Deacriptive Linguistics

Defines linguistics and communication; discusses the anatomy of speech; reviews the basics of articulatory phonetics, phonology, morphology, and syntax

1. Descriptive LinguisticsDescriptive Linguistics
The Construction of Language The Construction of Language

2. Introduction to LinguisticsIntroduction to Linguistics
Every culture in the world has a Every culture in the world has a
spoken languagespoken language
Learning a spoken language come Learning a spoken language come
naturally to children (top photo)naturally to children (top photo)
Language is what ties a culture Language is what ties a culture
together and so is a unifying factortogether and so is a unifying factor
Different language also keeps Different language also keeps
different cultures apart and so is different cultures apart and so is
divisive (bottom photo)divisive (bottom photo)
Therefore, we cover linguistics in this Therefore, we cover linguistics in this
course of cultural anthropologycourse of cultural anthropology

3. CommunicationCommunication
Language is a subtype of Language is a subtype of
communication, communication, and most animals and most animals
have some form of communicationhave some form of communication
This is the ability of one organism This is the ability of one organism
to trigger another; in other words, to trigger another; in other words,
one organism provides the stimulus one organism provides the stimulus
and the other respondsand the other responds
Example: Bouncer ask an unruly Example: Bouncer ask an unruly
patron to leave and he does so, patron to leave and he does so,
communication has occurredcommunication has occurred
If he does not and the bouncer If he does not and the bouncer
tosses him out, communication has tosses him out, communication has
not occurred; physical force has not occurred; physical force has
been used instead--with this been used instead--with this
disenchanted patron as a result.disenchanted patron as a result.

4. Closed System of CommunicationClosed System of Communication
Communication of most Communication of most
animals is animals is closed.closed.
One call or gesture has One call or gesture has
only one meaningonly one meaning
This call by a thrush is a This call by a thrush is a
warning callwarning call
But it cannot combine this But it cannot combine this
call with another one to call with another one to
create a third meaningcreate a third meaning

5. Open System of CommunicationOpen System of Communication
Language is an open systemLanguage is an open system
We use speech sounds that We use speech sounds that
have no meaning in and of have no meaning in and of
themselvesthemselves
When we combine them, they When we combine them, they
have meaninghave meaning
The speech sounds of c-a-t The speech sounds of c-a-t
mean a feline animalmean a feline animal
The same sounds recombined The same sounds recombined
as a-c-t give us a comedy as a-c-t give us a comedy
routine.routine.
You may polish up your act, but You may polish up your act, but
would you polish up your cat?would you polish up your cat?

6. Overview of LinguisticsOverview of Linguistics
How does an open system like language come to be? To How does an open system like language come to be? To
answer, we will look at the following topics: answer, we will look at the following topics:
Biological Roots of Language: Brain and Articulatory Biological Roots of Language: Brain and Articulatory
SystemSystem
Descriptive Linguistics: Phones and Phonemes, the Descriptive Linguistics: Phones and Phonemes, the
building blocks of languagebuilding blocks of language
Descriptive Linguistics: Morphology and Syntax, which put Descriptive Linguistics: Morphology and Syntax, which put
these building blocks togetherthese building blocks together
Language and Animal Communication will then be Language and Animal Communication will then be
comparedcompared
Language and Culture will conclude this sectionLanguage and Culture will conclude this section

7. Why Do We Need an International Why Do We Need an International
Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)?Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)?
Linguists use the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) to Linguists use the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) to
transcribe sounds. transcribe sounds.
Why? Glad you asked. Take English:Why? Glad you asked. Take English:
How many vowels are there in English?How many vowels are there in English?
Our written alphabet is not entirely phoneticOur written alphabet is not entirely phonetic
The letter a could be pronounced as [æ] in bThe letter a could be pronounced as [æ] in baat or as [e] in t or as [e] in
bbaated breath?ted breath?
Or try [a] as in bOr try [a] as in baah or “say h or “say aah”; we have 3 sounds for h”; we have 3 sounds for a.a.
In English we have a total of 12 vowels, not only 5 as In English we have a total of 12 vowels, not only 5 as
most people assume,most people assume,
That means in linguistics we need 12 symbols to That means in linguistics we need 12 symbols to
transcribe themtranscribe them

