refining, units, conversion, etc Definitions of Products Primary Products Secondary Products Definitions of Flows Primary Supply Transformation Final Consumption Exercise (Day 2) 2

3. Oil and Oil Products 25 product categories: crude oil, NGL, refinery feedstocks, additives/oxygenates, biofuels, other hydrocarbons, ethane, refinery gas, LPG, naphtha, motor gasoline, biogasoline , aviation gasoline, jet gasoline, jet kerosene, other kerosene, gas/diesel oil, biodiesel, fuel oil, white spirit, lubricants, bitumen, paraffin waxes, petroleum coke and other products. 3

4. 4 Primary Oil Products

5. Crude Oil 1. Crude Oil Oil is a mineral oil of fossil origin extracted by conventional means from underground reservoirs, and comprises liquid or near- liquid hydrocarbons and associated impurities such as sulphur and metals. It exists in the liquid phase under normal surface temperature and pressure, and usually flows to the surface under the pressure of the reservoir. This is termed “conventional” extraction. Crude oil includes condensate from condensate fields, and “field” or “lease” condensate extracted with the crude oil. Issues and Difficulties in reporting Crude Oil Usually there are not too many problems in applying the definition. Quality: crude oil can be of varying quality, colour, viscosity and mineral content. The two main factors determining the quality are the density and the sulfur content . Density: Heavy crudes will yield less light products and are therefore in general of lesser quality. Sulfur content: Similarly, high sulfur crudes need desulphurization and are often less valuable. Terms uses for high sulfur crudes is sour crudes, low sulphur are sweet crudes.

6. NGL 2. Natural Gas Liquids (NGL) NGL are a mixture of ethane, propane, butane (normal and iso ), ( iso ) pentane and a few higher alkanes collectively referred to as pentanes plus. NGL are produced in association with oil or natural gas. They are removed in field facilities or gas separation plants before sale of the gas. All of the components of NGL except ethane are either liquid at the surface or are liquefied for disposal. Issues and Difficulties in reporting NGL Quite a lot of difficulties occur when reporting NGL: Natural gas liquids encompass a variety of hydrocarbons from ethane to pentanes but not methane ( natural gas). They are produced from gas wells, and are separated in gas processing plants. This is because NGLs are produced have usually more value on their own than when left in the natural gas. After NGLs are removed from natural gas, they are reprocessed in a unit called a fractionator to break them out for individual sale as propane, butane and other products. Problem: how to report NGL which is not used as feedstock in refineries.

7. Natural Gas (Dry)  GAS QUESTIONNAIRE Non Hydrocarbon Gases NGL Ethane Propane Butane Pentane Pentane plus Natural Gas (Wet) Gas well Oil well Refinery Crude Oil Separation facilities / Gas processing plants Crude oil and NGL

8. Refinery NGL Ethane Propane Butane Pentane Pentane plus Gas processing plants Separation facilities Market Refinery Intake Direct Use LPG NGL Reporting

9. Refinery Feedstocks 3. Refinery Feedstocks Refinery feedstocks are oils or gases from crude oil refining or the processing of hydrocarbons in the petrochemical industry which are destined for further processing in the refinery excluding blending. Typical feedstocks include naphthas , middle distillates, pyrolysis gasoline and heavy oils from vacuum distillation and petrochemical plants. Issues and Difficulties in reporting refinery feedstocks Refinery feedstocks are unfinished oil products There is no primary production of feedstocks . Refinery output over and above the previous time period refinery production is reported as a stock build, a lower production is reported as a stock draw. Stock changes include also net additions or withdrawals from trade.

10. Additives/Oxygenates 4. Additives/Oxygenates Additives and oxygenates are compounds added to or blended with oil products to modify their properties (octane, cetane , cold properties, etc.). Examples of these products are: oxygenates such as alcohols (methanol, ethanol) and ethers such as methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE), ethyl tertiary butyl ether (ETBE), tertiary amyl methyl ether (TAME); esters such as (e.g., rapeseed or dimethylester , etc.) and chemical compounds such as tetramethyllead (TML), tetraethyllead (TEL) and detergents. Some additives and oxygenates may be derived from biomass while others may be of hydrocarbon origin. Issues and Difficulties in reporting additives/oxygenates Quantities of ethanol reported in this category should relate to the quantities destined for fuel use.

