Data Collection Process

Research

1. DATA COLLECTION PROCES S By: Mr. Rahul Ranjan

2. Introduction Data are the observable and measurable facts that provide information about the phenomenon under study Primary and secondary data Data collection is the process of gathering quantitative and qualitative information on specific variables with the aim of evaluating outcomes

3. CONCE P T Data collection involves gathering relevant data in order to achieve an answer to the problem stated. Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. There are various methods of data collection which can be used by the investigator depending upon the nature of study undertaken.

4. Interview Questioning Observation Bio physiological measurements Psychosocial measurement scales Record analysis

5. PURPOSES OF DATA COLLECTION reliable, identify variables/facts measure variable/ phenomena describe behaviour o b t a in e mpi r i c al e v i d e n ce ( o b j e c ti v e, valid) Data is meaningless as by itself it does not explain or cause change, information does. Therefore, the aim of gathering and summarizing data is to transform this into information in order to:

6. FIVE ‘W’s OF DATA COLLECTION What data to collect? (Consideration on type of data) From whom data is to be collected Who will collect data From where the data will be collected When is the data to be collected

7. SOURCES OF DATA Documentary- primary and secondary Field sources Include living persons who have a fund of knowledge about or have been in intimate contact with social conditions and changes over a considerable period of time. These people are in a position to describe not only the existing state of affairs but also the observable trends and significant milestones in a social process.

8. HISTORICAL DATA These consist of documents and various historical sources to which the historian himself has access. Materials of cultural history and analytical history. Personal sources of authentic observers and witnesses. These can be oral, written evidence, artifacts etc.

9. Methods and tools Methods- steps or strategies Technique- means of gathering data with the use of specific tools that are used in given methods Instrument/ tools- instrument is a device used to measure the concept that researcher uses to collect data

10. TECHNIQUES AND TOOLS scales, Rating a n e c d o t es Machineries, i . e . V i d eo t ape/ Films, electrocardiogram, closed circuit T.V. TOOLS Instrument procedure Observation check l i st (s t ruc t ured unstructured) TECHNIQUES Method of collecting data Observation

11. Questioning- self report Questionnaire, opinionnaire, Attitude Scale T e s ts on psychomotor skills Standardized tools Physiological me a s u r e me n t s .

12. Biophysical me a s u r e me n t s . Inte r view In vivo In vitro P h y s ical measure m ents – e.g. temperature Chemical measure m ent s- e . g . hormone, sugar Microbiological meas u re m e n t s - e . g . bacterial count  Interview Schedule

13. Selection of methods of data collection Nature of phenomenon under study Type of research subjects Type of research study Purpose Size of sample Distribution of target population Time frame of study Literacy level of the subjects Availability of resources and manpower Researchers knowledge level and competence

14. RECORD ANALYSIS Reco r d s are a valuable and l u crati v e sourc e of nursing research data. Records are ever-present source of material. Records are found everywhere in homes, offices, place s of lei s ure , hospitals , muse u m ( R elic s & artifacts), personal diaries and letters, speeches, Articles, documents etc. Reco r d s are a v ailable i n every department, institution, organizations & Individuals. Data sources may be primary or secondary. INTRODUCTION Records are compilation of writings and figures that individuals have collected.

15. AD V ANT A GES Records are unbiased collected. Records cover a long period of times, therefore research can discover events and trends. Re c o r d s are ine x pe n siv e. All ava i l able a t one time. Re c o r d s are co n ve n ient & ti m e s a v ing and avai l a b l e i n th e ir p ure fo r m, complie d i n neat and orderly fashioned. Records provide readily available data. Re s earc h e r ca n n o t bia s t h e subjec t s a s the records have been already collected.

16. DISADVANTAGES Amount of information is limited to what is available. Researcher can not get more data as subjects are not present. If record is incomplete, no way to complete it. No one sure under which conditions data were collected. Was more than one person involved in compilation? How careful they were to handle facts & figures. No assurance of accuracy of the records, People who presented the original records were not aware whether it would be used for research. Therefore, researcher has to admit any error into the study that was built in the original records.

17. PROBL E MS Permission has to be sought from concerned People to study records. Difficult to trace if not kept in order & well organised. Authorities/ Concerned people/ Officer may not like their records to be disturbed for the fear of misplacing, pulling out information (loss of paper from files) Organisation/ Institution may not like anyone to go through their pvt. Files other than selected individuals.

18. QUESTIONNAIRE Most common research instrument It is a paper-pencil approach to data collection Comprised of a series of questions that are filled in by all subjects in the sample. May be distributed to subjects in the classroom, on the streets, on campus, home or at work; Can be mailed to those who live in a large geographical area as it is expensive and time consuming to reach individuals directly.