8. The IPA: How It WorksThe IPA: How It Works
First, there are First, there are phonesphones, any speech sound, any speech sound
The IPA ideally assigns one symbol to a soundThe IPA ideally assigns one symbol to a sound
So [a] is used for “ah,” [e] for “bated,” [æ] for So [a] is used for “ah,” [e] for “bated,” [æ] for
“bat”“bat”
Square brackets [ ] are used to enclose phonesSquare brackets [ ] are used to enclose phones
But sounds alone do not carry a language; But sounds alone do not carry a language;
groups of them, known as groups of them, known as phonemes, phonemes, do this do this
jobjob (more shortly)(more shortly)
Phonemes are enclosed in slashes (//), e.g. /a/Phonemes are enclosed in slashes (//), e.g. /a/

9. How Language Works: An How Language Works: An
OverviewOverview
To show how languages work, we will use a To show how languages work, we will use a
sample of six sample of six consonantsconsonants known as known as stops:stops:
These are [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], and [g]These are [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], and [g]
But first, we have to look at some preliminaries:But first, we have to look at some preliminaries:
We have to look at the organs of speech: the We have to look at the organs of speech: the
brain, lungs, larynx, and oral cavitybrain, lungs, larynx, and oral cavity
Then we have to see how the oral cavity is Then we have to see how the oral cavity is
involved in creating speech.involved in creating speech.

10. Biology of Language: A Refresher on the Biology of Language: A Refresher on the
Brain’s Role in LanguageBrain’s Role in Language
Here’s a refresher; Here’s a refresher;
see is you can identify see is you can identify
these areas involved these areas involved
in speechin speech
Broca’s AreaBroca’s Area
Wernicke’s AreaWernicke’s Area
Arcuate FasciculusArcuate Fasciculus
Angular GyrusAngular Gyrus
Hypoglossal NerveHypoglossal Nerve

11. The Brain and LanguageThe Brain and Language
Broca’s area: Broca’s area: The area that generates speechThe area that generates speech
Wernicke’s area: Wernicke’s area: The area that processes the reception The area that processes the reception
of speechof speech
Arcuate fasciculus: Arcuate fasciculus: The bundle of nerves that connect The bundle of nerves that connect
Broca’s with Wernicke’s area, so that you get feedback on Broca’s with Wernicke’s area, so that you get feedback on
your speechyour speech
Angular Gyrus: Angular Gyrus: The part of the brain that coordinates the The part of the brain that coordinates the
five senses; its role is to transcribe the other four senses five senses; its role is to transcribe the other four senses
into soundinto sound
Hypoglossal Nerve: Hypoglossal Nerve: The nerve running from the brain to The nerve running from the brain to
the tongue and so provides impulses to the tongue to the tongue and so provides impulses to the tongue to
move. move.

12. Vocal TractVocal Tract
LungsLungs
Diaphragm and Rib Diaphragm and Rib
CageCage
Larynx and Vocal Larynx and Vocal
CordsCords
Hyoid BoneHyoid Bone
Oral CavityOral Cavity
Nasal CavityNasal Cavity

13. Functions of the Vocal TractFunctions of the Vocal Tract
Lungs Lungs are the source of the air stream essential to are the source of the air stream essential to
speechspeech
Diaphragm Diaphragm pushes the air through the windpipe and into pushes the air through the windpipe and into
the mouth; the muscles of the rib cage do the samethe mouth; the muscles of the rib cage do the same
The The vocal cordsvocal cords housed in the housed in the larynx larynx or voice box or voice box
vibrate and so provide our voicevibrate and so provide our voice
The The oral cavity oral cavity contains the parts of the mouth that contains the parts of the mouth that
enable us to speak.enable us to speak.
The The nasal cavity nasal cavity allows us to make certain sounds, such allows us to make certain sounds, such
as n [n] and m [m], with the passage of air in that cavity.as n [n] and m [m], with the passage of air in that cavity.