11. Biofuels 5. Biofuels Biofuels such as biogasoline and biodiesel are blended into gasoline and diesel straightly or at refinery plant. Biogasoline consists of bioethanol , biomethanol , BioETBE and bioMTBE Biodiesel consists of biodiesel , bio- dimethylether , fischer tropsh and cold pressed biooil . Issues and Difficulties in reporting biofuels All biofuels are also oxygenates – so avoid double counting. Biofuels reported here should only reflect these quantities which will be blended with oil products. Biofuels for other uses should be reported under renewable energy.

12. Other Hydrocarbons 6. Other Hydrocarbons Other hydrocarbons are non-conventional oil and hydrogen. Non-conventional oils refer to oils obtained by non-conventional production techniques, that is oils which are extracted from reservoirs containing extra heavy oils or oil sands which need heating or treatment (e.g., emulsification) in situ before they can be brought to the surface for refining/processing. They also include oils extracted from oil sands, extra heavy oils, coal and oil shale which are at, or can be brought to the surface without treatment and require processing after mining (ex situ processing). Non-conventional oils may also be produced from natural gas. Hydrogen, although not a hydrocarbon, is included unless it is a component of another gas. Issues and Difficulties in reporting Other Hydrocarbons Imports of emulsified oils (e.g. Orimulsion) should be reported as imports of 'Other Hydrocarbons‘. These oils do not need further processing in a refinery and can be used as`Bitumen '. Any production of emulsified oils should appear as indigenous production of 'Other Hydrocarbons'. Report all quantities in physical weight of the emulsion (i.e. including the water content). Shale oil: only the liquid output of the oil shale production process

13. 13 Secondary Oil Products

14. Refinery Gas 7. Refinery Gas (not liquefied) Refinery Gas includes a mixture of non-condensable gases mainly consisting of hydrogen, methane, ethane and olefins obtained during distillation of crude oil or treatment of oil products (e.g., cracking) in refineries or from nearby petrochemical plants. It is used mainly as a fuel within the refinery. Issues and Difficulties in reporting refinery gas It is a mixture of many different gases, relatively rich in energy Most refinery gas is used as fuel for plant operations Trade in refinery gas is very rare There are no stocks held of refinery gas It is very difficult to quantify the volume and mass of refinery gas produced and used . Conversion from barrel to ton used by IEA is 8 bbl /ton

15. Ethane 8. Ethane Ethane is a naturally gaseous straight-chain hydrocarbon (C 2 H 6 ). Ethane is obtained at gas separation plants or from the refining of crude oil. It is a valuable feedstock for petrochemical manufacture. Issues and Difficulties in reporting Ethane When produced as part of NGLs, it is mainly available in NGL producing countries .

16. LPG 9. Liquefied Petroleum Gases (LPG) LPG refers to liquefied propane (C 3 H 8 ) and butane (C 4 H 10 ) or mixtures of both. Commercial grades are usually mixtures of the gases with small amounts of propylene, butylene , isobutene and isobutylene stored under pressure in containers. Issues and Difficulties in reporting LPG LPG Volume to Mass conversion is variable for most countries, depending on the combination of use between propane and butane. IEA uses a 40/60 split of propane and butane Confusion often arises with NGL. When it is traded as a finished product, i.e. propane or butane, then it should be reported as LPG .

17. Naphtha 10. Naphtha Naphtha refers to light or medium oils distilling between 30 o C and 210 o C which do not meet the specification for motor gasoline. The main uses for naphthas are as feedstock for high octane gasolines and the manufacture of olefins in the petrochemical industry. Naphtha imported for blending is reported as an import of naphtha, then shown on the inter-product transfer row, as a negative entry for Naphtha, and a positive entry for the corresponding finished product. Issues and Difficulties in reporting naphtha 2 main uses of naphtha: gasoline blend stock and petrochemical feedstock.