19. ADVANTAGES Relatively simple method of collecting data. Items can be constructed easily by beginning researcher. Rapid and efficient method of gathering data C o llect da t a from a wid e ly scattered population Inexpensive to distribute Easy to tabulate data from close ended items Respondents can remain anonymous Simple procedure to explore a new topic Easiest tool to test for validity & reliability

20. DISADVANTAGES I n a b i l i t y t o p r o b e a to p ic i n-de p th un l e s s the questionnaire is lengthy. Re s p o n d e n ts may omit o r d i s r e g a r d an y it e m that they choose without giving any explanation r e s p o n s e th a t ar e no t th e ir a c t u a l Some i t ems m a y fo r ce s u bj e cts to c h oose C h o i ce Some items may be misunderstood. Questionnaire use limited to literate. Printing may be costly if questionnaire Subjects can express their views/opinions better while speaking than writing .

21. Types of Questionnaire Close Ended (fixed Alternatives) Open Ended.

22. Close Ended After questions respondents are given a number of alternatives to either mark a “Yes” or “No”, check an item from list of suggested responses. Items may be forced choice type e.g. Do you still beat your wife? “Yes” Advantage : Easy to fill, tabulate, analyze and data suited many statistical analysis. Disadvantage: Limited to specific topic to be answered in a specific way.

23. Open Ended Questions Have no choices from which respondents select their response. Respondent must “Create” their response. Example: Why did you choose to take your graduate work at this university? Advantage : Stimulate thought, solicit suggestions, probe people’s memories.

24. Disadvantage: Not suited for mailed questionnaire Difficult to construct meaningful variables for statistical analysis. Analysis is often problematic and time consuming

25. Methods of questionnaire administration Postal Phone Electronic Personally administered

26. Writing Good Questions Use words that are simple, direct and familiar to all. Question – Clear and Specific Define or quality the term that can be easily be misinterpreted. Avoid double barreled questions.  Do you think that students should have more classes about history and culture? Beware of double negatives (Are you against not allowing nurses to strike?) Underline a word if you wish to indicate special emphasis. e.g. should all schools offer a modern foreign language?

27. Avoid questions that are leading or suggest the expected answer. e.g. you don’t approve of strikes, do you? Be sure alternatives are enough and appropriate. Reason for asking personal question should be given. Problem words – lead to confusion in subject’s mind. e.g. How many patients did you care for last week?

28. Interview – Technique of Data Collection Second most common method of data collection Face to face interpersonal role situation. Interview schedule – structured, semi- structured, unstructured. Interview schedule is an oral questionnaire that is read to the respondent by the researcher whereas interview guide provides ideas but allows the interviewer freedom to pursue topics in depth. Interviewer has an ability to control over the level of questioning

29. Conducting the Interview Interviews can be conducted by Face to face meeting Telephonically Video-recording Conduct in a quiet peaceful atmosphere Subject to be seated in a comfortable position Subjec t s h ou l d b e inf o r m e d befor e han d a s to how much time interview will take.

30. Advantages Da t a f r o m eac h i nterview are u s a b l e , whereas not true for each questionnaire returned. In-depth data can be obtained, since researcher can pursue any question of special interest. Interview offers protection against ambiguous or confusing questions. Respondents are less likely to give “don’t know” responses or leave a question unanswered Flexibility Permit greater control over the sample

31. Disadvantages It is time consuming and costly Rapport and interpersonal relationships are important aspect of this technique. Therefore, element of bias can be from both interviewer and interviewee. Interviewer usually has little or no choice in the data or place of the interview Difficult to make a comparison of data collected by one interviewer’s with another . Recording may be biased, incomplete or selective

32. Interviewing process Preparation for interview Pre interview introduction Developing rapport Carrying the interview forward Recording the interview Closing the interview

33. T ypes Structured interview Unstructured interview Semi structured interview In depth interview Focused group interview Telephone interview

34. OBSERVATION TECHNIQUE It is one of the basic and oldest method to gather data Is systematically planned and recorded. It is a technique to acquire information through occurrence that can be observed through senses with or without mechanical devices. It is a two part process i.e. someone is observing and there is something to observe (observer; observed)

35. Four Broad Questions in observation What should be observed? How should observation be recorded ? What procedures should be used to try to assure the accuracy of observation ? What relationship should exist between the observer and the observed, and how can such relationship be established?

36. Observation methods Unstructured observation – is made to provide as complete and non-selective a description as possible of an event –or behaviour observed. Techniques used for unstructured method of observation :- Participant observation – involves researcher to participate in the functioning of social group under investigation. Researcher attempts not to interject his views & meaning into the social situation under observation.

37. Unstructured observation method P r o vides ric h and dee p understa n di n g of hu m an behaviour. Obse r v er bi a s a n d in f l u e n c e a r e p r omi n e n t difficulties M emo r y dis t or t io n s r ep r esent anoth e r p o ssi b le source of inaccuracy.

38. Logs, Field Notes, Anecdotes Logs – is a record of events & conversation, maintained on daily basis. Field Notes – include daily log but tend to be much broader, more analytic and include more interpretation than mere listing of occurrences. Essential to record simultaneously because of memory failure. Anecdotes – Focus on behaviour of particular interest. Anecdote typically selects specific kind of events and behaviours for observation before hand. Observer objectively and accurately records the observation.