14. Articulatory PhoneticsArticulatory Phonetics
When we utter any sound, we When we utter any sound, we articulatearticulate
We position our tongue or other speech part in We position our tongue or other speech part in
certain wayscertain ways
When we speak, we useWhen we speak, we use
Points of articulationPoints of articulation: Speech parts in upper : Speech parts in upper
half of mouthhalf of mouth
Articulators:Articulators: Speech parts in lower half of Speech parts in lower half of
mouthmouth
The next panels and diagrams show how these The next panels and diagrams show how these
workwork

15. Oral Cavity: DescriptionOral Cavity: Description
The The articulators articulators are the active parts of the speech are the active parts of the speech
mechanism: they do all the workmechanism: they do all the work
They include the lower lip, the lower teeth, and the tongueThey include the lower lip, the lower teeth, and the tongue
The The points of articulation points of articulation are the passive parts of the are the passive parts of the
speech mechanism, except for the upper lipspeech mechanism, except for the upper lip
They comprise the upper lip, the upper teeth, the alveolar They comprise the upper lip, the upper teeth, the alveolar
ridge, or gum ridge behind the upper teeth, the hard ridge, or gum ridge behind the upper teeth, the hard
palate, the soft palate or velum, and the uvula, the palate, the soft palate or velum, and the uvula, the
hanging membrane at the far end of the mouthhanging membrane at the far end of the mouth
In the next diagram, find and identify these parts just In the next diagram, find and identify these parts just
mentioned. mentioned.

16. Oral Cavity: DiagramOral Cavity: Diagram

17. Articulators: DescriptionArticulators: Description
In the diagram that follows, you will find the following In the diagram that follows, you will find the following
articulators:articulators:
The The lower lip, lower lip, which can move on its ownwhich can move on its own
The The lower teeth, lower teeth, which moves because the lower jaw which moves because the lower jaw
movesmoves
The four parts of the The four parts of the tongue,tongue, which moves on its own which moves on its own
The The apex apex is the tip of the tongueis the tip of the tongue
The The blade blade or or front front of the tongue is behind the apexof the tongue is behind the apex
The The center center or or centrum centrum of the tongue is at the center; of the tongue is at the center;
some linguists recognize this part and others do notsome linguists recognize this part and others do not
The The dorsum dorsum is the back of the tongueis the back of the tongue
Identify these parts in the diagram. Which part listed here Identify these parts in the diagram. Which part listed here
is not identified in the diagram?is not identified in the diagram?

18. Articulators: DiagramArticulators: Diagram
All articulators are All articulators are
movablemovable
They include:They include:
Lower lipLower lip
Lower teethLower teeth
TongueTongue
Apex (tip)Apex (tip)
FrontFront
Center Center
Back (dorsum)Back (dorsum)

19. Points of Articulation: Points of Articulation:
DescriptionDescription
All points are fixed in position except the upper lipAll points are fixed in position except the upper lip
The The upper lip upper lip is movable on its own and coordinates with is movable on its own and coordinates with
the lower lipthe lower lip
The The upper teeth upper teeth is fixed because the upper jaw does not is fixed because the upper jaw does not
movemove
The The alveolar ridge alveolar ridge is the gum ridge behind the upper is the gum ridge behind the upper
teethteeth
The The hard palate hard palate is the roof of the mouthis the roof of the mouth
The The velum velum is the soft palate behind the hard palateis the soft palate behind the hard palate
The The uvula uvula is the hanging flesh at the far end of the mouthis the hanging flesh at the far end of the mouth
Identify these on the chart that follows.Identify these on the chart that follows.