18. Motor Gasoline 11. Motor Gasoline Motor gasoline consists of a mixture of some aromatics (e.g., benzene and toluene) and aliphatic hydrocarbons in the C 5 to C 12 range. The distillation range is 25 o C to 220 o C. Additives are blended to improve octane rating, improve combustion performance, reduce oxidation during storage, maintain cleanliness of the engine and improve capture of pollutants by catalytic converters in the exhaust system. Motor gasoline may also contain biogasoline products. Issues and Difficulties in reporting motor gasoline Probably best known product – Statistics reporting fairly straightforward. Product well defined and identified in most countries. Blending components should be included. If biogasoline is blended in motor gasoline, the total including biogasoline needs to be reported.

19. Aviation gasoline 13. Aviation Gasoline Gasoline prepared especially for aviation piston engines with additives which assure performance under flight conditions. Aviation gasolines are predominantly alkylates (obtained by combining C 4 and C 5 isoparaffins with C 3 , C 4 and C 5 olefins) with the possible addition of more aromatic components including toluene. The distillation range is 25 o C and 170 o C. Issues and Difficulties in reporting aviation gasoline Still used for smaller aircraft

20. Gasoline Type Jet Fuel (JP4) 14. Gasoline Type Jet Fuel (Naphtha type Jet Fuel or JP4 ) This includes all light hydrocarbon for use in aviation turbine power units, distilling between 100 o C and 250 o C. They are obtained by blending kerosene and gasoline or naphtha in such a way that the aromatic content does not exceed 25% in volume and the vapor pressure is between 13.7 kilopascal ( kPa ) and 20.6 kPa . Issues and Difficulties in reporting Use is decreasing rapidly, as it is replaced by Jet kerosene. e.g. US military

21. Kerosene Type Jet Fuel 15. Kerosene Type Jet Fuel A blend of kerosenes suited to flight conditions with particular specifications, such as freezing point . Issues and Difficulties in reporting Jet Kerosene Use of Jet kerosene by international companies should not be shown as an export. Jet Kerosene is a product with very strict specifications, when it loses its properties it is often used as normal kerosene. The line inter-product transfer is used for this.

22. Other Kerosene 16. Other Kerosene Kerosene which is used for heating, cooking, lighting, solvents and internal combustion engines. Other names of this product are burning oil, vaporizing oil, power kerosene and illuminating oil. Issues and Difficulties in reporting Other kerosene Other kerosene mainly used as burning fuel for heating in the residential and commercial sector in Asian economies e.g. Japan and Korea (In Europe and North America, heating gas oil is used ) This fuel is also used for lighting in unelectrified areas Reason: sold in small containers

23. Gas/Diesel Oil 17. Gas/Diesel Oil (Distillate Fuel Oil) Gas oils are middle distillates, predominantly of carbon number range C 11 to C 25 and with a distillation range of 160 o C to 420 o C. The principal marketed products are fuels for diesel engines (diesel oil), heating oils and marine fuel. Gas oils are also used as middle distillate feedstock for the petrochemical industry and as solvents . Issues and Difficulties in reporting Gas/Diesel oil 2 Types : Transport Diesel : on-road diesel oil for diesel compression engines (cars, trucks, etc). This type of diesel of environmental concerns usually has a low sulphur content. Heating and Other Gasoil : light heating oil for industrial and commercial use, marine diesel and diesel used in rail traffic, other gas oils including some heavy gas oils which distil between 380 o C and 540 o C and which are used as petrochemical feedstock. Diesel used in international marine bunkers

24. Fuel Oil 19. Fuel Oil Comprises residual fuel oil and heavy fuel oil. Residual fuel oils have a distillation range of 350 o C to 650 o C and a kinematic viscosity in the range 6 to 55 centistokes ( cSt ) at 100 o C . Their flash point is always above 60 o C and their specific gravity is above 0.95. Heavy fuel oil is a general term describing a blended product based on the residues from various refinery processes. Issues and Difficulties in reporting Fuel Oil Both Low and High sulphur fuel need to be reported. A large amount of fuel oil is delivered for international marine bunker use. Fuel oil other main use is for power generation and in the industrial sector.