39. Structured Observation Excellent method of data collection. Indicates presence or absence of pre-specified behaviour / attribute. More subjects can be observed in much less time Checklists, rating scales and category system are commonly used tools in structured observation .

40. T ypes Participant Live or work in the field Unstructured tools Non participant Observe without interaction Children and animals

41. Advantages and Disadvantages Advantages Disa d v an t a g es Important technique for studying human behaviour specially where interventions are used. Provides depth and variety of information. Observation and interpretation is a demanding task requiring attention, sensation, perception and conception Lack of consent .

42. Rating scales Express an opinion on person, object, situation or character In RS we judge object in absolute terms against specified criteria without reference to other similar objects Refers to a scale with a set of opinion , which describes varying degree of the dimensions of an attitude being observed A rating scale is a set of categories designed to elicit information about a quantitative or a qualitative attribute eg Likert scale 3 point, 5 point or 7 point RS

43. T ypes Graphic rating scale Descriptive rating scales Numerical rating scales Comparative rating scales

44. g r s

45. Comparative RS

46. Adv Easy to administer and score Widely used in Nursing research Easier to make and less time consuming Can be used for a large group Also used in quantitative methods Evaluate skills Adaptable and flexible

47. Dis adv Difficult and dangerous to fix rating about many aspects of an individual Misuse can result in decrease in objectivity Chances of subjectivity- unscientific and unreliable scales

48. Likert scales respondents are asked to indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement Likert scale is a psychometric scale commonly involved in research that employs questionnaires. A Likert item is simply a statement that the respondent is asked to evaluate by giving it a quantitative value on any kind of subjective or objective dimension, with level of agreement/disagreement being the dimension most commonly used. L S is a c o m posi t e measu r e of a t t itu d es tha t i nv o l v e summa t io n o f s c o r es o n th e set o f i t e m s t o w hich

49. Example

50. Uses Measure attitudes, values and feelings of people about specific concepts Quantifying a qualitative attribute Opinion about an abstract concept

51. Adv Easy to construct More reliable and valid to measure psychosocial variables Easy to administer since respondents only have to tick Less time consuming for construction and administration

52. Dis adv Forced choice Real feelings of the researchers may not be assessed Difficulty in justifying the number of categories and numerical assignments to these categories Casual approach can provide misleading data

53. CHECKLISTS Performance evaluation It is a simple instrument consisting of a prepared list of expected items of performance or attributes which are checked by a researcher for their presence or absence.

54. Con s truction Express each item in clear and simple language Type is determined by an intensive survey of literature List of items should be continuous and divided into groups of related items Get advice from experts Avoid negative statements Clear responses should be there like yes or no, true or false Completeness and comprehensiveness should be there

55. Adv Adaptable to subject matter areas Useful in evaluating learning activities, procedural work Has objectivity to evaluate characteristics Decreases chances of error of observation

56. Dis adv Does not indicate quality of performance Limited use Only a limited component of overall clinical performance can be evaluated Limited use in qualitative studies

57. Biophysiological methods Purposes Basic physiology with relevance for nursing care Ways that nursing actions or medical interventions affect patient health outcomes Evaluation of specific nursing procedures or interventions testing a hypothesis Improving measurement and recording of bio physiologic data collected by RN Correlation of physiologic function in patient with health problems

58. USE OF BIOPHYSIOLOGIC MEASURES IN NURSING RESEARCH Study of biophysiologic processes Effect of nursing intervention on human physiological process Correlate physiologic functioning with health outcomes

59. Major types In vivo Measurements performed directly with in or on living organisms themselves May use complex instrumentation system with computers May be simple – thermometer, pulse oximeter, stethoscope

60. In vitro Measurements performed outside the organism’s body Specimens collected and tested outside body Blood chemistries, microbiologic, cytologic specimens

61. ADVANTAGES Accurate precise & sensitive Objective Instrument used are valid and reliable Biophysiologic measures are not expensive but there can be expensive tests

62. DISADVANTAGES Interferences that create artifacts in Biophysiologic measures High degree of interaction among the major Biophysiologic system

63. Projective techniques Rorschach inkblot test; thematic apperception test (tell a story based on a picture) Eg The associative imagery technique is a qualitative tool with which researchers use carefully selected photographs or images to trigger participants’ responses to explain difficult behavioural and social concepts.

64. Vignettes Vignettes are simulations of real events which can be used in research studies to elicit subject's knowledge, attitudes or opinions according to how they state they would behave in the hypothetical situation depicted. validity.

65. Pilot study Small scale version or trial run designed to test the methods to be used in a larger, more rigorous study Purpose is to prevent an expensive fiasco- that is a costly but flawed large scale study Called feasibility studies

66. Functions Adequacy of study method and procedures Likely success of a participant recruitment strategy Appropriateness and quality of instruments- validity and reliability of tools Strength of relationships between key variables so that sample size can be estimated Identification of confounding variables Refine methodology Plan for data analysis and interpretation

67. Thank You!

68. Bibliography Nursing Research & Statistics by Suresh K Sharma Google search