20. Points of ArticulationPoints of Articulation
All are immovable except All are immovable except
upper lipupper lip
Upper lipUpper lip
Upper teethUpper teeth
Alveolar ridge (gum ridge Alveolar ridge (gum ridge
behind teeth)behind teeth)
Hard palate (roof of Hard palate (roof of
mouth)mouth)
Velum (soft palate)Velum (soft palate)
Uvula (pendant lobe at Uvula (pendant lobe at
border of velum)border of velum)

21. Other Speech PartsOther Speech Parts
LarynxLarynx, or voice box which , or voice box which
containscontains
Two Two Vocal Cords Vocal Cords (upper left)(upper left)
When vocal cords are drawn tight When vocal cords are drawn tight
(lower right), they produce a voice(lower right), they produce a voice
When relaxed (lower left), no voice When relaxed (lower left), no voice
is produced.is produced.
Other species and infant: larynx is Other species and infant: larynx is
high on throathigh on throat
Nasal Cavity: Nasalized phones Nasal Cavity: Nasalized phones
produced by lowering of velumproduced by lowering of velum

22. Position of ArticulationPosition of Articulation
For For consonantsconsonants, position of articulator is placed relative , position of articulator is placed relative
to point of articulationto point of articulation
For vowels, resonant sounds created byFor vowels, resonant sounds created by
The height of tongue (high, mid, or low)The height of tongue (high, mid, or low)
The advancement of the tongue (front, center, or back, The advancement of the tongue (front, center, or back,
and and
the lip shape (rounded or unrounded)the lip shape (rounded or unrounded)
Consonants include:Consonants include:
Stops (momentary stop of air stream)Stops (momentary stop of air stream)
Fricatives or Fricatives or SpirantsSpirants (constricted passage of air) (constricted passage of air)
Others, such as Others, such as lateralslaterals, , nasalsnasals, et al., et al.
All speech sounds are known as All speech sounds are known as phonesphones

23. Positions of Articulation: Stops Positions of Articulation: Stops
A A stop stop is formed whenis formed when
an an articulatorarticulator touches touches
a a point of articulationpoint of articulation
halting the air stream momentarilyhalting the air stream momentarily
A stop is namedA stop is named
By naming the By naming the articulatorarticulator first first
Then naming the Then naming the point of articulationpoint of articulation
Examples: Examples: labio-labiallabio-labial, , apico-alveolarapico-alveolar, and , and dorso-velardorso-velar
stopsstops
Study the next three diagrams carefully.Study the next three diagrams carefully.
Please note that the transcriptions in brackets are in IPA; Please note that the transcriptions in brackets are in IPA;
the [the [II] in the three examples is in small caps.] in the three examples is in small caps.

24. Bilabial StopsBilabial Stops
Upper lip is pressed Upper lip is pressed
against lower lipagainst lower lip
Labio-Labio- describes the describes the
lower lip (articulator)lower lip (articulator)
LabialLabial describes the describes the
upper lip (point of upper lip (point of
articulation_articulation_
This position of This position of
articulation is called articulation is called
bilabial stop bilabial stop for shortfor short
Example: [p] as in [pın] or Example: [p] as in [pın] or
pinpin

25. Apico-Alveolar StopsApico-Alveolar Stops
Tip (apex) of tongue Tip (apex) of tongue
presses against gum ridge presses against gum ridge
(alveolar ridge) behind (alveolar ridge) behind
upper teethupper teeth
Apico-Apico- describes apex of describes apex of
tongue (articulator)tongue (articulator)
AlveolarAlveolar describes describes
alveolar ridge (point of alveolar ridge (point of
articulation)articulation)
Example: [t] as in [tın] or Example: [t] as in [tın] or
tintin

26. Dorso-Velar StopsDorso-Velar Stops
Back (dorsum) of tongue Back (dorsum) of tongue
presses against soft presses against soft
palate (velum)palate (velum)
Dorso-Dorso- describes dorsal describes dorsal
part of tongue (articulator)part of tongue (articulator)
VelarVelar describes velum describes velum
(point of articulation)(point of articulation)
Example: [k] as in [kın] or Example: [k] as in [kın] or
kinkin