25. White Spirit and SBP 20. White Spirit and SBP White Spirit and SBP are defined as refined distillate intermediates with a distillation in the naphtha/kerosene range. They are sub-divided as: Industrial Spirit (SBP) : Light oils distilling between 30 o C and 200 o C. There are 7 or 8 grades of industrial spirit, depending on the position of the cut in the distillation range. The grades are defined according to the temperature difference between the 5% volume and 90% volume distillation points (which is not more than 60 o C). White Spirit : Industrial spirit with a flash point above 30 o C. The distillation range of white spirit is 135 o C to 200 o C. Issues and Difficulties in reporting White Spirit and SBP It is mainly used for Non- Energy purposes . It is used as a solvent for paints, lacquers and printing inks.

26. Lubricants 21. Lubricants Lubricants are oils, produced from crude oil, for which the principal use is to reduce friction between sliding surfaces and during metal cutting operations. Issues and Difficulties in reporting lubricants Used for Non-Energy purposes . Lubricants used in cars should be reported in the Transport Sector as Non-energy Use in the Road subsector. Lubricants used in industrial engines should be reported in the appropriate industry sector.

27. Bitumen 22. Bitumen Bitumen is a solid, semi- solid or viscous hydrocarbon with a colloidal structure, being brown to black in color. It is obtained as a residue in the distillation of crude oil and by vacuum distillation of oil residues from atmospheric distillation. It should not be confused with the nonconventional primary extra heavy oils which may also be referred to as bitumen. Issues and Difficulties in reporting bitumen Bitumen for use in road surfacing should be reported in the Industry sector as Non-Energy use in the Construction sub-sector .

28. Paraffin Waxes 23. Paraffin Waxes Paraffin Waxes are residues extracted when dewaxing lubricant oils. The waxes have a crystalline structure which varies in fineness according to the grade, and are colourless , odourless and translucent, with a melting point above 45ºC. Issues and Difficulties in reporting paraffin waxes Waxes have many uses, among which, the production candles, shoe polish, furniture polish, cosmetics, waxed paper etc. Report consumption of waxes as a non-energy use in the appropriate industry sector (most likely: Other Industry sub-sector)

29. Petroleum Coke 24. Petroleum Coke Petroleum coke is a black solid by-product, obtained mainly by cracking and carbonizing heavy hydrocarbon oils, tars and pitches . It consists mainly of carbon (90 to 95%) and has a low ash content. The two most important qualities are "green coke" and " calcinated coke". Issues and Difficulties in reporting additives/oxygenates Petroleum coke used as feedstock in coke ovens should be reported in the Coke ovens category of the Transformation Sector, because most of it is used to supplement the carbon content and the properties of the coking coal which is used. Some of the petroleum coke may also be used for energy purposes and should then be reported in the Energy Sector - Coke ovens. If it is used for heating it should be reported as energy use in the appropriate sector. It can also be used as non-energy to produce electrodes and carbon black – report it in the relevant industry sector as Non-energy .

30. Other Products 25. Other Products Other products include products (including partly refined products) from the refining of crude oil and feedstocks which are not specified above.

31. 31 Definition of Oil Flows

32. Exports Production Products Transferred From Other Sources Direct Use Stock Change Backflows from Petrochemical Industry Refinery Crude, NGL and Feedstocks Flows Imports

33. Indigenous Production Indigenous Production: Production refers to the quantities of fuels and energies extracted or produced, calculated after any operation for removal of inert matter or impurities. Indigenous production refers to production within national boundaries including off shore production. There are a few specificities according to the fuels: Production includes only marketable production, and excludes volumes returned to formation. Such production should include all crude oil, NGL, condensates and oil from shale and tar sand, etc. It should also include the receipts of additives/oxygenates by refineries and blending plants from outside the refinery sector. Important: Marketable production: exclude volumes which are recycled or returned to the wells . Onshore and off-shore production Primary production includes oil from shale and tar sands

34. From Other Sources From other sources: Production from other sources refers to both primary energy that has not been accounted for under production and secondary energy that has been accounted for in the production of another fuel. There are a few examples: From Coal: Additives and other hydrocarbons produced from coal From Gas: Additives and other hydrocarbons produced from gas From Renewable: Additives, biofuels and other hydrocarbons produced by renewable energy Important: To account for all oil and additives entering the market it is essential to capture the inputs from other energy forms which are blended with oil and oil products