27. Contrasting Sounds in the StopsContrasting Sounds in the Stops
Across the board, Across the board,
[p] contrasts with [t][p] contrasts with [t]
[t] contrasts with [k][t] contrasts with [k]
[p] contrasts with [k][p] contrasts with [k]
But there are But there are two sets each two sets each ofof
bilabial stops: [p] and [b]bilabial stops: [p] and [b]
apico-alveolar stops: [t] and [d]apico-alveolar stops: [t] and [d]
dorso-velar stops [k] and [g]dorso-velar stops [k] and [g]
Can you explain why there are two sets of each position Can you explain why there are two sets of each position
of articulation before moving on to the next slide?of articulation before moving on to the next slide?

28. Voiced and Voiceless StopsVoiced and Voiceless Stops
One set of stops is voiceless or unvoiced, One set of stops is voiceless or unvoiced,
namely [p], [t], and [k]namely [p], [t], and [k]
The other set of stops is voiced:The other set of stops is voiced:
[b] the bilabial voiced stop;[b] the bilabial voiced stop;
[d] the voiced apico-alveolar stop; and[d] the voiced apico-alveolar stop; and
[t] the voiced dorso-velar stop[t] the voiced dorso-velar stop
A small experiment: put your fingers on your A small experiment: put your fingers on your
throat and repeat [p] then [b]throat and repeat [p] then [b]
When does your throat start to vibrate in each When does your throat start to vibrate in each
case? Answer is on next slide.case? Answer is on next slide.

29. When Vocal Cords VibrateWhen Vocal Cords Vibrate
You notice that when you utter [pYou notice that when you utter [pIIn], the vocal cords don’t n], the vocal cords don’t
vibrate until you utter the vowel, namely [vibrate until you utter the vowel, namely [II]]
But when you utter [bBut when you utter [bIIn], the vocal cords vibrate when you n], the vocal cords vibrate when you
utter [b], well before [utter [b], well before [II]; all vowels are voiced. ]; all vowels are voiced.
Do the same for [tDo the same for [tIIn] and [dn] and [dIIn] and for [kn] and for [kIIn] and [gn] and [gIIn]n]
By the way, did you pronounce [g] as in get and not as in By the way, did you pronounce [g] as in get and not as in
gin, the stuff you have tonic with? If so you pronounced it gin, the stuff you have tonic with? If so you pronounced it
correctly. correctly.
If not, you pronounced it [dzIf not, you pronounced it [dzIIn]. n].

30. How Vocal Cords WorkHow Vocal Cords Work
When vocal cords are relaxed When vocal cords are relaxed
(upper diagram), they produce (upper diagram), they produce
no voiceno voice
When drawn tight with a small When drawn tight with a small
aperture or hole (lower aperture or hole (lower
diagram), they produce a voicediagram), they produce a voice
That is what causes the throat That is what causes the throat
to vibrateto vibrate
There are other voiceless There are other voiceless
consonants, s in sin, sh in shin, consonants, s in sin, sh in shin,
and ch in chin. and ch in chin.

31. Summing upSumming up
Voicing involves tightening of vocal cords Voicing involves tightening of vocal cords
to produce a soundto produce a sound
When unvoiced phones are uttered, the When unvoiced phones are uttered, the
vocal cords are relaxedvocal cords are relaxed
Voiced sounds contrast with unvoiced Voiced sounds contrast with unvoiced
soundssounds
voiced [b] contrasts with unvoiced [p]voiced [b] contrasts with unvoiced [p]
voiced [d] contrasts with unvoiced [t]voiced [d] contrasts with unvoiced [t]
voiced [g] contrasts with unvoiced [k]voiced [g] contrasts with unvoiced [k]

32. PhonemesPhonemes
The sounds we described are also The sounds we described are also
phonemesphonemes
Definition: The smallest significant unit of Definition: The smallest significant unit of
speechspeech
The significance is that the speaker The significance is that the speaker can can
hear the difference.hear the difference.
We can hear the difference between [bın] We can hear the difference between [bın]
and [pın], [dın] and [tın], and [gın] and [kın]and [pın], [dın] and [tın], and [gın] and [kın]

33. Phonemes: An ExplanationPhonemes: An Explanation
Why Why significance:significance: If you could not hear the If you could not hear the
difference, you could not have a language; the difference, you could not have a language; the
sounds would all be the same. Phonemes are sounds would all be the same. Phonemes are
kept separate.kept separate.
Why the term Why the term unitunit? As you will soon see, there ? As you will soon see, there
are two or more are two or more phones phones (speech sounds) in (speech sounds) in
most phonemes.most phonemes.
The speech The speech environment environment refers to the sounds refers to the sounds
that are the context for the phone or phoneme that are the context for the phone or phoneme
being analyzed. We start with being analyzed. We start with minimal pairsminimal pairs..

34. Minimal PairsMinimal Pairs
[bın] and [pın]: what’s the difference?[bın] and [pın]: what’s the difference?
[tın] and [dın]: same question[tın] and [dın]: same question
[gın] and [kın]: Again, what differs?[gın] and [kın]: Again, what differs?
Short answer: the speech Short answer: the speech environment environment is is
identicalidentical
Only the stops differOnly the stops differ
the [-ın] utterance is identical; that’s the the [-ın] utterance is identical; that’s the
environmentenvironment

35. Summary of Phonemic Stops in Summary of Phonemic Stops in
EnglishEnglish
From this chart, notice the followingFrom this chart, notice the following
English doesn’t have all possible stops: labiodental, interdental, or English doesn’t have all possible stops: labiodental, interdental, or
palatal palatal
We do have labio-dental fricatives {f], [v] and interdental ones [We do have labio-dental fricatives {f], [v] and interdental ones [θθ] ]
and [ð] (Don’t worry about these symbols unless you take up and [ð] (Don’t worry about these symbols unless you take up
linguistics)linguistics)
The Russians have a palatal stop [tThe Russians have a palatal stop [t
jj
]; the blade of the tongue ]; the blade of the tongue
touches the hard palatetouches the hard palate
There are many other phones in the world’s languagesThere are many other phones in the world’s languages

36. AllophonesAllophones
Another example: key and skiAnother example: key and ski
Another experiment: put a sheet of paper in front of your Another experiment: put a sheet of paper in front of your
mouth and utter the following: mouth and utter the following: keykey and and skiski. Which k sound . Which k sound
moves the papermoves the paper
[k[k
hh
] in key [k] in key [k
hh
i] is i] is aspirated; aspirated; emits a puff of airemits a puff of air
[[kk־־in ski [sk [in ski [sk [־־ i] is i] isunaspirated; unaspirated; it doesn’t do so. it doesn’t do so.
In English, [kIn English, [k
hh
] and [k] and [k־־ never form minimal pairs; an A for [ never form minimal pairs; an A for [
the course if you find such a pair (haven’t lost that bet the course if you find such a pair (haven’t lost that bet
yet!)yet!)
Therefore, [kTherefore, [k
hh
] and [k] and [k־־ are [ are [allophones, allophones, or phonetic or phonetic
variants of the same phonemevariants of the same phoneme

37. Allophones of PhonemesAllophones of Phonemes
Definition: Variations of the same Definition: Variations of the same
phonemephoneme
Our example: [k’] and [kOur example: [k’] and [k־־ are allophones [ are allophones [
of the phoneme /k/ of the phoneme /k/
Notation:Notation:
Slash marks (//) indicate phonemeSlash marks (//) indicate phoneme
Square brackets ([]) indicates phone (and Square brackets ([]) indicates phone (and
allophone)allophone)