35. Backflows from Petrochemical Industry Backflows from Petrochemical Industry : These are finished or semi-finished products which are returned from final consumers to refineries for processing, blending or sale. They are usually by-products of petrochemical manufacturing. For integrated petrochemical industries this flow should be estimated. Transfers from one refinery to another within the country should be excluded. Important: This flow shows the oil products which are returned by the petrochemical industry after they have extracted the necessary molecules. The most frequently returned product is pyrolysis gasoline, which can be blended with motor gasoline.

36. Petrochemical Flows (1) Refinery INLAND DELIVERY - Ethane - Naphtha - LPG - Gas/Diesel Oil - Other Petrochemical plant Feedstock PETROCHEMICAL BACKFLOWS (e.g. pyrolysis gasoline) Non Energy Use Fertilisers Plastics Synthetic rubber and fiber Pesticides

37. Products Transferred Products Transferred : These are imported petroleum products which are reclassified as feedstocks for further processing in the refinery, without delivery to final consumers. For example, naphtha imported for upgrading would be first reported as imports of naphtha, and then appear also as products transferred of naphtha. Important: Oils which are reclassified under another name. The flow is reported in the Refinery Balance and in the Product balance Transfers are negative quantities in the product balance, but are shown as positive receipts in the refinery balance.

38. Imports and (Re-)Exports Imports and Exports: Quantity of energy that have crossed the national territorial boundaries, whether customs clearance has taken place or not. Quantities of crude oil and products imported or exported under processing agreements (i.e. refining on account) should be included. Crude oil and NGLs should be reported as coming from the economy of ultimate origin; refinery feedstocks and finished products should be reported as coming from the economy of last consignment. Any gas liquids (e.g. LPG) extracted during the regasification of imported liquefied natural gas should be included as imports. Petroleum products imported or exported directly by the petrochemical industry should be included. Note: Imports or exports of ethanol (reported in the Additives/Oxygenate column) should relate to the quantities destined for fuel use. - Re-exports of oil imported for processing within bonded areas should be included as an export of product from the processing country to the final destination.

39. Imports and (Re-)Exports Imports and Exports Important Physical flow (not customs flows) Crude Oil, NGL: country of origin Oil products: country of last consignment Transit trade not included Include imports by large industries e.g. Petrochemical industry

40. Direct Use Direct Use: Crude oil, NGL and other hydrocarbons which are used directly without being processed in oil refineries are reported as Direct use. This includes, for example, crude oil burned for electricity generation. Important: Data reported for direct use should be reported under the flow Primary Product receipts of Table 2

41. Total Stocks on National Territory Total stocks on national territory: All stocks on national territory, including stocks held by governments, by major consumers or by stockholding organisations, stocks held on board incoming ocean vessels, stocks held in bonded areas and stocks held for others, whether under bilateral government agreement or not. Important: It is important that an as complete as possible statement is made of oil stocks in your economy. ( emergency and security purposes) Stocks are reported on a geographical basis, i.e. report stocks on your national territory. All stocks (primary and secondary) should be included except consumer stocks (tertiary stocks) Include stocks held for strategic purposes, or under government control.

42. Stock Changes Stock Change s: Stock changes should reflect the difference between opening stock level and closing stock level for stocks held on national territory. A stock build is shown as a negative number, and a stock draw as a positive number. Important: Opening Stock level Closing Stocks level = Stock Change + Stock reduction - Stock increase

43. Refinery Intake Refinery Intake: This is defined as the total amount of oil (including other hydrocarbons and additives) observed to have entered the refinery process. Important This flow is usually well known and monitored by the refineries The information is usually quite easy to obtain Refineries need to include all their inputs, crude oil, NGL, refinery feedstock, transfers, additives and oxygenates, biofuels and other hydrocarbons

44. Statistical Differences Statistical Difference s: This is the difference between calculated and observed Refinery Intake. Important Refinery Intake Calculated Refinery Intake Observed = Statistical Difference

45. Statistical Difference Statistical differences are an indication of quality problems in data. The main problems are when: statistical differences are really high statistical difference have the same trend over the years

46. Refinery Losses Refinery Losses: The difference between Refinery Intake (Observed) and Gross Refinery Output. Losses may occur during the distillation processes due to evaporation. Important: In a mass balance: In a volume balance Refinery Intake - Refinery Output = Refinery Loss Refinery Intake - Refinery Output = Refinery Gain Why?