38. Allophones in One Language: Allophones in One Language:
Phonemes in AnotherPhonemes in Another
Take Old Sanskrit (from which Hindi and Urdu are Take Old Sanskrit (from which Hindi and Urdu are
derived):derived):
[k[k
hh
il] and [kil] and [k־־ il] il]dodo form minimal pairs form minimal pairs
[k[k
hh
il] means “parched grain”il] means “parched grain”
[k[k־־”il] means “small nail”il] means “small nail
[-il] is identical in the speech environment in which the [-il] is identical in the speech environment in which the
two phones occurtwo phones occur
Therefore, /k’/ and /kTherefore, /k’/ and /k־־ are phonemes in Old Sanskrit and / are phonemes in Old Sanskrit and /
we have to mark them with a slashwe have to mark them with a slash
In that language, they are In that language, they are significant unitssignificant units
Every language has its own set of phonemesEvery language has its own set of phonemes

39. Phonemes as Structural Duality Phonemes as Structural Duality
II
Note chart on p. 36 under the pictureNote chart on p. 36 under the picture
[b] contrasts with [d] which contrasts with [g][b] contrasts with [d] which contrasts with [g]
[p] contrasts with [t] which contrasts with [k][p] contrasts with [t] which contrasts with [k]
All the voiced stops contrast with unvoiced ones:All the voiced stops contrast with unvoiced ones:
[b] with [p], [d] with [t] and [g] with [k][b] with [p], [d] with [t] and [g] with [k]
So we have two thingsSo we have two things
First, we have a First, we have a minimal set; minimal set; there are three or more there are three or more
utterances that contrast as minimal pairs doutterances that contrast as minimal pairs do
Second, they form a structure based on sound contrasts; Second, they form a structure based on sound contrasts;
that’s the first part of a language’s structural duality.that’s the first part of a language’s structural duality.

40. Structural Duality II: Morphemes Structural Duality II: Morphemes
and Syntaxand Syntax
Once the phonemes are identified, they must be arranged Once the phonemes are identified, they must be arranged
for meaningfor meaning
That’s the job of morphemes and syntaxThat’s the job of morphemes and syntax
Morphemes are The smallest Morphemes are The smallest meaningful meaningful unit of speechunit of speech
You can form words from morphemesYou can form words from morphemes
Syntax are the rules and principles of phrase and Syntax are the rules and principles of phrase and
sentence constructionsentence construction
Grammar: In linguistics, this is the entire formal structure Grammar: In linguistics, this is the entire formal structure
of a language’s phonemes, morphemes, and syntaxof a language’s phonemes, morphemes, and syntax

41. MorphemesMorphemes
Morphology:Morphology: Study of morphemes and their construction Study of morphemes and their construction
into wordsinto words
There are several types of morphemes:There are several types of morphemes:
Free morphemes: Free morphemes: Morphemes that can stand unattached Morphemes that can stand unattached
in a language: cat, dogsin a language: cat, dogs
Bound morphemes: Bound morphemes: Morphemes that cannot stand Morphemes that cannot stand
unattached in a language: cats, dogs [dogz}unattached in a language: cats, dogs [dogz}
Inflectional bound morphemesInflectional bound morphemes: those that change : those that change
number or tense, but not meaning: e.g., cat, catnumber or tense, but not meaning: e.g., cat, catss
Derivational bound morphemes:Derivational bound morphemes: those that change the those that change the
meaning: e.g., part, partmeaning: e.g., part, partyy

42. AllomorphsAllomorphs
Allomorphs: Allomorphs: Variants of a morphemeVariants of a morpheme
Examples: plurals of dogs, cats, horsesExamples: plurals of dogs, cats, horses
Namely [dogNamely [dogzz], [k], [kætætss], [hors], [horsəzəz]]
Others: tooth/teeth, booth/booths (why not “beeth”?), Others: tooth/teeth, booth/booths (why not “beeth”?),
sheep/sheepsheep/sheep
So the process involves bound morphemes for the pluralSo the process involves bound morphemes for the plural
But the sounds change according to contextBut the sounds change according to context
Dog ends with a voiced g; cat ends with a voiceless t; and Dog ends with a voiced g; cat ends with a voiceless t; and
horse ends with a fricative s; so this is a phonetic issuehorse ends with a fricative s; so this is a phonetic issue
MorphophonemicsMorphophonemics: Study of allomorphs based on sound (the : Study of allomorphs based on sound (the
phonemes) combined with morphology (the plurals)phonemes) combined with morphology (the plurals)

43. Syntax: Parts of SpeechSyntax: Parts of Speech
Syntax is the study of rules and principles of phrase and Syntax is the study of rules and principles of phrase and
sentence construction.sentence construction.
Parts of speech are similar to those in high school Parts of speech are similar to those in high school
grammargrammar
Noun:Noun: Word referring to a person, place, or thing Word referring to a person, place, or thing
Pronoun: Pronoun: Word that replaces a noun or other pronounWord that replaces a noun or other pronoun
Verb:Verb: Action word Action word
Adjective:Adjective: word that modifies nouns word that modifies nouns
Adverb: Adverb: word that modifies verbs, adjectives, or other word that modifies verbs, adjectives, or other
adverbsadverbs

44. Syntax: More Parts of SpeechSyntax: More Parts of Speech
Preposition:Preposition: Word that indicates a relation Word that indicates a relation
between an object in time, space, or logic to the between an object in time, space, or logic to the
rest of a sentencerest of a sentence
ConjunctionConjunction: Word connecting words or groups : Word connecting words or groups
of wordsof words
Interjection: Interjection: Word that expresses feelings, but Word that expresses feelings, but
usually not part of a sentence.usually not part of a sentence.
Although the words are made up of morphemes, Although the words are made up of morphemes,
they play an integral part of phrase and they play an integral part of phrase and
sentence construction.sentence construction.

45. Syntax and Word OrderSyntax and Word Order
Word order (sentence, verb, object) vary by languageWord order (sentence, verb, object) vary by language
In English: In English:
Subject (S): Subject (S): The thing or person of what a sentence is about The thing or person of what a sentence is about
comes first in a declarative sentencecomes first in a declarative sentence
Predicate (V): Predicate (V): Phrase that says something about the subject; Phrase that says something about the subject;
always include the verb that comes after the subjectalways include the verb that comes after the subject
Verb (O): Verb (O): Action word that forms the main part of the predicateAction word that forms the main part of the predicate
Object:Object: The person or thing affected by the verb The person or thing affected by the verb
In English, the word order is typically S-V-OIn English, the word order is typically S-V-O
In Spanish, the word order is sometimes V-S-OIn Spanish, the word order is sometimes V-S-O
Other languages have other word ordersOther languages have other word orders

46. So Why Aren’t Morphemes and So Why Aren’t Morphemes and
Syntax Separate Structures?Syntax Separate Structures?
An exercise: catsAn exercise: cats
Two cats (upper photo)Two cats (upper photo)
Cat’s meow (lower picture: when Cat’s meow (lower picture: when
this is spoken, how do you this is spoken, how do you
pronounce the apostrophe?)pronounce the apostrophe?)
Rest of sentence defines Rest of sentence defines
morphememorpheme
Another exampleAnother example
““Cookie, lend me your combs”; Cookie, lend me your combs”;
combscombs are nouns are nouns
““Cookie combs his hair”; Cookie combs his hair”; combscombs
now becomes a verb. now becomes a verb.

47. Descriptive Linguistics: ConclusionDescriptive Linguistics: Conclusion
We have looked at the biological basis of languageWe have looked at the biological basis of language
We’ve also examine the parts of the speech We’ve also examine the parts of the speech
mechanism: lungs, larynx and vocal cords, oral and mechanism: lungs, larynx and vocal cords, oral and
nasal cavitynasal cavity
We’ve seen how the sounds of speech are articulatedWe’ve seen how the sounds of speech are articulated
Once the sounds are produced, we’ve seen how they Once the sounds are produced, we’ve seen how they
are put together into words (made up of morphemes) are put together into words (made up of morphemes)
, phrases, and sentences, phrases, and sentences
Next up: language and cultureNext up: language and culture