47. Refinery Losses – Refinery Gains Simple Refinery (e.g. Atmospheric Distillation Unit) : Losses occur both in mass and in volume. Crude oil is separated in the various fractions by heating. Conversion Refineries: There still is a loss of mass material, however there is a volumetric gain. The molecular structure of some of the feedstock is broken down, and accordingly the density of the product is changed. Conversion processes: e.g. cracking: thermal and catalytic, coking, reforming What is the percentage gain in volume? It depends on the level of sophistication of the refineries in your country, e.g. US about 5.5% to 6% of refinery inputs. What is the percentage of refinery loss in mass? Refinery losses are very small – only about 0.5% of refinery throughputs amount to losses normally Why?

48. International Marine Bunkers Imports Stock Change Refinery Recycled Products Exports Products Transferred Transport Power Generation Industry Residential Commercial Agriculture Gross Output Interproduct Transfers Oil Product Flow Chart Refinery Fuel Inland Deliveries Crude Oil Primary Products Receipts Energy

49. Primary Products Receipts Primary Product Receipts: Quantities of indigenous or imported crude oil (including condensate) and indigenous NGL which are used directly without being processed in an oil refinery. For example, crude oil used to generate electricity should be placed in primary product receipts of crude oil. Quantities of indigenous NGL which are not included in refinery intake should be reported in primary product receipts of NGL, then transferred through the Interproduct transfers line to the allocated product type. Please note that this flow includes the amounts of backflows from the petrochemical industry which, although not primary fuel, are used directly.

50. Gross Refinery Output Gross Refinery Output: This is production of finished products at a refinery or blending plant. This category excludes Refinery Losses, but includes Refinery Fuel. Important As refinery intake, this flow is information that refineries monitor very well, and the data is usually easily available. Note that refinery output is Gross: i.e. it includes the amount of oil used for the operation of the refinery (or refinery fuel).

51. Recycled Products Recycled Products: These are finished products which pass a second time through the marketing network, after having been once delivered to final consumers (e.g. used lubricants which are reprocessed). These quantities should be distinguished from petrochemical Backflows. Important Products are usually recycled in a Recycling plant, which is outside the refinery. Data are sometimes difficult to obtain. The main product recycled are lubricants, however other non-energy products can be recycled.

52. Refinery Fuel Refinery Fuel: These are all petroleum products consumed in support of the operation of a refinery. This should not include products used by oil companies outside the refining process, e.g. bunkers or oil tankers. Fuels used for the production at the refineries of electricity and heat sold should also be included in this category. Important The most frequently used refinery fuel product is refinery gas, some fuel oil and to a lesser extent gas/diesel oil are also used. Refineries should be able to provide this information. On average about 6 to 7 % of the fuel intake is used as refinery fuel

53. International Bunkers International Marine and Aviation Bunkers: Bunkers cover the quantities of fuels delivered to sea-going ships of all flags. Consumption of warships should be included in Final Consumption under Other Sector, Not Elsewhere Specified. Consumption by ships engaged in fishing and in transport in inland and coastal waters is not included. Important These are deliveries of oils to ships for consumption during international voyages The oils are used as fuel by the ship and are not part of the cargo. Ships must be undertaking international voyages, i.e. their first port of call must be a foreign country.

54. Inter-product Transfers Interproduct Transfers: Result from reclassification of products either because their specification has changed, or because they are blended into another product. For example, quantities of kerosene may be reclassified as gasoil after blending with the latter in order to meet its winter diesel specification. A negative entry for one product must be compensated by a positive entry (or several entries) for one or several products and vice versa. The total net effect should be zero (cell V8 on Table 2). Important The sum of the different transfers should be 0

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